RESEARCH METHODS • Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning

UNIT ONE new facts, testing ideas, etc.

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH • It is the systematic collection, analysis and
The ultimate goal of any national health-development interpretation of data to generate new knowledge
process is to enable its people to reach a level of and answer a certain question or solve a problem.
health that enables them to make meaningful • It demands a clear statement of the problem
participation in the social and economic life of the • It requires a plan _ it is not aimlessly “looking” for
community in which they live. something in the hope that you will come across a
• To attain this objective, countries require detailed solution.
and accurate information on the existing health • It builds on existing data, using both positive and
systems. negative findings.
• Unfortunately, such information is often lacking, • New data should be collected as required and be
inadequate, or unreliable. organized in such a way that they answer the
• As a result, decisions are based on assumptions and research question(s)
unjustified conclusions and often result in Types of research
inappropriate policy choices. i. Basic Vs applied research - Depending on their
• In this regard, the search for scientific knowledge purpose
and information should be strongly supported. a. Basic research
• Research in the context of public health aims to  Is designed to extend the base of knowledge or for
provide all aspects of information necessary for the sake of understanding itself.
planning and effective implementation of health  Is necessary to generate new knowledge and
system. technologies to deal with major unresolved health
• For all communities, whether affluent or poor, problems.
health research is the top priority.  Ultimately some of this knowledge may be applied
• The research questions are formidable: how to join b. Applied research
with policy makers and communities in assessing  Is necessary to identify priority problems and to
priority needs, planning, financing and design and evaluate policies and programs that will
implementing programs, and evaluating them in deliver the greatest health benefit, making optimal
terms of coverage, efficiency and effectiveness. use of available resources.
Definition and characteristics of research  Finds solutions to problems
• Research is quest for knowledge through diligent  In health system, applied research:
search or investigation or experimentation aimed at o Helps to identify priority problems and to
the discovery and interpretation of new knowledge. design interventions and evaluate them
• It is a systematic body of procedures and o It is ultimately concerned with improving the
techniques applied in carrying out investigation or health of people and communities:
experimentation. ₋ by enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness
of the health system
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 ₋ through providing information (about priority ₋ How many?
problems, program evaluation and best ₋ How often?
solutions) for decision making ₋ To what extent? etc.
ii. Quantitative Vs Qualitative researches – based on • Public health problems are complex, not only
study approach because of their multi-causality but also as a result
• Early forms of research originated in the natural of new and emerging domestic and international
sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, health problems.
geology etc were concerned with investigating • Social, economic, political, ethnic, environmental,
things which we could observe and measure in and genetic factors all are associated with today’s
some way. public health concerns.
• This process is referred to as “quantitative” • Thus, public health practitioners and researchers
research. recognize the need for multiple approaches to
• But they found increasing difficulty in trying to understand problems and to develop effective
explain human behaviour in simply measurable interventions that address contemporary public
terms. health issues.
• Measurements tell us how often or how many • Qualitative methods fill a gap in the public health
people behave in a certain way but they do not toolbox; they help us understand behaviors,
adequately answer the “why” and “how” questions. attitudes, perceptions, and culture in a way that
• Qualitative research - is concerned with quantitative methods alone cannot.
developing explanations of social phenomena, i.e. it • For all these reasons, qualitative methods are
aims to help us to understand the world in which getting renewed attention and gaining new respect
we live and why things are the way they are. in public health.
• It is concerned with the social aspects of our world Health research
and seeks to answer questions about: • Health research is the application of principles of
₋ Why people behave the way they do research on health.
₋ How opinions and attitudes are formed • It is the generation of new knowledge using
₋ How people are affected by the events that go scientific method to identify and deal with health
on around them problems.
₋ How and why cultures have developed in the • Knowledge, both generalizable worldwide and
way they have locally specific, is essential to effective action for
Generally, health.
• Qualitative research is concerned with finding the ₋ Worldwide knowledge is the basis on which
answers to questions which begin with: Why, How new tools, strategies, and approaches are
& In what way. devised that are applicable to health problems
• Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more facing many countries
concerned with questions about: ₋ Local knowledge, specific to the particular
₋ How much? circumstances of each country, can inform
