Physical Sciences

Upper V

Physics

2024

Contributors: Mick Badham, Craig Bosch, Ena Bosman, Derek Bradley,

Colleen Henning, Greg Hingle, Roger Klement, Rod Macdonald,
Kathryn McNeil, Jeremy Naidoo, Nicky Stocks, Warwick Taylor,
Alan Thompson, Jeanne Trickett, Karien van Schoor, Ingrid Cloete, Alistair
Douglas, George Ngwenya, Siyavula (EverythingScience.co.za)
Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – Momentum, Impulse, Work, Energy & Power

Notes 3
Key Examples and Past IEB exam questions 30

Chapter 2 – Gravitational and Electric Fields

Notes 36
Key Examples 51

Chapter 3 – Electromagnetism
Notes 55
Key Examples and Past IEB exam questions 68

Chapter 4 – Electromagnetic Induction

Notes 72
Key Examples and Past IEB exam questions 89

Chapter 5 – Electric Circuits

Notes 99
Key Examples and Past IEB exam questions 115

Chapter 6 – Photons & Electrons

Notes 120
Key Examples and Past IEB exam questions 131

Appendix
Data Sheet 144

2
CHAPTER 1 – MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, WORK, ENERGY & POWER

A candidate should be able to:

Momentum (1D)
● Define linear momentum as the product of the mass and velocity of the
object
● State that linear momentum is a vector and has the same direction as the
velocity vector
● Calculate the momentum in one dimension of a moving object using 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Newton's Second Law expressed in terms of Momentum

● State Newton's second law in terms of momentum: The net force acting on
an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum. (Note: there are
two acceptable statements of Newton's Second Law)
∆𝑝
● Solve problems for constant mass using 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝑡

Conservation of Momentum and Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

● Explain that an isolated system is one that has no net external force acting on
it
● Explain (when working with isolated systems) what is meant by internal and
external forces
● State the law of conservation of linear momentum: The total linear
momentum of an isolated system remains constant (is conserved)
● Solve problems by applying the law of conservation of momentum to
interactions of two objects moving in one dimension (along a straight line) with
the aid of an appropriate sign convention
● Define an elastic collision as a collision in which both momentum and
kinetic energy are conserved
● Define an inelastic collision as a collision in which only momentum is
conserved
● Identify elastic and inelastic collisions using calculations where necessary

Impulse
● Define impulse (J) as the product of the net force and the contact time
3
● Solve problems using 𝐽 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡.
● Know that impulse is a vector quantity and is in the same direction as the net
force vector
● Know that impulse and change in momentum are equivalent and therefore

J =Δp = mΔv and therefore is a change in momentum, i.e.

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝

● Solve problems using 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝

● Apply the concept of impulse in everyday life, e.g., airbags, catching a hard
ball

Work, Energy and Power

Definition of Work
● Define the work done on an object by a force as the product of the
displacement and the component of the force parallel to the
displacement
● Solve problems using:

● Know that work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules (J)

● Know that if energy is gained by the object, work done on that object is
considered positive
● Know that if energy is lost by the object, work done on that object is
considered negative

Mechanical Energy
● Define gravitational potential energy as the energy an object possesses
due to its position relative to a reference point

● Calculate the gravitational potential energy of an object using

● Define kinetic energy as the energy an object has as a result of the
object's motion

● Calculate the kinetic energy of an object using

● Define mechanical energy as the sum of gravitational potential and
kinetic energy at a point
● Use the equation:
● State the law of conservation of energy as the total energy in a system
cannot be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one form to another
4
● State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence
of air resistance or any external forces, the mechanical energy of an object is
constant
● Apply the principle of conservation of mechanical energy and solve problems
using:

Work – Energy Theorem

● State the work-energy theorem: the work done by a net force on an object is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the object Apply the work-energy
theorem to objects on horizontal and inclined planes or curved surfaces
(frictionless and rough)

● Kinetic energy of a system is increased when is in the same direction as

s or
● Kinetic energy of a system is decreased when is in the opposite
direction to s or

Conservation of Energy with External Forces and/or Resistive Forces

Present
● Solve conservation of energy problems (with and without external forces
and/or resistive forces present) by applying the law of conservation of
energy

Power
● Define power as the rate at which work is done or the rate at which
energy is transferred
● State that the unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is defined as the power
when one joule of work is done in one second. (1 W = 1 J.s-1)

● Calculate the power when work is done using

● If a force causes an object to move at a constant velocity, calculate the power
using
● Define efficiency as the ratio of output power to input power

● Calculate percentage efficiency using

5
6
MOMENTUM

Introduction
The relationship between force and motion is not easy to establish when looking at
objects in everyday life. The ‘hidden’ force of friction often confuses ones
understanding of this relationship. The common mistake is to think that, an object
that moves at a constant velocity has a resultant force acting on it. The reality is
that an object that moves at constant velocity has no resultant force. Where friction
is present, an applied force is required to balance the frictional force and thereby
maintain movement at constant velocity.

If one were to remove friction, one would note that no force is needed to maintain
motion. A force applied in the absence of friction would change motion (i.e. to cause
acceleration). When the resultant force on an object is zero (i.e. the forces balance)
then the velocity of the object remains constant. When there is a resultant force, the
object will accelerate.

How the resultant force affects velocity is also dependent on the mass of the object.
With the same resultant force acting, an object with smaller mass has a greater
acceleration.

Momentum is a property of any moving mass

Definition: Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of the
object.

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

where 𝑝 = momentum (kg.m.s-1)

𝑚 = mass (kg)

𝑣 = velocity (m.s-1)

Momentum is a vector quantity with the same direction as the velocity.

7
Newton’s Second Law of Motion can be defined in terms of momentum.

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎

∆𝑣
But, 𝑎 = ∆𝑡

𝑚∆𝑣 ∆𝑝
∴ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝑡
= ∆𝑡

Definition: The net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of
momentum. (Newton’s II Law)

Example 1:
A resultant force of 20 N east acts on a 5 kg object, initially at rest, for 10 seconds.

a) Determine the change in momentum.

b) Calculate the final velocity.

Impulse
When a resultant force acts on an object for a period of time the object will undergo a
change in velocity. Momentum, which is the product of mass and velocity, must
therefore also change. The change in momentum is directly proportional to the force
and to the time for which the force acts.

Definition: Impulse (J) is the product of the net force and the contact time for which
the force acts.

Impulse (J) = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡

From
𝐽 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚∆𝑣
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝑡
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑣

J = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑣 = ∆𝑝 = change in momentum

Note: ∆𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑢

8
Example 2:
A bullet of mass 150 g is fired from a rifle. If the bullet's muzzle velocity is 300 m.s-1
and the 5 kg rifle recoils at 9 m.s-1. Calculate the impulse of the rifle. (Use the bullets
direction as positive)

Impulse of rifle:

J = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)

= 5(−9 - 0)

= − 45 kg.m.s-1

= 45 kg.m.s-1 in the opposite direction to bullet

NOTE: The impulse will always be in the direction of the resultant force

Also if the time of the collision is given the force can be calculated

In this example if the bullet is in the rifle barrel for 0,1 second (i.e. time of collision)
the force on the rifle can be calculated using the impulse of the rifle.

J = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡∆𝑡

− 45 kg.m.s-1 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 (0,1)

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = − 450 N

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 450 N in the opposite direction to the bullet

How would the length of the barrel affect the muzzle velocity of the bullet if the force
acting on the bullet remains constant while in the barrel?

______________________________________________________________
9
 ______________________________________________________________

Example 3:
A golf club exerts an average force of 4000 N on a ball with a mass of 50 g. If the
golf club is in contact with the ball for 0,001 seconds, calculate the velocity at which
the ball leaves the club.

Impulse Exercise
1. A tennis ball of mass 200 g, moving at 20 m.s-1, is hit by a racket. The ball
moves off in the opposite direction with a speed of 15 m.s-1. The racket is is
contact with the ball for 0,03 s.

a. Calculate the change in momentum of the ball

b. What is the impulse exerted by the racket on the ball?
c. Calculate the force exerted by the racket on the ball.

2. A puck of mass 100 g travels towards an ice hockey player at 20 m.s-1. He

exerts a force of 350 N on the puck when he hits it so that the puck moves off
at 15 m.s-1 in the opposite direction. Determine the time that the puck was in
contact with the stick.

3. A child sitting in a toy cart moves with a velocity of 5 m.s-1. The mass of the
child plus cart is 30 kg. The child and cart collide with a large tree and
rebound at a speed of 2 m.s-1. Calculate

a. The change in momentum of the child plus cart.

b. The force exerted by the tree on the cart if the cart was in contact with
the tree for 0,01 s.

4. A 800 g rubber ball is dropped onto the floor. The speed of the ball just before
it hits the floor is 15 m.s-1 and 10 m.s-1 just after it leaves the floor.

a. Determine the change in momentum of the ball during collision with the
floor.

b. If the ball was in contact with the floor for 0,2 s, calculate the average
force exerted on the ball during collision.

5. Apply the concept of impulse to explain

a. How an airbag can save lives

10
 b. Why you should use “soft hands” to catch a ball
c. Why you should “follow through” when playing sport

Conservation of Momentum:
Conservation of momentum simulations

Visit one or both of the following simulations to observe the conservation of

momentum in a collision.

https://www.gigaphysics.com/momentum_lab.html

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-Interactives/Momentum-and-Colli
sions/Collision-Carts/Collision-Carts-Interactive

Investigation:

1 2 3
Mass of first cart (m1)
Initial velocity of first cart (u1)
Final velocity of first car (V1)
Mass of second cart (m2)
Initial velocity second cart (U2)
Final velocity of second car (V2)
Momentum before collision

m1u1 + m2u2

Momentum after collision

m1v1 + m2v2

Conclusion: ______________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

11
_________________________________________________________________

The law of conservation of momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated

system remains constant.

An isolated system is one that has no net external force acting on it.

Note: Before an explosion, the total momentum is zero if nothing is moving. After
an explosion, the total momentum is still zero.

When solving problems with momentum, the law of conservation of momentum is

expressed by using the following formula:

(𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

Sometimes, it is convenient to write the formula as:

𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2𝑢2 = 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2

if the two bodies are separate before and after the collision

Where 𝑚 = mass in kg

𝑢 = initial velocity in m.s-1 of the respective bodies

𝑣 = final velocity of respective bodies

Worked Example:
A ball with a mass of 1 kg is moving eastward with a speed of 2 m.s-1. It collides
head-on with a second ball that has a mass of 1,5 kg and is moving with a speed of
1,5 m.s-1 in the opposite direction. The first ball bounces back with a velocity of 2,2
m.s-1. Calculate the velocity of the second ball after the collision.

Answer:

p before = p after
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
12
 (1)(2) + (1,5)(-1,5) = (1)(-2,2) + (1,5)v2
2 - 2,25 = −2,2 + 1,5v2
1,95 = 1,5v2
v2 = 1,3 ms-1 east
Note: A diagram of the objects before the collision and after the collision are useful
for solving for all momentum questions.

Example 4:
A bullet of mass 150 g is fired from a rifle. If the bullets muzzle velocity is 300 m.s-1
and the mass of the rifle is 5 kg, calculate the recoil velocity of the rifle.

Example 5:
(Experimental Proof of the Conservation of Momentum).

In an experiment a 1 kg mass piece was dropped onto a 2 kg trolley pulling a ticker

tape. The ticker-tape has been drawn below at full size. If the frequency of the
timer is 50 Hz analyze the tape and calculate the following:

a) the momentum of the trolley before the collision.

b) the momentum of the trolley after the collision.

Example 6:
A railway truck with a mass of 3000 kg is moving at a speed of 5 m.s-1. It collides with
a stationary truck that has a mass of 4000 kg. If the two trucks couple during the
collision, what is their combined speed?

Conservation of Momentum – Exercise

1. A boy of mass 50 kg runs at 3 m.s-1 behind a cart moving at 2 m.s-1. The
mass of the cart is 200 kg. Calculate the velocity of the boy and the cart
after he jumps onto it.

2. A trolley X of mass 1,5 kg is moving at a speed of 3 m.s-1. It collides with

an identical trolley Y, which is stationary. After the collision, trolley Y moves
13
 off at 2 m.s-1 in the direction in which trolley X was originally moving.
Calculate the velocity of trolley X after the collision.

3. A tennis ball of mass 200 g rolls at 3 m.s-1 towards a cricket ball of mass
500 g rolling at 1 m.s-1 towards the tennis ball. The two balls collide head
on. If the tennis ball bounces back and moves off at a velocity of 2 m.s-1,
calculate the velocity of the cricket ball after the collision.

4. A bullet of 100 g leaves a rifle with a velocity of 200 m.s-1. The mass of the
rifle is 2 kg. Calculate the recoil velocity of the rifle.

5. A person of mass 50 kg wearing skates stands stationary on ice. The

person throws a 500 g ball at a speed of 20 m.s-1. Calculate the velocity of
the person immediately after throwing the ball.

======================================================

WORK, ENERGY & POWER

Work
Definition: Work done on an object by a force is defined as the product of the
displacement and the component of the force parallel to the displacement.

𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑠

Where 𝑊 = work in joules (J)

𝐹 = force in newtons (N)

𝑠 = displacement in metres (m)

Note: Work is a scalar quantity

One joule of work is done when a force of one newton acts through a displacement
of one metre in the direction of the force. ⸫1 J = 1 N.m

A person pushing on a wall does no work on the wall. Explain

________________________________________________________________

a) Work is done if the Force and Displacement are in the Same Direction.

14
𝑊 (𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)= 𝐹. 𝑠
= (20 N)(5 m)
= 100 N.m

15
b) Work is done if the Force and Displacement are not in the Same
Direction.

When the force is not in the same direction as the displacement the
component of the force in the direction of motion must be calculated.

𝐹𝑥 is the force in the direction of the displacement.

⸫ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥. 𝑠
But 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
⸫ 𝑊 = (𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠θ). 𝑠

c) Work is done if the Force and the Displacement are Perpendicular.

If the force is perpendicular to the direction of the displacement there is a zero

component of the force in the direction of the displacement.
(Thus no work is done)

16
Energy
Definition: Energy is the ability to do work.

The two main types of energy that will be considered are gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy.

A) Gravitational Potential Energy (Ep)

Definition: Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object possesses due to
its position relative to a reference point.

When an object is lifted at constant velocity through a height h the work done is
transferred as potential energy. This can be calculated as follows:

𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Note: The height is always relative to a certain starting point.

B) Kinetic Energy (Ek)

Definition: Kinetic energy is the energy an object has as a result of the object’s
motion.

When a constant resultant force is applied to an object without the object gaining
height then the work done by the resultant force is transferred as kinetic energy.

17
If a constant force is applied then:

𝐸𝐾 = work done

𝐸𝐾 = 𝐹. 𝑠

But, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (Newton II)

⸫ 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠 (1)

Since the acceleration is constant, the equations of uniform motion apply.

2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠

2
𝑣 = 0 + 2𝑎𝑠

2
𝑎𝑠 = ½𝑣 Substituting into (1) gives

1 2
𝐸𝐾 = 2
𝑚𝑣

Types of Collisions

The total kinetic energy in a system before and after a collision is used to decide if
the collision was an elastic or inelastic collision.

In elastic collisions the total kinetic energy is conserved. In inelastic collisions kinetic
energy is converted to internal energy and other forms of energy during the collision.
The most common conversion is into heat, light and sound energy. Deformation
energy is the energy required to change the size or shape of an object.

Example: (Considering the worked example on page 11 again)

A ball with a mass of 1 kg is moving eastward with a speed of 2 m.s-1. It collides
head-on with a second ball that has a mass of 1,5 kg and is moving with a speed of
1,5 m.s-1 in the opposite direction. The first ball bounces back with a velocity of 2,2
m.s-1.

In this example the velocity of the second ball after the collision was calculated as
−
1,3 m.s 1 east. Is the collision elastic?

18
Answer:
Ek before = ½(1)(2)2 + ½(1,5)(1,5)2 Ek after = ½(1)(2,2)2 + ½(1,5)(1,3)2
= 3,7J = 3,7J

As no kinetic energy is 'lost' the collision is elastic.

The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept in physics and is often stated

as:

The principle of the conservation of energy: The total energy in a system cannot
be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one form to another.

In our curriculum, we won’t be solving problems by considering the total energy in

the universe, but will consider energy in the system and the energy added or
removed from the system that we are interested in.

C) Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Total mechanical energy = Ek + Ep

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states: In the absence of air

resistance or any external forces, the total mechanical energy of an object is
constant.

In the example which follows an object is dropped from a height h. Etot is calculated
at various points.

19
When friction is present some mechanical energy is converted into heat and
mechanical energy is not conserved. Similarly, if work is done on the object,
mechanical energy is also not conserved.

KEY

Example 8:
Without using equations of motion, determine the velocity of an object at a height of
75 m above the ground if it was dropped from a height of 100 m. (ignore air
resistance) [22,1 m.s-1]

Example 9:
−
An object of mass 20 kg moves along a horizontal surface at 12 m.s 1 and then
slides up an incline to another horizontal surface which is 4 m above the lower
surface. Calculate the objects speed on the 2nd horizontal surface if all surfaces are
frictionless. [8,1 m.s-1]

Example 10:
A steel block with a mass of 2 kg is released from rest at the top of an inclined plane.
−
It slides down the plane and reaches a maximum speed of 5 m.s 1 by the time it
reaches the bottom of the slope. If initially the vertical height of the block was 3 m
calculate the work done against friction. [33,8 J lost]

20
Example 11:
A toy with a spring mechanism and a mass of 500 g is accelerated up an inclined
−1 −1
plane. The speed recorded at point (A) was 2 m.s and at point (B) 5 m.s . Point

(B)’s perpendicular height above (A) was measured at 1m.

a) Calculate the work done by the spring on the toy. [10,15 J]

b) What constant force does the spring apply? [2,54 N]

The work-energy theorem is a very useful way to solve a variety of problems. The
theorem is introduced by way of example 12.

Example 12
A toy car accelerates uniformly from 2 m.s-1 to 8,25 m.s-1 up an incline at 30o to the
horizontal as shown. The car has a mass of 0,5 kg. The engine applies a force of 7,5
N and a frictional force of 1 N acts on the car

a) Calculate

i. The kinetic energy of the car at the bottom of the slope

ii. The potential energy of the car at the top of the slope

21
 iii. The kinetic energy of the car at the top of the slope

iv. The change in the kinetic energy of the car

b) Draw a labeled force diagram showing all the forces acting on the car whilst
accelerating up the incline.

c) Calculate the resultant force acting on the car.

d) Using g = 9,8 m.s-2 show that

i. The work done by the engine = 30 J (total work done)

ii. The work done by friction = 4 J

iii. The work done against gravity = 9,8 J

iv. The work done by the resultant force = 16,2 J (useful work
done)

We notice that the work done by the applied force is equal to the sum of the work
done by the other forces

In particular:

Wengine = W vs friction + W vs gravity + W by resultant force

We know

● W vs friction is energy lost to heat

● W vs gravity is potential energy

So in conclusion work done by the resultant force on an object is equal to

the change in kinetic energy of that object.

This is the statement of the work-energy theorem.

22
 Work Energy theorem worksheet for inclined planes and curved
surfaces
(Some of these questions are adapted from CIE, DoE, www.amherst.edu, www.kpu.ca)

1. A car starts from rest and travels along a straight road inclined at an angle of 5,0° to the

horizontal as shown in the figure below.

The length of the road is 450 m and the car has a mass of 800 kg.
The velocity of the car increases at a constant rate and is 28 m.s at the top
-1

of the slope.
The frictional force between the surface and the car is 320 N.

a. Calculate the change in the kinetic energy of the car.

b. State the work-energy theorem.

c. Use the theorem stated to determine the average force of the engine acting on the
car while moving up the slope.

Remember:
Kinetic energy of a system is increased when Fnet is in the same direction as s or ∆x
Kinetic energy of a system is decreased when Fnet is in the opposite direction as s or ∆x

23
2. At point A in the figure below, a spring is compressed 50,0 cm by a 2,00 kg
block. When released the block travels over the frictionless curved track until
it is launched horizontally into the air at point B. Point B is a height h = 4,50 m
above the ground. The block lands at point C.

a. When released the block leaves the end of the spring with a speed of 13,5 m.s . Use
-1

the work-energy theorem to determine the magnitude of the spring’s force acting on
the block.

(Note: You could use equations of motion and Newton’s second law to solve this as
well and it would be good practice to see that different methods give the same
answer)

b. Draw a free body diagram showing all the forces acting on the block as
it reaches point B.

c. Use energy principles to calculate the speed of the block at point B.

d. The distance travelled by the block up the curved incline to point B is

6 m. Determine the magnitude of the average net force slowing the
block down while traveling to B. (Use the work-energy theorem).

3. A box of mass 60 kg starts from rest at a height h and slides down a rough slope of
length 10 m, which makes an angle of θ with the horizontal. It undergoes a constant
acceleration of magnitude 2 m.s while sliding down the slope.
-2

24
 a. Draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces acting on the
box while it slides down the slope.

b. The box reaches the bottom of the slope. Calculate the following:

i. The kinetic energy of the box as it reaches the bottom

(Hint: use equations of motion)
ii. Determine the net force acting on the box as it slides down the slope using
the work energy theorem.
iii. The work done on the box by the gravitational force given that
θ = 25°
iv. The work done on the box by the frictional force.

v. The magnitude of the frictional force acting on the box.

4. A cyclist pushes his bicycle of mass 6,1 kg up an incline with a constant force of
20 N. The bicycle is pushed from an initial velocity of 5 m.s from point A to point B.
-1

The road is inclined at 10° to the horizontal and the distance from A to B is 32 m as
shown below.
The

frictional force between the road and the wheels of the bicycle is 7N.

25
a. Calculate the work done by the cyclist on the bicycle.

b. Draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces on the bicycle acting
parallel to the slope.

c. Calculate the net force acting on the bicycle.

d. Use the work-energy theorem and calculate the speed of the bicycle at
B.

26
5. In the diagram below a 5,0 kg block slides from rest at a height of h = 1,75 m.
1

The block slides down the curved surface down to a horizontal surface where
it passes over a 2,0 m rough patch. The rough patch has a coefficient of
kinetic friction μk = 0,25.

a. Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the block at the top of the
curved surface.

b. The block reaches the bottom of the curved surface at a speed of

4 m.s . The force due to the friction between the box and the curved
-1

surface is 6 N.
Determine the distance that the box travelled down the curved surface.

c. Use energy principles to determine the height (h ) that the box reaches on
2

the second, frictionless slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal.