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 decision regarding which health problems are • The results of biomedical research are more often of
important, what measures should be applied universal importance and thus of general
and how to obtain the greatest health benefit significance.
from existing tools and limited resources. Health systems research
• In this regard, health research is both global and • It is a component of health research.
local in nature. • Research that supports health development has
• Health research can be divided into three come to be known as Health Systems Research.
overlapping groups. • It is ultimately concerned with improving the health
1. Essential health research: of a community by enhancing the efficiency and
• Consists of activities to define the health problems effectiveness of the health system as an integral
of a given community or country, to measure their part of the overall process of socioeconomic
importance and to assure the quality of activities to development. Definition of “health system”
deal with them. A health system can be described as:
• Much of this research comes within the category of • A set of cultural beliefs about health and illness that
health service research but there will be elements of forms the basis for health-seeking and health-
clinical research and development of technology, promoting behaviour.
depending on the situation. • The institutional arrangements within which that
• Some of the research conclusions may be behaviour occurs; and
generalized and applicable to other areas. • The socioeconomic (political) physical context for
2. Clinical research: those beliefs and institutions.
• In its widest sense, it ranges from study of the • Health system includes all the activities whose
prevention and diagnosis of diseases through new primary purpose is to promote, restore or maintain
methods of treatment to problems of care and health
rehabilitation. • In short, it consists of what people believe and
• The sophistication will vary from problem to know about health and illness and what they do to
problem and there will be overlap with the fields of remain healthy and cure diseases.
essential and biomedical research. • Beliefs and action are usually closely connected.
Examples include clinical trials of disease • For example, if in people perceive germs as the
prevention and the design of new chemotherapeutic cause of disease, they will look for modern
agents. (biomedical) health care.
• The institutional arrangements within which the
₋ Wherever clinical facilities exist, there is a
health-seeking and health-promoting behaviour
potential for clinical research.
occurs may include:
3. Biomedical research:
o The individual patients, families and the
• It is the most basic part of health research which
communities
demands more resources, facilities and skilled
o Health care services, private sectors,
investigators.
traditional and modern medicines
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 – medical practice (legal or illegal) ₋ A HSR project should not stop at finding
– Public (governmental) sector answers to the research questions posed, but
– Health workers, health institutions, etc. include an assessment of what decisions have
o Health related sectors - education, agriculture, been made based on the results of the study.
etc. ₋ This is the ability of research findings to
o International sectors, including bilateral and influence policy, improve services and
multilateral donor agencies (UNICEF, WHO, contribution to the betterment of health.
etc.) that may support health. Main components of research work
Some of the essential features of Health System 1. Preparing a research proposal
Research include: 2. Fieldwork (i.e., data collection)
• It should focus on priority problems. 3. Analyzing data and preparing research report
• It should be action oriented (i.e., aimed at N.B. The roles of health managers and the community
developing solutions) should be identified in the various phases of the
• An integrated multidisciplinary approach is research process.
required (research approaches from many Research Proposal
disciplines) • The development of a health project goes through a
• The research should be participatory in nature number of stages.
(from policy makers to community members) • Formulation of the research proposal is the major
• Research must be timely. task in the process of developing a research project.
• Emphasis should be placed on comparatively • Research proposal is a document that presents a
simple, short-term research designs that are likely plan for a research project to reviewers for
to yield practical results. evaluation
• The principle of cost-effectiveness is important in ₋ Can be supervised project - submitted to
the selection of research projects. instructors as part of education degree or
• Results should be presented in formats most useful ₋ Can be a project proposal submitted to funding
for administrators, decision makers and the agency
community. • The proposal draws on all the preparatory steps of
₋ A clear presentation of results with a summary of the research process and pulls them together in a
the major findings adapted to the interests of the document describing the rationale and the
party being targeted by the report. methodology proposed for research.
₋ Honest discussion of practical or methodological • It helps to convince the reviewers that the
problems that could have affected the findings. researcher is capable of successfully conducting the
₋ Alternative courses of action that could follow research
from the results and the advantages and ₋ Reviewers have more confidence that planned
drawbacks of each. project will be successfully completed if the
• Evaluation of the research undertaken. proposal is well written and organized
• The proposal is a basis for approval and funding.
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• After approval, the proposal is used as a blueprint • A research problem is a problem that presents the
during implementation of the project. question that is to be asked in a research/ study.
• The process of developing research proposal is not • Selecting a research problem is a key step in the
always linear. research process.
₋ It is a usual practice to go up and down on the • Whether a problem requires research depends on
developed proposal and make the necessary three conditions:
revisions. • There should be a perceived difference or
• The following questions should be clearly answered discrepancy between what it is and what it should
before trying to develop research proposal. be;
• Is there evidence to indicate that the research • The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear
proposal focuses on a problem of priority (so that it makes sense to develop a research
importance? question); and
• Was the given health problem identified by relevant • There should be more than one possible and
groups of the health system? plausible answer to the question (or solution to the
• Was the problem adequately analyzed to include all problem).
possible contributory factors from different sectors? Example -1:
• Was it clearly stated? • Problem situation: In district “ Y “ a report showed
• Research proposal is written before the research that in the first month there were 500 children
project begins under one year old who started immunization, but
• It describes the research problem, its importance at the end of the year it was found out that there
and gives detailed account to the methods that will were only 25 children who completed their
be used and why they are appropriate vaccination.
• For quantitative research it has most part of the • Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “Y
research report: “should have completed their vaccination but only
• Title, summary, problem statement, literature 5% out of those who started vaccination have
review, methods, reference but lacks result, completed.
discussion and conclusion instead includes work • Problem (research) question: why only 5% of the
plan and budget children completed their vaccination?
UNIT 2 • Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health
TOPIC SELECTION centers and 10 health stations found in district “Y”
Problem identification only 2 health stations were functioning, the rest
• If the answer to the research question is obvious, were closed due to insecurity in the area.
we are dealing with a management problem that In the above example, assuming that all the given facts
may be solved without further research. are true, there is no need of undertaking a research,
• A number of research questions could be presented since definite answer is obtained to the problem
that may be posed at the various levels of the health situation.
system.
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Example - 2 • The selection and analysis of the problem for
• Problem situation: In district “Z” (population research should involve those who are responsible
150,000) there are 2 health centers, 1 hospital and for the health status of the community.
15 health stations and all of them function • This would include managers in the health services,
smoothly. health-care workers, and community leaders, as
₋ However, at the end of the year it was found well as researchers.
that the EPI coverage was only 25%. • The following are the major criteria for prioritizing
• Discrepancy: Although district “Z” had 100% research problem.
availability of health services and at least 80% of 1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a
the children should have had full vaccinations the priority problem. Questions to be asked include:
EPI coverage was only 25%, as seen above. ₋ How large or widespread is the problem?
• Problem question: What factors influence the low ₋ Who is affected?
EPI coverage in district “Z”? ₋ How severe is the problem?
• Possible answers: 2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the
₋ Mothers might have problems for not attending topic has been researched before.
the EPI sessions. ₋ If the topic has been researched, the results should
₋ The MCH, EPI, OPD, etc… programmes might be reviewed to explore whether major questions
not have been integrated; hence children might that deserve further investigation remain
have missed opportunities in getting unanswered.
immunization. ₋ If not, another topic should be chosen.
₋ The follow up of defaulting children might not 3. Feasibility:
be effective and other reasons. • Consider the complexity of the problem and the
₋ Thus, the above problem situation is resources required to carry out the
researchable. study(manpower, time, equipment and money
Sources of research problems available to conduct the study
• From experience • In situations where the local resources necessary to
• Reading carry out the project are not sufficient, there is a
• Talking to people …etc. need to consider sources available at other levels.
Criteria for prioritizing problems for research 4. Political acceptability:
• There may be several ideas to choose from. • It is advisable to research a topic that has the
• Each problem that is proposed for research has to interest and support of the authorities.
be judged according to certain guidelines or • This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the
criteria. research and increases the chance that the results of
• Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed the study will be implemented.
topic must be compared with all other options. 5. Applicability of possible results and
recommendations