(Hint: Split this problem into manageable parts)

27
Power
The same amount of work is done in raising a given body through a given height
whether it takes one second or one year to do so. However, the power will differ.

Definition: Power is the rate at which work is done.

OR Power is the rate at which energy is transferred.

𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑡

Where 𝑃 = power in watts (W)

𝑊 = energy in joules (J)

𝑡 = time in seconds (s)

The unit of power is the watt. 1 W = 1 J.s-1 = 1 N.m.s-1

Definition: Efficiency is the ratio of the output power to the input power. Often
expressed as a percentage.

Example:
An electric motor with a 1000 W rating pulls up a load of 20 kg at constant velocity to
a height of 40 m in 10 seconds. Calculate the % efficiency of the motor.

Answer:
𝑊
Energy "used" by motor: 𝑃 = 𝑡

𝑊
1000 = 10

𝑊 = 10000 J

Energy gained by 20kg: 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

= (20)(9, 8)(40)

= 7840 J

% efficiency = 7840 J ⋅ 100

10000 J

28
 = 78, 4%

Example 13
If a force causes an object to move at a constant velocity the power can be
calculated using, P=Fv. Derive this expression for power. Discuss this power in
terms of “useful” work done.

29
 MOMENTUM, WORK, ENERGY & POWER
Key Questions and past IEB questions

K1 An ice skater is moving due east at 0,3 m.s-1. The mass of the skater is 45 kg and
she carries a large ball of mass 4 kg. The skater now throws the ball forward at a
speed sufficient to bring her to rest. Calculate the velocity at which the ball is
thrown.

K2 A bullet with a mass of 8 g is fired horizontally into a 10 kg block which is free to

move. The velocity of the block after impact is 0,5 m.s−1. Calculate the initial
velocity of the bullet.

K3 A 7000 kg tank excluding the mass of a 20 kg shell fires the shell at a speed of
100 m.s-1. Assuming that the tank is free to roll backwards initially without friction,
calculate the recoil velocity of the tank.

K4 A squash ball with a mass of 30 g strikes a wall perpendicularly at 40 m.s-1 and

bounces back. The magnitude of its momentum change is 2,1 kg.m.s-1 (Ignore
the effects of gravity)
a) If the ball is in contact with the wall for approximately 0,02 seconds calculate
the average force exerted on the ball.
b) What is the velocity of the ball after bouncing off the wall?
c) Is the collision elastic?

K5 A bullet of mass 100 g is fired into a hanging 5 kg block. The block swings to a
height of 50 cm after the bullet becomes embedded in it.
a) Calculate the speed of the block and bullet after the collision.
b) Calculate the initial velocity of the bullet.
c) Calculate the impulse of the bullet due to the collision.
d) Calculate the average force on the bullet if it takes 0,001 seconds for the
collision.

30
K6 A steel ball with mass of 0,5 kg is fastened to a cord 0,8 m long and is released
when the cord is horizontal. At the bottom of its path the ball strikes a 2 kg
block initially at rest on a horizontal surface. The ball rebounds with a velocity
of −2,375 m.s-1.

0,5 kg

0,8 m

2 kg

direction

a) Calculate the velocity of the block immediately after the collision.

b) Determine if the collision is an elastic collision.
c) After the collision the block moves 1 m before coming to rest. Calculate the
average frictional force acting on the block during this time.

K7 Two motor cars of masses 800 kg and 1000 kg are traveling in the same direction
with speeds of 150 km/h and 100 km/h respectively. The cars collide and after
impact they move off together.

a) Calculate the amount of kinetic energy lost during the collision.

b) What happens to this kinetic energy?
c) If the time of collision is increased how does this affect the safety of the
drivers?

K8 A 100 kg crate is dropped from a plane 1000 m above the ground. Due to the
parachute attached to the crate it hits the ground at only 1 m.s−1 . Calculate the
work done by the parachute against friction.

K9 An 800 kg car traveling at 15 m.s−1 down a 30o hill needs to stop within 100 m to
avoid an accident. Using energy calculations, determine the average braking force
needed over the 100 m.

K10 A block X with a mass of 4 kg is accelerated from rest by a constant force of 3 N

for 4 s. An identical block Y is accelerated from rest by a force of 3 N for 8 s.

Calculate the ratio of the kinetic energy of X to Y at the end of each acceleration
period.

31
 K11 A bullet with a mass of 60 g is shot horizontally at 800 m.s−1 into a stationary
wooden block 500 mm thick and with a mass 1,5 kg. (shown in diagram below)

The bullet passes through the block and emerges with a reduced velocity of
500 m.s-1 in the same direction as before.

Because of the impact the block slides 0,3 m along a rough horizontal
surface coming to rest.

1,5 kg 0,3m
60g

a) Calculate the velocity of the block immediately after the bullet emerges.
Ignore the friction between the block and the surface during the period of the
collision

b) If one were to consider the frictional force between the block and the surface,
during the collision period, how would this affect your answer in (a)?
c) Calculate the loss in kinetic energy due to the collision.

d) Calculate the force that the wood exerts on the bullet whilst the bullet moves
through the wood.
e) Calculate the frictional force which brings the block to rest.

K12 A stone is thrown up vertically into the air and falls back to the ground.Which
graph best represents the kinetic energy as a function of distance?

A B C
D

Ek Ek Ek
Ek

Distance Distance Distance Distance

K13 The momentum of an object which falls vertically, freely and from rest is 2 kg.m.s−1
after a time (t). Ignore air friction. After a time (2t) the momentum of the object will
be
A) 2kg.m.s−1 B) 4kg.m.s−1 C) 62kg.m.s−1 D) 42kg.m.s−1

32
PAST IEB EXAM QUESTIONS

IEB Nov 2015

A block of mass 10 kg is sliding along a uniform rough surface. The surface is horizontal
from A to B and inclined at 350 to the horizontal from B to C

The block is travelling at a speed of 12 m.s-1 as it passes A

5.1 Define the term kinetic energy [2]

5.2 Calculate the kinetic energy of the block as it passes A [3]

The frictional force acting on the block as it slides from A to B is 54,9 N

5.3 State the work-energy theorem [2]

5.4 Calculate the speed of the block v as it reaches B [4]

The block slides up the incline from B and comes to rest at C. The frictional force acting on
the block as it slides from B to C is 45,0 N

5.5 Write an expression for potential energy of the block at C, in terms of x (the distance
along the slope from B to C) [2]

5.6 Calculate the distance x, that the block slides up the slope before coming to rest at C
[5]
5.7 The frictional force experienced by the block on the inclined plane is less than the
frictional force experienced on the horizontal surface even though the surfaces are made of
the same material. Explain, by making use of a relevant equation. [3]

At point C, the block only just manages to remain at rest.

5.8 Draw a labelled free-body diagram of the block at rest at C [3]

5.9 Calculate the frictional force acting on the block at C [3]

5.10 Hence calculate the coefficient of static friction [3]

5.11 Explain why the frictional force calculated in 5.9 is greater than the frictional force of
45,0 N, acting while the block was sliding. [2]

33
IEB 2015 Supp exam

Railway carriage X, of mass 21 000 kg, crashes into the back of railway carriage Y which is
travelling in the same direction as X on a straight level track.
The graph shows how the velocity of each carriage varies with time

(ignore frictional forces between the carriages and the track during the collision.
Ignore air resistance)

5.1.1 Calculate the distance travelled by carriage Y between 1,0 s and 2,4 s. [4]

5.1.2 Calculate the magnitude of the change in momentum of carriage X between

1,0 s and 2,4 s [4]
5.1.3 Calculate the net force experienced by carriage X between 1,0 s and 2,4 s. [4]

5.1.4 Calculate the mass of carriage Y [4]

34
IEB Nov 2017

5.1 A box of mass 2 kg has an initial speed of v1. The box travels across a rough surface
and has a speed of 1,5 m.s-1 after it has travelled 0,7 m. The frictional force acting on
the box is 26 N

5.1.1 Define frictional force [2]

5.1.2 Calculate the kinetic energy of the box while it is travelling at 1,5 m.s-1 [3]

5.1.3 Calculate the work done on the box by the frictional force [3]

5.1.4 State the work-energy theorem [2]

5.1.5 Calculate the initial speed v1 of the box [4]

5.2 A 1,2 kg crate is attached to a long string as shown in the diagram. A block of mass
0,4 kg collides with the stationary crate with a velocity vb and rebounds with a
velocity of 0,36 m.s-1 causing the crate to swing up through a vertical height of
65 cm. (frictional forces are negligible)

5.2.1 State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy [2]

5.2.2 Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of the crate immediately after the
block collided with the crate. [4]

35
CHAPTER 2 – GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTRIC
FIELDS

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

● State Newton‘s Law of Universal Gravitation: Every particle in the

universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centres
● Use the equation for Newton‘s Law of Universal Gravitation to solve
problems
𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹= 𝐺 2
𝑟

● Define weight (𝐹𝑔) as the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any
object on or near its surface
● Describe a gravitational field as a region in space where a mass will
experience a force.
● Define gravitational field as the force acting per unit mass
● Solve problems using
𝐹
𝑔= 𝑚
Where F is the force experienced by mass m in a gravitational field g
● Know that gravitational field and acceleration due to gravity are
equivalent.
● Calculate the acceleration due to gravity using the equation:
𝑀𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑔= 𝐺 2
(𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡)

where M is the mass of the planetary body and R is the distance from its
centre

● Calculate the gravitational force on an object on other planets with

different values of gravitational acceleration.
● Distinguish between mass and weight
● Know that the unit of weight is the newton (N) and that of mass is the
kilogram (kg)

36
ELECTROSTATICS
Coulomb’s Law
● State Coulomb’s law in words as the force between two charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the distance between the charges squared
Know Coulomb’s law can be represented mathematically as
𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹= 2
𝑟

● Solve problems using Coulomb’s law

● Determine the resultant force (or net) on a charge for a system with a
maximum of three charges at the vertices of a right angled triangle.

Electric Fields
● Describe an electric field as a region of space in which an electric charge
experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the
direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point.
● Draw electric field lines for various configurations of charges (point
charges, two point charges, outside a charged hollow sphere, parallel
plates)
Define the magnitude of the electric field at a point as the force per unit
positive charge
𝐹
𝐸= 𝑞

o where E and F are vectors

𝐹
● Solve problems using 𝐸 = 𝑞
, where F is the force experienced by the
charge q in an electric field (no parallel plates)
● Calculate the electric field strength at a point due to a point charge,
using the equation
𝑘𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑟

o (Convention: 𝑄 represents the charge responsible for the electric field.

𝑞 represents the charge experiencing the electric field)
● Determine the resultant (or net) electric field (Enet) for a maximum of two
charges in one dimension or in two dimensions, restricted to charges at
the vertices of a right-angled triangle.

37
Introduction
Gravitational, electric and magnetic forces are long-range forces. No contact
is required for one mass to exert a force on another mass. No contact is
required for one charged particle to exert a force on another charged particle.

The concept of a field is used to explain action at a distance.

For example, consider the diagram of iron filings sprinkled around a magnet.

It can be seen that the influence of the magnet extends into the space around
it. The iron filings are affected by the magnetic field surrounding the magnet.

The concept of a field suggests that an object has an effect on the space
around it. Eg The space around a mass is altered by a gravitational field. The
space around a charged particle is altered by an electric field.

38
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton proposed that gravitational force is always attractive, and it depends
only on the masses involved and the distance between the masses.

Consider the following diagram

In particular, Newton realised that the force of attraction between two particles
is

● Directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles

● Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres

This understanding is expressed in Newton’s law of universal gravitation

where the magnitude of the gravitational force is given by the following
equation
𝐺𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹= 2
𝑟

Where 𝐹= gravitational force (N)

𝑚1 and 𝑚2= mass of each of the two particles (kg)

𝑟 = distance between the centres (m)

𝐺 = Gravitational constant
= 6,67x10-11 N.m2.kg-2

39
 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force,
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centres.

The value of 𝐺 was first determined experimentally by Lord Cavendish in 1798

and has since been refined by many others over the years.

Exercise 1:
a) Derive the units of the gravitational constant.

b) A sphere of mass 6 kg and another of mass 4 kg are placed so that

the distance between their centres is 200 mm. Calculate the force
of gravitational attraction between them.

c) The force of attraction between two masses is 4 N. If the one mass

is doubled, the other made four times greater, and the distance
between their centres is halved, what will the new force of attraction
be?

Gravitational Force and Weight

Weight (𝑤, 𝐹𝑔) is defined as the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any
object on or near its surface.

You have calculated the weight of an object on Earth many times by using the
expression
𝑤 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔

where
𝑚 = mass of the object (kg)
𝑔 = acceleartion due to gravity (m.s-2)

On the surface of the Earth, 𝑔 has a value of 9,8 m.s-2

The weight of an object on the surface of the Earth can also be calculated by
using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. However, the force obtained
must be the same for both equations.

40
Consider an object of mass 𝑚, on the surface of the Earth of mass 𝑀 and
radius 𝑅.

𝐺𝑚𝑀
Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation: 𝐹𝑔 = 2
𝑅

Newton’s second law: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔

𝐺𝑚𝑀
Hence 𝑚𝑔 = 2
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
So 𝑔= 2
𝑅
Note: The acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass of the
object.

Exercise 2:
Calculate the value of g for any object on the surface of the Earth. The mass
of the Earth is 6,0 x 1024 kg and the radius of the Earth is 6,4 x 106 m.

In fact the expression that we have just derived for 𝑔 can be used to calculate
the acceleration of gravity for any planet or any distance from a planet.

Exercise 3:
While on the Earth’s surface an astronaut has a weight of 800 N. What is his
weight at a height above the earth’s surface equal to

(a) the Earth’s radius, R?

(b) five times the Earth’s radius, R?

41
Gravitational Field (𝑔)

The acceleration due to gravity (𝑔) is also known as the gravitational field
strength and is defined as the force acting per unit mass on an object
placed in a gravitational field.

The direction of the gravitational field is given by the direction in which any
small test mass will experience a gravitational force.

Notice that the field lines

● are perpendicular to the surface
● do not cross
● point towards the centre of the mass
● are closer together the closer they are to the mass

Mass and Weight

Mass and weight are two very different concepts and must not be confused

Mass Weight

The amount of matter in an The force of attraction acting on

object an object

Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Unit: kilogram (kg) Unit: newton (N)

Constant throughout the Varies depending on position

universe

42
Past IEB question on Gravitational fields
Nov 2018

An astronaut on a planet wants to determine the acceleration due to gravity.

The astronaut has a number of different masses available and determines the
weight of each mass. He records the following measurements :

6.1 Distinguish between mass and weight [4]

6.2 Plot a graph of weight (on the y axis) vs mass (on the x axis) [6]

6.3 Calculate the gradient of your graph. Show the values you use on your
graph and include the appropriate unit with your answer. [4]
6.4 Hence, determine the acceleration due to gravity on the planet [3]

Use the table of ‘g’ values below to answer the questions that follow.

6.5 Which planet is the astronaut on? [2]

6.6 The radius of Pluto is 1,19 x106 m. Determine the mass of Pluto [4]

43
Electrostatics

● There are two types of charge, positive and negative.

● Neutral or uncharged objects have an equal number of positive and

negative charges.

● Objects can be charged by the transfer of electrons. Negatively charged

objects have an excess of electrons, while a positively charged object has
a deficiency of electrons.

● Charges exert forces on each other. Like charges repel, unlike charges
attract.

● An electroscope is an instrument that may be used to detect the charge

on an object.

● Conductors are materials through which charge is able to move.

Insulators are materials which do not allow charge to move.

● Charge is measured in coulombs (C). A total of 6,25 x 1018 electrons are

needed to make a charge of one coulomb. The charge on an electron is
1,6 x 10-19 C.

Conservation of Charge

Charge is neither created nor destroyed. Charge can be transferred from one
object to another, but the total amount of charge remains constant.

When identical objects which are conductors are touched together any charge
before touching is shared equally.

Exercise 4:
1) A plastic rod is charged to - 6 nC.
a. Have electrons been added or have protons been removed from
the rod?
b. How many electrons were removed or added?

2) A glass rod that has a charge of +15 mC briefly touches an insulated

metal sphere. After touching, the glass rod has a charge of + 9 mC.
a. Discuss the movement of charge that occured between the glass
rod and the metal sphere.
b. How many charged particles were transferred?

3) Two identical charged spheres are given charges of + 8 nC and – 5 nC.

They are briefly touched together and then separated. Determine the
amount of charge on each sphere after touching.

44
Coulomb’s Law

The force between two point charges is determined by Coulomb’s Law.

Coulomb’s Law states:

The force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of

the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between the
charges squared.

Following Coulomb’s Law, it is possible to calculate the force between two

point charges using the expression
𝑘𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹= 2
𝑟

Where 𝐹 = electrostatic force (N)

𝑞1 and 𝑞2 = magnitudes of each charge (C)

𝑟 = distance between the centres (m)

𝑘 = Coulomb’s constant
= 9 x 109 N.m2.C-2

Coulomb’s Law is only valid for point charges. However, the law also works
for two charged spheres. Charged spheres can be treated as point charges
with all the charge acting at the centre of the spheres if the spheres are small
compared to the distances between them..

Remember:

● Forces are vector quantities. Direction must be included in the

answer.

● Forces due to electric charges can be added as vectors to determine

a resultant force.

Note: A coulomb is a large quantity of charge. In problems, we will often deal

with much smaller charges. In particular

1 millicoulomb = 1 mC = 1 x 10-3 C

1 microcoulomb = 1 µC = 1 x 10-6 C

1 nanocoulomb = 1 nC = 1 x 10-9 C

1 picocoulomb = 1 pC = 1 x 10-12 C

45
Exercise 5:

1. Two pith balls have charges of + 2nC and – 6 nC. Calculate the force
between them when the pith balls are 4 mm apart.

2. Calculate the force between a lithium nucleus and an electron at a

radius of 4 x 10-13 m.

3. Two alpha particles are separated by a distance of 3 x 10-9 m.

a. Calculate the force between these particles.

b. If the alpha particles were replaced by electrons, describe how

the force between the particles would change.

4. Three point charges are in a straight line. Their charges are q1 = +2 ×

10−9 C, q2 = +1 × 10−9 C and q3 = −3 × 10−9 C. The distance between q1
and q2 is 2 × 10−2 m and the distance between q2 and q3 is 4 × 10−2 m.
What is the net electrostatic force on q2 due to the other two charges?

5. Two 5,0 g point charges are charged equally, q, and suspended on two
long threads and repel each other as shown in the diagram. Each of
the threads is 1.0 m long.

Calculate the charge q.

6. Three point charges are placed in the corners of a right-angled triangle

as shown in the diagram. Calculate the magnitude and direction on the
resulting force on the - 4 mC charge.

46
Electric Fields

Any charged object (source charge Q) alters the space around it by creating
an electric field. Any charged object (q) placed in the field experiences a force
exerted by the field.

An electric field is described as a region of space in which an electric charge

experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction
that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point.

We can represent the strength and direction of an electric field at a point using
electric field lines.

At every point around the charge +Q, the positive test charge, +q, will
experience a force pushing it away.

The following electric field patterns exist around the charges shown.

Electric field due to a Electric field due to a

Positive charge negative charge

We use the following conventions when drawing electric field lines:

● Arrows on the field lines indicate the direction of the field, i.e. the direction
in which a positive test charge would move if placed in the field.

● Electric field lines point away from positive charges (like charges repel)
and towards negative charges (unlike charges attract).

● Field lines are drawn closer together where the field is stronger.

● Field lines do not touch or cross each other.

● Field lines are drawn perpendicular to a charge or charged surface.

● The greater the magnitude of the charge, the stronger its electric field. We
represent this by drawing more field lines around the greater charge than
for charges with smaller magnitudes.

47
Remember field lines are simply a representation of the electric field. An
electric field actually exists in three dimensions, not only in two dimensions as
we have drawn them.

Electric field lines can also be drawn around a combination of charges.

Electric field around two unlike charges

Electric field around two positive charges

Exercise 6:
1. Draw the electric field outside a charged hollow sphere

2. Draw the electric field between parallel plates.

48
The electric field at a point can be calculated by making use of the definition.

The magnitude of the electric field at a point is the force per unit positive
charge.
𝐹
𝐸= 𝑞

Where 𝐸 = electric field (N.C-1)

𝐹 = Force on charge 𝑞 (N)

𝑞 = magnitude of charge in the field (C)

We can solve problems using this equation.

Exercise 7:
1. A positive charge of magnitude 42 μC experiences a force of 0,021
N at a point in the electric field. What is the magnitude of the
electric field intensity at that point?

2. What force will be exerted on a charge of +1,0 pC placed at a point

in a radial electric field where the electric field intensity is 432 N.C-1
outwards?

3. A charge 𝑄 and a charge 𝑞 are placed a distance 𝑟 apart.

a. Write down an expression for the force experienced by 𝑞 in

the electric field of 𝑄

b. Hence, write down an expression for the electric field a

distance 𝑟 from 𝑄.

4. Two point charges of +10 nC and - 60 nC respectively are

separated by a distance of 20 cm.

a. Determine the direction and magnitude of the electric field at

a point P which is between the two point charges and 4 cm
from the positive charge.

b. If an electron with a mass of 9,1 x 10-31 kg is placed at rest at

P, calculate its initial acceleration.

49
 Past IEB question on Electrostatic fields
2017 Supplementary exam

50
GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS - Key Examples

K1 When the planet Jupiter is furthest from the Earth it is 9,28 × 108 km
away. Jupiter has a mass of 1,9 × 1027 kg, what is the magnitude of the
gravitational force between Jupiter and the Earth?
(Mass of the Earth = 6x1024 kg)

K2 Mankind has sent many different spacecraft to Mars.

a) The mass of Mars is 6,4 × 1023 kg and it has a radius of
3,4 × 106 m. Calculate the weight of the 10 kg solar powered
robot on mars.

b) What is the acceleration due to gravity on Mars?

K3 The planet Saturn is 90 times more massive and has a diameter 10

times greater than that of the Earth. Calculate the acceleration due to
gravity on Saturn.

K4 The acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface is 9,8 m.s-2.

Calculate the acceleration due to gravity on a planet that has twice the
mass and double the radius of Earth.

K5 Do astronauts in the International Space Station experience gravity?

Explain.

K6 An astronaut weighs 720 N on Earth. Calculate the force due to gravity

acting on him when he is in orbit around the Earth at a height of 1,5
Earth radii above the Earth’s surface.