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• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study Political acceptability
will be applied? 1 = Topic not acceptable
₋ Availability of resources to implement 2 = Topic somewhat acceptable
recommendation 3 = Topic fully acceptable
• This will depend not only on the blessing of the Applicability
authorities but also on the availability of resources 1=No chance of recommendations being implemented
for implementing the recommendations. 2=some chance of recommendations being implemented
6. Urgency of data needed 3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented

• How urgently are the results needed for making a Urgency

decision? 1 = Information not urgently needed
• Which research should be done first and which can 2 = Information could be used but a delay of some
be done late? months would be acceptable

7. Ethical acceptability 3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making

• Possibility of inflicting harm on others Ethical acceptability
• Benefits to study population 1 = Major ethical problems
• We should always consider the possibility that we 2 = Minor ethical problems

may inflict harm on others while carrying out 3 = No ethical problems

research. N.B. The above rating should be based on the existing

• Therefore, it will be useful to review the proposed data and not on mere assumptions.

study. Rating Sheet

SCALES FOR RATING RESEARCH TOPICS Criteria for selecting a Proposed topic

Relevance research topic

Health Health Health
1 = Not relevant problem 1 problem 2 problem 3

2 = Relevant
Relevance
3 = very relevant
Avoidance of
Avoidance of duplication duplication
1 = Sufficient information already available
Feasibility
2 = Some information available but major issues not
covered Political acceptability

3 = No sound information available on which to

Applicability
base problem-solving
Feasibility Urgency of data
needed
1=Study not feasible considering available resources
2 = Study feasible considering available resources Ethical acceptability

3=Study very feasible considering available resources

Total

Rating scale: 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high

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 UNIT 3 ₋ Enables the researcher to systematically point out
PROBLEM ANALYSIS why the proposed research on the problem should
AND be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM the study results.
Introduction Points that need to be considered for justifying the
The following questions should be clearly answered selected research problem
before trying to develop research proposal. • A health problem selected to be studied has to be
• Was the problem adequately analyzed to include all justified in terms of its:
possible contributory factors from different sectors? ₋ Being a current and existing problem which
• Was it clearly stated? needs solution
• Thus, it is important to know the principles useful ₋ Being a widely spread problem affecting a target
for the analysis and statement of the given problem. population
Analyzing the problem ₋ Effects on the health service programmes
A systematic analysis of the selected problem, ₋ Being a problem which concerns the planners,
completed jointly by the researchers, health workers, policy makers and the communities at large.
managers, and community representatives is a very Information included in the statement of a problem
crucial step in designing the research because it: • A brief description of socioeconomic and cultural
₋ Enables concerned bodies to bring together their characteristics and an overview of health status.
knowledge of the problem, • An overview of health status and the health care
₋ Clarifies the problem and the possible factors that system in the district/country as far as it is relevant
may be contributing to it, to the problem
₋ Facilitates decisions concerning the focus and ₋ Include illustrative statistics if possible to
scope of the research. describe more the context in which the problem
Formulating the problem statement occurs.
• After identifying, selecting and analyzing the • A concise description of the nature of the problem
problem, the next major section in a research ₋ basic description of the research problem
proposal is “statement of the problem” ₋ the discrepancy between what is and what
Why is it important to state and define the problem should be
well? ₋ its size, distribution (who is affected, where,
Because a clear statement of the problem: since when, severity and Consequences etc.)
₋ Is the foundation for the further development of the • Brief description of past research: what is known
research proposal (research objectives, and what are the gaps
methodology, work plan, etc); • An analysis of the major factors that may influence
₋ Makes it easier to find information and reports of the problem and a convincing argument that
similar studies from which your own study design available knowledge is insufficient to answer a
can benefit;