K7 Apollo 11 was the first manned spaceship to travel to and land

on the moon. The Earth has a mass of 6,0 ×× 1024 kg while the
Moon has a mass of 7,3 × 1022 kg. The distance from the centre
of the Earth to the centre of the Moon is 3,8 ×× 108 m.
At some position between the Earth and the Moon, Apollo 11
would have experienced a resultant force of zero.
(a) Explain how this is possible.
(b) Calculate the distance from the Earth when the resultant
force on the spacecraft is zero.

K8 Two small spheres of mass 4,0 kg and 𝑀 kg are held at a

distance of 80 cm from each other. The gravitational field
strength is zero at a point 20 cm from the 4 kg mass along the
line between the two masses. Calculate the value of 𝑀.

51
ELECTRIC FIELDS - Key Examples

K9 Two small identical metal spheres, on insulated stands, carry charges −

𝑞 and +3𝑞 respectively. When the centres of the spheres are separated
by a distance 𝑑, the one exerts an electrostatic force of magnitude F on
the other.

The spheres are now made to touch each other and are then brought
back to the same distance d apart. What will be the magnitude of the
electrostatic force which one sphere now exerts on the other?
A 1/4F
B 1/3F
C 1/2F
D 3F

K10 A force of repulsion of 400 N is experienced by two point charges of

magnitude 5 µC and 8 µC.
a. Calculate the distance between the charges.
b. What does a repulsive force tell you about the charges?

K11 Calculate the distance between two charges of +4 nC and −3 nC if the

electrostatic force between them is 0,005 N.

K12 Two point charges are brought closer together, increasing the force
between them by a factor of 25. By what factor was their separation
decreased?

K13 For the charge configuration shown, calculate the charge on Q3 if the
resultant force on Q2 is 6,3 × 10−1 N to the right.
Q1 = 4,36 × 10−6 C
Q2 = −7 × 10−7 C
r1 = 1,85 × 10−1 m
r2 = 4,7 × 10−2 m

52
K14 Calculate the resultant force on 𝑄1 given this charge configuration:

K15 Two identical graphite-coated polystyrene spheres A and B each

weighing 2 x 10−5 kg are placed in a test tube. The spheres are then
charged with identical positive charges. Spheres A and B repel and B
then comes to rest 3 cm above A as shown in the diagram. Ignore the
effects of friction.

a) Draw a force diagram of B.

b) Calculate the magnitude of the charge on each sphere.

K16 Two oppositely charged pith balls are placed 10 mm apart on a

horizontal, frictionless surface as shown in the diagram.

a) How does the force exerted on A compare with the force exerted
on B? Explain.
b) Determine the magnitude of the attractive force acting on sphere
A.
c) Determine the acceleration of A given that the balls each have a
mass of 0,2g.

K17 Three identical spheres A, B, and C are given charges of 8 nC, -2 nC

and +2 nC respectively as shown in the diagram.

53
 Spheres A and B are placed 10 mm apart. How far apart must B and C
be for B to remain stationery?
K18 K and L are two identical positively charged small spheres with a mass
of 5g. K is mounted on an insulated stand and L hangs from a light
silk thread. The system is in equilibrium. L hangs at 30° to the vertical.
K and L are 20 mm apart in the same horizontal plane. See the
diagram.

a) Draw a force diagram for sphere L showing and labeling all the
forces acting on it.
b) Show your calculations to prove that the repulsive force of
sphere K on sphere L is 0,0283N.
c) Calculate the magnitude of the positive charge on each of the
two spheres K and L.

K19 A charge of 30 mC is at a point in a field where the field strength is

3×107 N.C-1. Calculate the magnitude of the force that is exerted on the
charge.

54
CHAPTER 3 - ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electromagnetism

● State that a magnetic field exists around a permanent magnet or a

current carrying conductor
● Draw the magnetic field lines and determine the direction of the
magnetic field associated with:
A straight current carrying conductor
A current carrying loop (single) coil of wire
A solenoid
● State that a force might act on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field
● Determine the direction of the force acting on a current carrying
conductor when the current carrying conductor is perpendicular to the
magnetic field
● Qualitatively explain the factors that affect the magnitude of the force
on a current-carrying conductor using the equation:

where B is the strength of the magnetic field, I is the strength of the

current, l is the length of the conductor experiencing the magnetic field
and Ө is the angle between the current and the magnetic field. (NO
calculations required)

Direct Current Motors

● State that motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy

● Explain why a current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field will turn
by referring to the forces exerted on the sides of the coil perpendicular
to the field
● Given a diagram of a direct current (d.c.) motor, explain the basic
principles of operation including why a d.c. motor has a split ring
commutator

● Determine the direction of rotation of a current carrying coil in a

magnetic field

55
Electromagnetism
1. Introduction
Electromagnetism describes the interaction between moving charges,
currents, electric and magnetic fields. Magnetic fields exist around magnets
as well as around current carrying conductors.

2. Magnetic Field around a Magnet

We know that a magnetic field exists around a magnet. The area around a bar
magnet will exert a force on certain types of metals. The magnetic field is the
region where a second magnetic pole will experience a force. We also know
that

Like poles Repel

Unlike poles attract

Common metals that are not magnetic include copper and aluminum. The
theory of magnetism explains that the origin of a metal’s magnetic
properties is due to its unpaired electrons. The electron has magnetic
properties due to its “spin”. When metals become magnetised, many of the
unpaired electrons within the metal align in a preferred direction. Metals
which are used to produce permanent magnets are referred to as hard
ferromagnetic materials. Metals which become temporarily magnetised
near a permanent magnet but lose it when removed from the field are
known as soft ferromagentic materials.

The needle of a magnetic compass is in fact a freely moving permanent

magnet which interacts with the magnetic field of the earth. The point
which comes to rest pointing towards the north pole of the earth is referred
to as the north-seeking pole. The other is referred to the south-seeking
pole. Some magnets used to be labeled with the symbols NS
(north-seeking) and SS (south-seeking) but now they are commonly labeled
just N (north) or painted red and S (south) or painted blue. As a result of
this simplification in the naming some confusion can result. It is important
to realise that the magnetic polarity of the earth’s north is opposite to the
magnetic polarity of the north pole of a bar magnet.

We can use iron filings around a magnet to help us visualise the magnetic
field as the iron filings line up in the direction of the field lines. The magnetic
field which is invisible is represented on paper using field lines.

56
A magnet placed anywhere on a field line, aligns with the line of its north
pole in the direction of the line. These field lines:

● are often drawn to start at north pole and end at the south
pole, but actually form closed loops as shown in the diagrams
below
● never cross
● are drawn closer together to represent strong fields

The diagram below represents the magnetic field between two like poles.
The fields oppose each other and cancel forming a neutral point at y.

Diagram available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/science/physics/magnetism
_2.shtml Accessed on 12/12/2008

Exercise 1:

a) Draw the field lines between the north pole of one magnet and the
south pole of a second magnet.

b) Draw the field lines between the poles of a horse shoe magnet.
Compare this diagram to your sketch in (a).

57
3. Magnetic field around an electric current in a straight
conductor

Electric currents are known to produce magnetic fields and these fields can
be investigated by placing a compass around the conductor. The size and
shape of the field depends on the shape of the conductor and the
magnitude of the current passing through the conductor. The diagram
below represents the magnetic field (B) around a straight current carrying
conductor with the conventional current labeled (I).

Diagram modified from: http://www.markallen.com/teaching/ucsd/147a/lectures/lecture2/2.php

Accessed on 13/12/2008

The direction of the magnetic field may be predicted using the

right-hand wire rule

58
 Note: The following notation is used when diagrams indicate current
flowing into or out of the page.

Diagram available at:

http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/Electricity%20-%20Basic
%20Navy%20Training%20Courses/electricity%20-%20basic%20nav
y%20training%20courses%20-%20chapter%2012.htm. Accessed
on 13/12/2008

Exercise 2:

a) Consider the diagrams below and predict, using the right-hand rule,
the direction of the magnetic field associated with the current.

i) ii)

b) Consider the diagrams below and predict, using the right hand rule,
the direction of the current that produces the magnetic field
represented in the diagrams below.

59
4. Magnetic field around an electric current in a coil
A single current carrying coil of wire has a magnetic field, shown
below, which is similar to that of a bar magnet.

Available at: http://physicsed.buffalostate.edu/SeatExpts/resource/rhr/rhr.htm

Accessed on 14/12/2008

When many coils are wound in an elongated cylindrical way, the term
solenoid is used to describe the coil. The field around the solenoid is
almost identical to that of a bar magnet, except that the region of uniform
magnetic field inside the coil can be investigated simply by using a
compass.

Figure 1

Figure 2

60
Figure 1 available at:
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/
Physics/CoilField.htm

Figure 2 available at:

http://www.lanl.gov/news/index.php/fuseaction/1663.article/d/20
0805/id/13276

The right-hand wire rule can be used to establish the magnetic field around
any part of the coil and then the net magnetic field can be determined by
combining overlapping fields. Alternatively, the right-hand solenoid rule can
be used.

The diagram below represents the use of the right-hand solenoid rule.

Available at :
http://sciencecity.oupchina.com.hk/npaw/student/glossary/right_hand_grip_r
ule.htm Accessed on 14/12/2008

When a soft ferromagnetic material is placed in the core of a solenoid then

an electromagnet is produced. The ferromagnetic material is the core of the
electromagnet.

The copper wire used for a solenoid is always insulated, generally with a
transparent “varnish” like layer. No current passes through the central core
of the electromagnet. When current flows through the coil, the magnetic
field produced by the current causes the magnetic domains within the core
to align as represented in the diagram below. The use of a core can
increase the strength of the magnetic field by as much as 1000 times.

61
 Available at : http://129.128.241.207/carismaweb/content/view/72/1/ accessed on 14/12/2008

Exercise 3
a) Draw the magnetic field lines for two current carrying conductors
which are placed parallel and have current in the same directions.

b) Suggest factors that would affect the strength of an electromagnet,

and then design an experiment which could be used to establish the
relationship between one of the factors and the strength of the
electromagnet.

5. Magnetic field Strength (Magnetic flux density)

The size of an electromagnetic force can be investigated using a simple
electronic scale and a horseshoe magnet as shown below.

The larger the current the larger the force experienced. The stronger the
magnetic field the larger the force experienced. By using magnets of
similar strengths but different lengths it can be established that the force is
also proportional to the length (𝐿) of the wire in the magnetic field. Finally,

62
by varying the angle θ of the wire and the direction of the magnetic field, the
force can be found to be proportional to 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ. θ is the angle between the
direction of current and the direction of magnetic field. In the diagram above
the wire is positioned at 900 to the magnetic field and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900 = 1.

The following equation can be derived where B is a constant dependent on

the strength of the magnet.

𝐹 = 𝐵(𝐼)𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

The equation is used as a defining equation for magnetic field strength. For
a long straight conductor at 90o to the magnetic field, carrying 1 ampere of
current the magnetic field strength is equal to the force per unit length of the
conductor within the magnetic field.

The strength of a magnetic field, symbol B, is measured in units called

tesla, symbol T.

“One Tesla is the uniform magnetic flux density which, acting normally to a
long straight wire carrying a current of 1 ampere, causes a force per unit
length of 1 N.m-1 on the conductor.” (Mee, Crundell, Arnold & Brown,
2008:323)

Exercise 4
The horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic flux density is 1,8 × 10−5
T. Calculate the force per unit length on an electrical cable carrying a
current of 30 A when placed perpendicularly to the horizontal component of
the magnetic field.

63
6. The Motor Effect
When two bar magnets are pushed together they can exert a force on each
other. In a similar way, when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, then the magnet and the conductor exert a force on each
other. The magnetic field produced by the current interacts with the
magnetic field of the magnet. This effect is known as the motor effect.

Exercise 5
a) In the diagram below, use blue to fill in the magnetic field lines due to
the magnet, green to fill in the magnetic field lines due to the current
in the wire. Use red to indicate the force experienced by the wire.

b) Do the magnets experience a

force? Explain.

The diagrams below are alternative ways of viewing the directions of

current, magnetic field and force.

Diagram available at:

http://www.boredofstudies.org/wiki/index.php?title=Motors_use_the_effect_
of_forces_on_current-carrying_conductors_in_magnetic_fields Accessed
on the 20/12/2008

64
Note that the conductor, in the diagrams above, crosses the magnetic field
lines at 90o. If the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field lines then no
force is experienced.

The direction of the force can be predicted using either the Fleming’s
left-hand motor rule or the right-hand vector rule.

Diagram 1 – Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/handrules/index.html
Accessed on 01/04/2009

Diagram 2 – The Right Hand Vector Rule

available at http://peri.me/?p=257 accessed on 01/04/2009

The right-hand vector rule can be used for both the motor effect and the
generator effect (discussed later). In the right-hand vector rule the four
fingers are straightened and pointed in the direction of the input. The hand
is rotated so that the palm faces south. Alternatively, the fingers can be

65
bent to show the direction of the magnetic field. The thumb predicts the
output.

● For the motor effect the input is current and the output of the
motor is force.
● For the generator (discussed later) the input is force and the
output is current.

7. The Electric Motor

An electric motor uses the motor effect and is used to convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

Label and annotate the diagrams which follow to describe how the electric
motor works. These diagrams are available at
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/results.php accessed on the 02/05/2009

66
67
ELECTROMAGNETISM – Key Examples and past IEB questions

K1 The two wires below are in a uniform magnetic field of 0,4 T. Both
wires are 0,50 m long and carry a current of 2,0A

a b

a. Calculate the size of the force in:

i. wire (a) which is at 90o to the field.
ii. wire (b) which is at 45o to the field.

b. In which direction would the wires experience a force in the

diagrams above?

K2 The diagram shows a wire carrying a current, I, in the plane of the

paper and in the north direction. A field is applied perpendicularly out
of the paper. What is the direction of the force acting on the wire?

A north
B south
C east
D west

K3 The diagram shows a magnet placed on a top-pan balance. A fixed

horizontal wire, through which a current can flow, passes centrally
through the magnetic field parallel to the pole-pieces. With no current
flowing, the balance records a mass of 101,32g. When a current of
4,0A flows, the reading on the balance is 102,86 g.

a. Explain why the reading on the balance increased when the current
was switched on.
b. State the direction of current flow and explain your answer.

c. If the length of the wire in the magnetic field is 50 mm, estimate the
flux density of the magnetic field.

68
K4 The diagram shows a simple direct-current electric motor.

a. What energy conversion is taking place in the coil? (2)

b. Will the coil rotate in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction? (2)

c. Name component X and explain why it is necessary. (3)

d. The turning force acting on the rotor varies between zero and a
maximum.

i. In what position does the rotor experience a zero turning

force? Give a reason for your answer.
(2)
ii. State two factors that would affect the magnitude of the
turning force and describe how each factor could
increase the turning force.
(4)

K5 The diagram shows a simple direct current electric motor.

To which terminal of the power source (positive or negative) is the

brush labelled X connected if the coil rotates in a clockwise direction?

69
K6 Which one of the following will NOT increase the torque (turning force)
of an electric motor?
A Using bigger brushes
B Using stronger magnets
C Increasing the number of coils
D Passing a stronger current through the coils

K7 Figure 1 shows a simple d.c. motor. The armature is made of a

rectangular coil of length 5,0 cm and a width of 2 cm and has 25 turns
of wire. The magnet produces a uniform field with a magnetic flux
density of 0.30T. The coil carries a current of 2,2 A.

Figure 1

a. Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted on side AB of

the coil.
b. Will the coil rotate clockwise or anti-clockwise?
c. Explain why the rotor continues to rotate in this direction.
d. Figure 2 shows how the torque (turning force) of the coil
varies with time.

Figure 2

e. i. At what point does the coil experience the maximum torque.

Refer to the position as horizontal (as shown in the diagram), or
vertical or at an angle of 45o.

ii. Explain why there is a short period of time in which the coil has
no torque.

70
PAST IEB EXAM QUESTIONS

2019 Supplementary exam

The sketch below shows a simple motor

7.3.1 Describe the energy conversion that takes place in a dc. motor. [2]

7.3.2 Name the law used to predict the direction of rotation of the coil [1]

7.3.3 Predict whether the coil will rotate clockwise or anti-clockwise [2]

7.3.4 Name and state the function of part A, and describe briefly how it
achieves this function [4]

71
Chapter 4 - ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic Induction

● Know that magnetic flux density (𝐵) is a representation of the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field (magnetic field strength)
● Know that for a loop of area (𝐴) in the presence of a uniform magnetic flux
density (𝐵), the magnetic flux (Φ) passing through the loop is defined as
Φ = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ where θ is the angle between the magnetic flux density (𝐵) and
the normal to the loop of the area (𝐴). No calculations required
● Define magnetic flux linkage as the product of the number of turns on the
coil and the flux through the coil (𝑁Φ)
● Infer from appropriate experiments on electromagnetic induction:
o That changing magnetic flux can induce an emf in a circuit
o That the direction of the induced emf opposes the change producing it
o The factors affecting the magnitude of the induced emf
● State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: the emf induced is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage)
● State Lenz’s law: the induced current flows in a direction so as to set up
a magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic flux
● Apply Lenz’s law qualitatively (eg. For relative motion of magnets and coils,
generators and transformers)
● Explain simple applications of electromagnetic induction (eg. The induced
current and its direction when a magnet is passed through a coil)
● Draw and interpret graphs of magnetic flux vs time (eg. for an AC generator,
indicating how the position of the coil relative to the magnetic field relates to
the magnitude of the flux)
● When given a magnetic flux vs time graph, sketch the corresponding induced
emf vs time graph (and vice versa)

Alternating Current Generators and Transformers

● State that generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy

● Use the equation
𝑁∆ϕ
𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− ∆𝑡

for Faraday’s law to explain qualitatively the operation of generators and

transformers. (No calculations required)
● State with reasons which factors affect the emf induced
● Determine the direction of the induced current in a rotating coil of a AC
generator
● Given a diagram, explain the basic principle of an a.c. generator
(alternator) in which a coil is mechanically rotated in a magnetic field
● State that an a.c. generator has slip rings

72
● Show an understanding of the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored
transformer
● State that for an ideal transformer, input power is equal to output power
● For an ideal transformer, solve problems using
𝑉𝑝𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠

and
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝑁𝑃
= 𝑉𝑃

Alternating Current

● Discuss the scientific and economic advantages of high voltages and low
currents for the transmission of electrical energy through the national grid
● Draw a graph of potential difference vs time and current vs time for an
alternating current (a.c.) circuit and recognize that these graphs are
sinusoidal
● Relate the potential difference vs time graph to the emf produced by an a.c.
generator (eg indicate how the position of the coil relative to the magnetic
field relates to the magnitude of the emf)
● Define a diode as a component that only allows current to flow in one
direction
● Distinguish graphically between half-wave and full-wave rectification
● Explain how a single diode is used for the half-wave rectification of an
alternating current
● Given a circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier, explain how four diodes are
used for the full-wave rectification of an alternating current

73
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Introduction
In the last section we learnt that a current can cause a magnetic field. Michael
Faraday wondered if a magnetic field can cause a current. Experimentation
clearly shows that the answer is yes.

Visit https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/faraday and move the magnet in

and out of the coil. As long as the magnet or the coil are moving relative to
each other, the globe lights up.

2. Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Linkage

In the last section, we dealt with magnetic field strength (𝐵). Experiments
similar to the one in the animation above lead scientists to define a crucial
quantity called magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux Φ can be considered as a way of counting the total magnetic

field through an area.

Magnetic flux Φ is related to the magnetic field and the area over which the
field exists. Magnetic flux can be considered as the total number of
magnetic field lines through an area.

For a loop of area (𝐴) in the presence of a uniform magnetic flux density (𝐵),
the magnetic flux (Φ) passing through the loop is defined as
Φ = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

Where θ is the angle between the magnetic flux density (𝐵) and the normal to
the loop of the area (𝐴).

74
The unit of the magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).

Note:
● only the component of the magnetic field strength along the normal to
the area is counted
● 𝐵 is now called the magnetic flux density. It is the same quantity we
called magnetic field strength in the last section.

Consider a loop of 𝑁 coils each with an area 𝐴. The diagram below illustrates
how the flux through the coil changes as the coil is rotated in a magnetic field.

When there is more than one loop on the coil, we define magnetic flux
linkage as the product of the number of turns on the coil and the flux through
the coil ( 𝑁Φ).

75
Exercise 1
The uniform magnetic field strength (magnetic flux density) between the two
poles of a horse-shoe magnet is 0,7 T. A coil with a cross-sectional area of 6
cm2 has 200 turns and is placed with its face (plane) normal to the magnetic
field.

a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil.

b) Calculate the magnetic flux linkage of the coil.

c) Explain how it is possible for the magnetic flux to be zero when the
magnetic field is not zero.

3. Electromagnetic Induction
In class, we observed a magnet being moved in and out of a solenoid as
illustrated.

In this experiment, we noticed

● movement of a magnet relative to a coil produced an emf
● The direction of the current was dependent on whether the north pole
or the south pole was entering or leaving the coil
● The greater the speed of the movement, the greater the emf induced
● Emf was zero when there was no motion
● The greater the area of the coil, the greater the emf
● The greater the number of coils, the greater the emf
● The greater the strength of the magnet, the greater the emf

Faraday conducted similar experiments to this, and was able to combine all
the observations in a law.

76
4. Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states: The emf induced is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage).

Faraday’s law can be written as

𝑁∆Φ
𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− ∆𝑡

The minus sign in Faraday’s law is important. The minus sign means that the
emf induced can create a current and a magnetic field to oppose the changing
flux.

Lenz’s Law states: The induced current flows in a direction so as to set up a

magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic flux.

We use Lenz’s law and the right hand vector rule to predict the direction of the
induced current.

As the north pole of the magnet approaches the coil, the magnetic flux
through the coil increases. By Faraday’s law, an emf is induced in the coil as
there is change in flux. By Lenz’s law, the current will be in such a direction to
create an opposing magnetic field. Using the right hand vector rule, we can
conclude that the induced current is clockwise in the coil shown.

There is an alternative way to decide the direction. If the north pole is

approaching the coil, the induced current will be in a direction to try and
oppose a north pole.

Exercise 2
A coil has 100 turns and a cross-sectional area of 3 cm2. The coil is placed
between the poles of a magnet with a magnetic flux density of 0,6 T. The coil
is rotated through 90o with its plane moving from a horizontal position to a

77
vertical position in 0,05 seconds. Calculate the induced emf in the coil as a
result of the rotation.

Exercise 3
a) Write out the mathematical expression for Faraday’s law and
identify each variable.
b) Hence explain what factors you would change and how you
would change them to increase the induced emf.