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 certain question and need to update the previous • At the outset of study an investigator should be
knowledge. acquainted with relevant literature.
• Describe the significance of the proposed study- Use of literature review
what you hope to achieve with the study results. • It prevents the you(the investigator) from
• A brief description of any solutions that have been duplicating work that has been done before.
tried in the past, how well they have worked, and • It increases your knowledge on the problem you
why further research is needed. want to study and this may assist you in refining
• A description of the type of information expected to your "statement of the problem".
result from the project and how this information • It helps to find out what others have learned and
will be used to help solve the problem reported on the topic
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY • It gives you confidence why your particular
• Creates rationale for conducting the study research project is needed.
• Expands on what is mentioned in the • Literature review gives familiarity with the various
introduction/statement of the problem types of methods that might be used in the study
• Contents • It can also help to identify research problem
₋ statements describing relevance of the topic • Helps to develop a conceptual frame work for the
and reasons why data is needed study
₋ identifies importance of the project/results to • Provides a useful approach to conducting the study
different audiences • Helps to describe the strength and weakness of
• way in which the research adds to literature deigns/methods and instruments used in earlier
• ways in which the study helps to improve practice works.
• reasons why/how the study will improve policy • Helps to explain or support the study findings
UNIT 4 Resources for review of literature
LITERATURE REVIEW • Individuals, groups, and organizations;
INTRODUCTION ₋ Opinions, clinical observations, reports of
• Literature review is a critical summary of research incidents, etc.
findings and theoretical information on a topic. • Published information (books, articles, journals,
• A literature review demonstrates what is known magazines, newspapers);
about a research problem and validates the need for ₋ Card catalogues of books in libraries
the current study. ₋ Computer-based literature searches such as
• The types of information reviewed include research MEDLINE, PUBMED
findings, theoretical information, methodological ₋ Bibliographies such as those found at the end of
information, opinion, articles and anecdotal books, articles, theses, etc. or prepared as
descriptions. separate documents
• For any study, a thorough literature review is • Unpublished information (reports, records,
required computer data bases)

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 ₋ Statistics collected at the national, provincial In conclusion, while reviewing a literature, all what is
and/or departmental levels; studies conducted known about the study topic should be summarized
in the country or region with the relevant references.
Organization of information on index cards This review should answer
The index cards should contain key words related to: ₋ How much is known?
• A summary of the contents of books or articles ₋ What is not known?
which is relevant to one's own study ₋ What should be done based on what is lacking?
• A brief analysis of the content, with comments such • Overall, the literature review should be adequate,
as: relevant and critical
₋ how information from that particular study • Appropriate referencing procedures should always
could be used in one's own study be followed in research proposals as well as in
₋ Information obtained from key persons could research reports.
also be summarized on the index card • While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both
After collecting the required information on index positive and negative findings and avoid any
cards, the investigator should decide in which order distortion of information to suit your own study
he/she wants to discuss previous research findings objectives.
from: • Finally, after an exhaustive literature review,
₋ Global to local summarize the findings and write a coherent
₋ Broader to focused discussion by indicating the research gap which
₋ Past to current supports the undertaking of your study.
Managing reviewed literatures * Literature review is considered essential to all
References that are identified: steps of research process.
• Should first be skimmed or read Methods of Reference Citation
• Then summaries of the important information in Reference writing styles
each of the references may be recorded on separate 1. Vancouver System
index cards or computer • Consecutive numbers are used in the text to
₋ Summary of contents, brief analysis and indicate the references.
references • Then at the end of the paper or chapter (of a book)
• Finally the summary should be included in proposal the references will be listed in that order, using the
₋ Discuss in logical and coherent sequence format described below:
• Evaluate the relevance of the literature to your For an article:
study ₋ Author(s)’ Surname followed by Initials. Title of
• Include information directly relevant to your study article. Name of Journal. Year; Volume
₋ Be concise (number): page numbers of article.