Exercise 4
In each of the diagrams, decide on the direction of the induced current.

There are many applications that make use of Faraday’s Law in everyday life.
It could be argued that modern society depends on being able to make use of
electromagnetic induction. We consider two applications, the generator and
the transformer.

5. Alternating Current (AC) Generators

Electric Generators induce an emf by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. A
generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

A coil of wire is rotated by mechanical means within a magnetic field. The

changing magnetic flux linkage in the coil induces an emf in the coil.

78
 In the
position
shown, the
magnetic
flux is a
maximum.

As the coil
rotates, the
magnetic
flux
decreases

In the
position
shown, the
flux through
the coil is
zero

As the coil
continues to
rotate, the
flux
increases in
the opposite
direction

By Faraday’s law,
𝑁∆Φ
𝑒𝑚𝑓 =− ∆𝑡

an emf is induced as the magnetic flux changes. Examining this expression,

we see that the emf is proportional to the slope of the flux vs time graph.

79
We can combine our knowledge of how the flux changes and Faraday’s law to
conclude that the emf will be a maximum when the flux is experiencing the
greatest change. Maximum emf occurs when the flux is zero.

As a summary, the diagrams below show the positions of the coil for different
induced emf values.

80
In the ac generator a slip-ring commutator is used. The part of the coil that
is drawn in black is fixed to the black ring. The part of the coil drawn in white
is fixed to the white ring. The rings “slip” past but are in contact with the same
brushes.

The alternating emf causes a current in the closed circuit. The coil is
connected to the circuit via brushes and a slip ring commutator. The layout of
a simple AC generator (alternator) is shown below in three alternative views.

The right-hand vector rule used earlier for the motor effect can also be used
for the generator. In the right-hand vector rule the four fingers are
straightened and pointed in the direction of the input. The hand is rotated
so that the palm faces south. The thumb predicts the output.

● For the motor effect the input is current and the output of the
motor is force.
● For the generator the input is force and the output is current.

For the generator, if you face your palm south and point your fingers in the
direction of the movement of an arm of the coil, your thumb indicates the
direction of the current in that arm of the coil.

81
6. DC Generators
A DC generator functions in the same way as an AC generator except that a
split-ring commutator is used. This ensures that although the current in the
loop changes direction, the current supplied by the DC generator to the
external circuit does not change direction.

Two representations
of a DC generator

The split-ring
commutator swaps sides at the same time that the current changes direction
in the coil. This means that the current in the external circuit does not change
direction.

Consider the following diagrams of the DC generator. Take note of the

position of the coil, the split-ring commutator and the induced emf in the coil.

82
As the induced emf is only positive, the current will only be in one direction.
The induced emf is still changing in magnitude, but there are ways of
smoothing the emf to have a more constant value.

A useful animation of both the AC generator and the DC generator can be

found at http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/generator_e.htm

7. Transformers
The function of a transformer is to change the voltage so that it suits the
needs of a particular application. A transformer is based on Faraday’s law of
induction. Two coils called the primary and secondary coils are wound on an
iron core. Normally the input voltage is connected to the primary coil and the
secondary coil produces the transformed output voltage.
Since the input voltage is AC, an AC current in the primary coil provides a
time varying magnetic flux. The secondary coil picks up this magnetic flux.
The secondary coil experiences a changing magnetic flux and so an emf is
induced in the secondary coil. The iron core traps the magnetic field created
by the primary core and its magnetization increases the field strength.

A step-up transformer is represented

in this diagram. The number of coils
on the secondary coil are greater than
the number of coils on the primary
coil

The output voltage 𝑉𝑠 depends almost entirely on the input voltage 𝑉𝑝 and the
ratio of the number of loops in the primary and secondary coils.

The transformer equation is written as

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
𝑉𝑝
= 𝑁𝑝

The output voltage of a transformer can be greater than, less than or equal to
the input voltage depending on ratio of the number of turns in their coils. A
step-up transformer is one that increases voltage, whereas a step-down
transformer decreases voltage.

We will assume that resistance in a transformer is negligible. In this case the

transformer is said to be an ideal transformer, as the power output equals its
power input. In practice, this is almost true - transformer efficiency often
exceeds 99%.

83
 In particular
𝑉𝑝𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠

This relationship shows that as the voltage increases, the current decreases
and vice versa.

Exercise 5
For an ideal transformer, the current in the primary coil is plotted as a function
of time. Complete the graphs showing the flux in the iron core and the emf in
the secondary coil.

84
Exercise 6
You need 12 V to run an electric train, but the power supply voltage is
220 V. What is the ratio of the number of turns on the primary coil to the
number of turns on the secondary coil of the transformer you are using?

Exercise 7
A portable x-ray unit has a step-up transformer; the 120 V input which is
transformed to the 100 kV output needed by the x-ray tube. The primary has
50 loops and draws a current of 10,00 A when in use.
a) What is the number of loops in the secondary?
b) Find the current output of the secondary.
c) Why does a transformer only work when supplied with ac current?

8. Alternating Current (AC)

Batteries produce DC current, which is electricity flowing in one direction only.

Electricity produced by AC generators constantly changes direction and is
therefore known as alternating current.

The output from an AC generator is an alternating potential difference that has

the following form:

The main advantage of using AC is that the potential difference can be

changed using transformers. This means that the voltage can be “stepped up”
at power stations to very high voltage so that electrical energy can be
transmitted along power lines at high voltage and low current and therefore
experience low energy loss due to heating.

85
 2
The power dissipated in a resistor is given by 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅, so the smaller the
current, the smaller the energy loss as electrical energy is transmitted through
the national grid. The voltage can then be “stepped down” for use in factories
and stepped down further for use in homes.

Other advantages of AC current include that it is easier to generate AC and it

is easier to convert from AC to DC

Exercise 8
Discuss both the scientific and economic advantages of high voltages and low
currents for the transmission of electrical energy through the national grid.

The current that is supplied to us as mains is a 220 V - 240 V, 50Hz AC. We

often require DC current. For example charging a battery. Alternating current
can be converted to direct current (ie rectified) by making use of diodes
connected in different ways.
A diode is defined as a component that only allows current to flow in one
direction. The following diagram shows a diode connected in two different
directions.

Notice the arrowhead in the diode symbol indicates the direction in which
current can flow through the diode.

Half-Wave Rectification

86
Looking at the above diagram, it can be seen that the diode only conducts
during half of the cycle which makes X positive. Although the alternating
supply is providing an AC potential difference, the output is only in one
direction.

Full-Wave Rectification

Full-wave rectification can be achieved by using four diodes in an

arrangement known as a bridge rectifier. When X is positive, B and D
conduct; when Y is positive, A and C conduct. This ensures that the current
always flows in the same direction through the load.

The potential difference

supplied has the form:

87
The potential difference across the load has the following form:

The advantage of full-wave rectification is that the load can draw current
from each half cycle and so the power that is available for the load is
double that with half-wave rectification.

88
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION – Key Examples

K1 For each of the actions below, indicate the direction of the induced
current in the loop. The magnet and loop center are in the same plane.

K2 For each of the actions below, indicate the direction of the induced
current in the left loop. The loops are parallel and their centers are
coplanar.

89
K3 For each of the actions below, indicate the direction of the induced
current through the resistor.

K4 A rectangular coil measuring 20 mm by 35 mm and having 650

turns is rotating about a horizontal axis which is at right angles to
–3
a uniform magnetic field of flux density 2,5 × 10 T. The plane of
the coil makes an angle θ with the vertical, as shown in the
diagrams.

a. State the value of θ when the magnetic flux through the coil is
a minimum.

b. Calculate the magnetic flux passing through the coil when θ is

30°.

90
K5 The diagrams below show 5 positions in the clockwise rotation of the
coil of a simple generator.

a. What is the energy conversion taking place in this generator? (1)

b. Determine the direction of the induced current in the coil in position B.
Give your answer as either clockwise or anticlockwise. (1)
c. Draw a sketch graph of emf vs. time for one full rotation of the coil.
Clearly mark positions A to E on your graph. (4)

John has made a simple generator similar to that shown in the sketch and he
decides to investigate the factors that influence the size of the induced emf.

d. Give 2 different variables that he could investigate and state how he

should change each of them in order to increase the induced emf. (4)

91
K6 The diagram shows a simple electricity generator. Rotating the loop
of wire causes a current that lights the lamp.

a. Indicate the direction of current in the wires by drawing arrowheads

in the blank boxes

b. State three ways in which the generator can be altered to increase

the current.

c. Sketch a current vs time graph for one complete rotation starting

from the position in the diagram, as shown above. Assume that
rotation is at a constant rate.

d. At a particular rotational position of the coil there is no induced

e.m.f. Describe the position of the coil when the induced e.m.f. is
zero. Use Faraday’s Law to help explain why the e.m.f. is zero at
this point.

e. State and explain how one would modify this generator to produce
direct current?

f. Briefly explain why Eskom prefers using AC instead of DC for the

long-distance transmission of electricity.

K7 The graph below shows how the alternating current produced by the
AC generator varies with time.

92
 a. How many rotations are made by the coil in 0,03 seconds? (1)

b. Calculate the frequency of the alternating current. (3)

c. Will the plane of the coil be PERPENDICULAR TO or

PARALLEL TO the magnetic field at t = 0,015 s? (2)

K8 A coil with 200 turns and an area of 50 cm2 is placed between the poles
of an electromagnet that produces a uniform magnetic flux density of
0,5 T. If the coil rotates at 50 Hz calculate the peak e.m.f.

K9 The diagram below shows the waveform obtained when the output of
the generator is connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope (a fancy
voltmeter that allows you to see the emf produced. The amplitude is
proportional to the voltage).

Which one of the following best represents the output when the
speed of rotation of the generator is doubled and no adjustment is
made to the oscilloscope?

93
K10 The diagram shows a magnet leaving a coil. The coil is connected to a
galvanometer.

Which one of the following correctly describes the polarity of the coil at
Z and the direction of the induced (conventional) current through the
galvanometer?

K11 A transformer, to be used in a low voltage power supply is

connected to the 240 V, 50Hz a.c. mains supply and gives an
output voltage of 12V. There are 1800 turns on the primary coil.

a. Calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil.

b. The output from the transformer is rectified by the use of a diode

in
series with the load. Sketch the output waveform, showing clearly
how the value of the voltage across the load changes with time.
Your sketch should include suitable time scales.

K12 An ideal iron-cored transformer is illustrated below

94
 Explain why:
a. the supply to the primary coil must be alternating current, not
direct current,
b. for constant input power, the output current must decrease if the
output voltage increases

K13 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction predicts that the induced

emf, E, in a coil is given by E = -N∆Ф
∆t
a. i. What quantity does the symbol Ф represent?
ii. State the SI unit for Ф

b. In Figure 1 the magnet forms the bob of a simple pendulum. The

magnet oscillates with a small amplitude along the axis of a 240
turn coil that has a cross-sectional area of 2.5 × 10-4 m2.

95
Figure 2 shows how the magnetic flux density, B, through the coil varies with
time, t, for one complete oscillation of the magnet. The magnetic flux density
through the coil can be assumed to be uniform any moment in time.

i. Calculate the maximum emf induced in the coil.

ii. Sketch on Figure 3 a graph to show how the induced emf in the
coil varies during the same time interval.

iii. The frequency of oscillation of the magnet is increased without

changing the amplitude. Explain why this increases the
maximum induced emf.

iv. State two other ways of increasing the maximum induced emf

PAST IEB EXAM QUESTIONS

2016 Supplementary exam

Two physics students decide to conduct an experiment to determine how the

magnitude of the induced emf in a homemade generator depends on the
number of loops that are wound on the coil in their generator.