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Example: UNIT 5
Louria DB. Emerging- and re-emerging infections: The FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
societal variables. International Journal of Infectious INTRODUCTION:
Disease. 1996; 1(2):59-62. • Having decided what to study, and knowing why
For a book: he/she wants to study it, the investigator can now
Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials. Title of book. formulate his/her study objectives.
Edition. Place: Publisher; Year. • A research objective is a statement that clearly
Example: depicts the goal to be achieved by the research
Abramson JH. Survey methods in community medicine. project.
4th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1990. • Objectives should be closely related to the
For a chapter in a book: statement of the problem.
Author(s) of the chapter Surname(s) followed by Purposes of formulating research objectives
initials. Chapter title. In: Editor(s) of book Surname(s) The formulation of objectives will help us to:
followed by initials, eds. Title of book. Place: • Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
Publisher, Year; Page numbers of chapter. • To avoid the collection of data not strictly needed
Example: • Organize the study in clearly defined parts
Todd J and Barongo L. Epidemiological methods. In: • The explicit formulation of study objectives is an
Ng’weshemi J, Boerma T, Bennett J and Schapink D essential step in the planning of a study.
(eds). HIV prevention and AIDS care in Africa; A • Facilitates the development of research methods
district level approach. Amsterdam: KIT Press, 1997; p. • Orients the collection, analysis, interpretation and
51-68. utilization of data.
2. Harvard System * It is said that “a question well-stated is a question
• References are referred more fully in the text, half-answered”, but a question that is poorly stated
putting the surname of the author and year of or unstated is unlikely to be answered at all.
publication referred to between brackets, e.g., • Objectives should be closely related to the
(Shiva 1998). statement of the problem.
• In this system of citation, the references at the end • For example, if the problem identified is low
of the proposal should be listed in alphabetical utilization of health stations in a rural district, the
order and publication year comes following authors general objective of the study could be to assess the
name in brackets. reasons for this low utilization.
E.g. For a book: Abramson JH (1990). Survey • If we break down this general objective into smaller
methods in community medicine.4th ed. and logically connected parts, then we get specific
Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. objectives.
Types of objectives
Objectives are mostly stated into two forms:
• General Objective
• Specific Objective
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A. General objective • This is also true during the write up of the
• A general objective is the aim of the study in completed research work.
general terms • It is not uncommon to come across a situation in
• It identifies in general terms what is to be which some of the specific objectives are not
accomplished by the research project and why. addressed in the results section at all.
E.g. 1. • It is therefore advisable to limit the number of
In a study on missed opportunities for EPI in Woreda specific objectives.
‘X’ the general objective was: “to assess missed Research objectives can be stated as:
opportunities for EPI in Woreda ‘X’”  Questions : The objectives of this study are to
B. Specific objectives: answer the following questions ….
• Specific objectives are measurable statements on  Positive sentence : The objectives of this study are
the specific questions to be answered. to find out, to establish, to determine, …
• Specific objectives are breakdowns of the general  Hypothesis : The objective of this study is to verify
objective into smaller, logically connected parts. the following hypothesis (examples are given
• Unlike the general objectives, the specific below)
objectives are more specific and detail. ₋ Based on the type of the study problem, it
• Specific objectives should systematically address might be possible to develop explanations for
the various aspects of the problem as defined in the problem that can be tested.
statement of the problem and key factors that are ₋ If so, we can formulate hypotheses in addition
assumed to influence/cause the problem. to the other study objectives.
• Specific objective should specify what would be Characteristics of good/well stated objectives
done in the study, where and for what purpose • Cover the different aspects of the problem and its
• They indicate the variable to be examined and contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
measured. logical sequence
Example: • Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying
In the study of missed opportunity for EPI in Woreda exactly what you are going to do, where, and for
‘X’ the specific objectives could be: what purpose;
• To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities • Feasible
for children who attend OPD, MCH, etc. in Woreda • Are realistic, considering local conditions
‘X’, • Phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study
• To examine the reasons for children not being • Use action verbs that are specific enough to be
immunized while attending the OPD, MCH, etc. measured
services. Examples of action verbs are:
• It should be noted that it is on the bases of these ₋ to determine
specific objectives that the methods, results and ₋ to compare
discussion sections will be presented. ₋ to verify
₋ to calculate
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 ₋ to describe  RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
₋ to find out Based on experience with the study problem, it might
₋ to establish be possible to develop explanations for the problem,
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as; which can then be tested.
o to appreciate If so, you can formulate hypotheses in addition to the
o to understand study objectives.
o to study • A Hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship
o to believe between one or more factors and the problem under
• Keep in mind that when the project is evaluated, the study that can be tested.
results will be compared to the objectives. • Explicit hypothesis: requires sufficient knowledge
• If the objectives have not been spelled out clearly, of the problem to be able to predict relationships
the project cannot be evaluated. among factors which then can be explicitly tested.
When to prepare research objectives • It translates the problem statement into a precise,
• After statement of the problem is developed unambiguous prediction of expected outcomes.
• Before methodology of the study is developed • Most applicable for field intervention or evaluative
RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS studies
 RESEARCH QUESTIONS • Diagnostic or exploratory studies do not normally
• Research questions: Is formulated when insight require hypothesis statements because they
into the problem being studied is not sufficient. generally do not test relationships between
• Using the previous example on missed opportunity variables
for EPI in district “X”, more specific research Purposes of research hypothesis
questions may be developed for the different • Directs and guides the research
objectives, such as: • Indicates the major independent and dependent
• What is the magnitude of missed opportunities for variables of interest
children who attend OPD, MCH, etc. in district • Suggests the type of data that must be collected and
‘X’? the type of analysis that must be conducted in order
• What are the reasons for children not being to measure the relationship among the variables
immunized while attending the OPD, MCH, etc. • A well written hypothesis focuses on the attention
services? of the researcher on specific variable
Setting Research Questions • When writing hypothesis statement, it is important
Research questions should be: to keep in mind the distinction between
• Focused, each covering a single point independent and dependent variables.
• Ordered in a logical sequence • An independent variable causes, determines, or
• Realistic and feasible to answer influences the dependent variables – whenever
• Operationalized, using action verbs independent variable changes, the dependent
• Measurable outcomes at the end of the research variable changes.

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• Sometimes the effect of independent variable on the • An increase in the frequency of face washing is
dependent variable is indirect involving intervening followed by a reduction in trachoma prevalence
variables(also called test/control variables) E.g.2 (more complex hypothesis)
• In longitudinal field experiments, the design of the “Physicians spend less time and are less thorough in
study (with random assignment of the cases to explaining treatment plans to patients than nurses.”
experimental comparison areas), usually controls • Independent variable: Physicians’ actions vs those
the intervening variables. of Nurses’
• In cross sectional surveys, intervening variables are • Dependent variable:
measured and then controlled in the statistical ₋ Time spent in explaining treatment
analysis ₋ Thoroughness with explanations given
Stating research hypothesis ₋ A hypothesis can be stated in the “null” format,
• A hypothesis can be simple in form, predicting the which simply states, for example, that “There is
relationship between one independent and one no significant relationship between or among
dependent variable or more complex involving two the variables of interest’.
or more independent variables. • This format is suitable in the context of statistical
E.g.1 (Simple hypothesis) theory and the philosophy of science.
“Health education involving active participation by • On the other hand, a hypothesis can be stated in a
mothers will produce more positive changes in child “directional” or ”alternative” format.
feeding than health education based on lectures.” • In the latter format the direction of the relationship
• Independent variable: Type of health education is clearly indicated.
• Dependent variable: Changes in child feeding

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