The students set up an experiment similar to the generator in the diagram

below. They make sure that they turn the generator at the same rate for all of
their experiments.

96
The students’ results are reorded in the table below:

8.1 State the energy conversion that occurs in a generator [2]

8.2 State a hypothesis for the experiment [2]

8.3 Name the independent variable for the experiment [2]

8.4 Name one other variable, besides the rate of rotation, which the
students had to keep constant to ensure a fair test. [2]

8.5 Plot a graph of induced emf against number of loops in the coil [7]

8.6 Calculate the gradient of the graph [4]

8.7 Use your answer to question 8.6, your knowledge that

and that the equation y = m x + c describes a straight line – to

determine the rate of change of flux during the experiment. [2]

97
Nov 2018 exam

8.1 A current-carrying wire PQ is placed between the poles of two

permanent magnets as shown below.

8.1.1 On the diagram, sketch lines to show the direction of the

magnetic field due to the permanent magnets [2]

8.1.2 The force on the wire PQ is directed into the paper. Is the
current direction in the wire from P to Q or from Q to P? [2]

8.2 A rectangular conducting loop travels from left to right at a constant

velocity, v, through a magnetic field directed out of the page, as shown
in diagrams (a) to (e).

8.2.1 State Lenz’s Law [2]

8.2.2 During the motion described :

i. At what positions, (a) to (e) is current induced in the loop?

[2]
ii. If there is a current induced in the loop, state the direction
of the current as clockwise or anticlockwise. [2]

8.2.3 For diagram (c), briefly explain why there is, or why there is not,
a current induced in the loop. [2]

98
 CHAPTER 5 - ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Ohm’s Law

Define potential difference as the work done per unit positive charge
𝑊
𝑉 = 𝑞

Define current as the rate of flow of charge

𝑞
𝐼= 𝑡

● Determine the relationship between current and potential difference at

constant temperature
● State Ohm’s Law: Current through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the conductor at constant temperature
● Distinguish between Ohmic and non-Ohmic conductors
● Define resistance as a material’s opposition to the flow of electric current
● State that the unit of resistance is the ohm
Calculate the effective resistance of resistors in series using
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Calculate the effective resistance of resistors in parallel using

1 1 1
𝑅𝑇
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2

● Interpret circuit diagrams containing a source, switches, resistors, ammeters

and voltmeters
● Solve problems using the mathematical expression of Ohm’s Law
𝑉
𝑅 = 𝐼

for series and parallel circuits, limited to a maximum of three external resistors

Power and Energy

● Solve problems using electrical energy 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡

● State that electrical energy is measured in joules (J)
● Know that electrical power dissipated in a device is equal to the product of the
potential difference across the device and current flowing through it
2
2 𝑉
● Solve problems using 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 or 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 or 𝑃 = 𝑅
2
2 𝑉
● Solve problems using 𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = 𝑅
𝑡

99
● Know that the kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and that 1 kWh is the
amount of energy used when 1 kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour
● Perform calculations involving the cost of electricity usage given relevant
information such as the power specifications of the appliances used and the
cost per kWh.

Internal Resistance and Series and Parallel Networks

● Solve problems involving current, voltage and resistance for circuits

containing arrangements of resistors in series and in parallel for a maximum
of three external resistors
● State that a real battery has internal resistance
● Define emf as the total energy supplied per coulomb of charge by the
cell
● The sum of the voltages across the external circuit plus the voltage across
the internal resistance is equal to the emf:
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 or 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟
● Solve circuit problems in which the internal resistance of the battery must
be considered
● Solve circuit problems, with internal resistance, involving series-parallel
networks of resistors to a maximum of three external resistors

100
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

1. Introduction
a) What is electric charge?
An electron is a negatively charged particle and a proton is a positively
charged particle. Matter that contains an excess of electrons
possesses an overall negative charge. Matter that contains an equal
number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral. Like charges
repel and unlike charges attract.

b) What is the unit of electric charge?

The coulomb.

c) What is conventional current?

Conventional current is the flow of positive charge. It flows from the
positive side of the cell, through the circuit to the negative side of the
cell.

d) How is current measured?

The unit in which current (symbol, I) is measured is the ampere (A) and
is measured using an ammeter connected in series. An ammeter has a
very low resistance.

e) Why does charge flow?

If two points have different electric charges there is said to be a
potential difference (p.d.) between them. If the points are joined by an
electric conductor then charge will flow. The electric charges are
accelerated by an electric field within the conductor.

f) How is potential difference measured?

The unit in which potential difference (symbol, V) is measured is the
volt (V) and is measured using a voltmeter connected in parallel. A
voltmeter has a very high resistance.

g) What is the function of a cell in a circuit?

The cell is an energy supply. It performs the function of maintaining the
p.d. across the ends of the wire and hence an electric field within the
conductor.

h) Is energy created by the cell?

No, it is only transferred. The electric field does work on the charges.
The energy for the work done comes from the source of emf e.g.
Chemical energy from a cell or mechanical energy from a generator.

101
 2. Charge and Current
One coulomb is the amount of charge passing a cross-section of a
conductor in one second, when the current is one ampere.

The charge of an electron is -1,6 x 10-19 C therefore 6,2 x 1018 electrons are required
for one coulomb. When a wire conducts at a current of 1 A, 6,2 x 1018 electrons pass
a point in the wire each second.
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡

where 𝑄 = charge (C)

𝐼 = current (A)
𝑡 = time (s)

Equivalently, current is defined as the rate of flow of charge

𝑄
𝐼= 𝑡

3. Potential Difference
Potential difference is defined as the work done per unit positive charge.
𝑊
𝑉 = 𝑞

where 𝑉 = potential difference (V)

𝑊 = work done (J)
𝑞 = charge (C)

4. Ohm’s Law
Definition: The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the conductor at constant temperature.

The apparatus to show this relationship was set up as shown in the circuit
diagrams below:

102
The following results were obtained.

Nichrome Wire Eureka Wire

V (V) I (A) Resistanc V (V) I (A) Resistance
e
(Ω)
(Ω)

1,0 0,099 10,1 1,0 0,192 5,2

2,0 0,200 10,0 2,0 0,392 5,1

2,5 0,245 10,2 2,5 0,472 5,3

The graph of voltage vs current is plotted below:

At the same voltage Eureka wire produces more current. The steeper slope has
greater resistance. When V is plotted on the y axis and I is plotted on the x axis, the
slope of the graph is equivalent to the resistance.

When the resistance is constant for all values of current, the slope is constant and
the resistor is termed an Ohmic conductor. If the slope is not constant, the resistance
is not constant and the resistor is a non-Ohmic conductor.

Example 1:

103
Exercise 1: A filament lamp.
Resistance increases with increasing temperature due to increasing current.
Sketch a V vs I graph for a lamp filament

Factors Affecting Resistance:

Resistance depends upon the type of material, the length, the cross-sectional area
and the temperature of the resistor.

5. Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistance is a material’s opposition to the flow of electric current.

The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). A conductor has a resistance of one ohm if the
current is one ampere when a potential difference of one volt is maintained across its
ends.

The symbol for a resistor can be either a rectangle or a zig-zag line.

Resistors in series

● Current is the same through resistors in

series
● Potential difference is divided across
resistors in
series
● Effective resistance in series is calculated
using:

Resistors in parallel

● Current is divided by resistors in parallel

● Potential difference is the same across
resistors in

104
 parallel
● Effective resistance in parallel is calculated using:

Example to compare resistors in series and parallel

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
𝐼 = 3𝐴 𝑅𝑇
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2
= 2
+ 4
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 2 + 4
𝑅𝑇 = 1, 33 Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 6 Ω
Small amount of resistance
Large amount of resistance

𝑉𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 × 𝐼𝑇 = 6×3 = 18 𝑉 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 × 𝐼𝑇 = 1, 33×3 = 4 𝑉

An 18 V supply is required to maintain A 4 V supply is required to maintain a

a current of 3 A through the circuit. current of 3 A through the circuit.

Resistors in series are voltage Resistors in parallel are current dividers.

dividers.

Voltage equal across each resistor

Current (3 A) equal through each (V2=V3)
resistor
I2 = V/R = 4/2 = 2 A
V2 = RI = 2(3) = 6 V I3 = V/R = 4/4 = 1 A
V3 = RI = 4(3) = 12 V

Exercise 2
Calculate the total resistance of the following circuit:

105
Exercise 3
In the diagram below the current reading on A1 is 2 A. The potential difference
across the battery is 12 V.

a) Calculate the resistance of R3.

b) If R3 were removed from the circuit, calculate the new readings on each meter
within the circuit.

Exercise 4
Explain why the total resistance of the circuit is only 2 ohms.

Any of the circuit elements we have learnt about may be included in circuit diagrams
and calculations.

The following symbols should be known:

Electric Motor:

Diode:

106
 LED: or

6. Emf and Internal Resistance

A circuit needs a source of potential difference to drive charge in the circuit. The
function of a cell in a circuit is to maintain a potential difference between two points
so that charge can flow. The emf is defined as the total energy supplied per
coulomb of charge by the cell. The emf is the work done per unit charge within the
source of potential energy. The emf is the voltage measured across the cell when no
current is passing through the cell.

If a cell has internal resistance then the emf of a cell will not equal the voltage
supplied to the circuit by the cell. Some of work done per unit charge (emf) is “lost”
within the battery as each charge forces its way through the cell. The voltage
delivered by the cell is therefore less than the emf. All real cells have internal
resistance.

When working with circuits it is important to realise that the current within a circuit
changes depending on the resistance and voltage of the circuit. If resistors are
added or removed from a circuit then the current will be affected, the terminal voltage
will be affected, but the emf of the cells will be the same. Consider the circuit below
in which the cell has zero internal resistance.

107
Before switch S is closed A2 reads 1 A and A3 reads 0 A.

When switch S is closed the resistance of the circuit will decrease to half. The total
current will double as the driving force of current (emf) is unchanged. A2 will read 1
A and A3 will also read 1 A. The total current will increased to 2 A.

Exercise 5:
Three cells each having an emf = 1,5 V are connected in series with a 2,25 ohm
resistor and an ammeter. (Assume no internal resistance).

a) How much energy is transferred to each coulomb passing through the

battery?
b) What current flows through the ammeter?

The sum of the voltages across the external circuit plus the voltage across the
internal resistance is equal to the emf (ε).

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

All of these equations can be combined to write:

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟

NOTES:
a) The emf of a cell is the measured potential difference across its terminals
when no current is flowing in the circuit.
In the circuit diagram both V1
and V2 records the emf.

V1 = V2 = 2,85 V

108
V3 = 0 V
A=0A

b) The voltmeter reading across the cells with the switch closed is the voltage
which drives the charge through the external circuit and is not the emf.

In the circuit diagram both V1

and V3 records the external
voltage.

V1 = V3 = 2,1V
V2 = 0 V
A = 0,4 A

c) For the circuits in a) and b) the emf is 2,85 V while the potential difference
applied to the external circuit was 2,1 V. This mean that Vinternal resistance = 0,75 V.
This is the potential difference which drives the charge through the internal
resistance. Sometimes this is termed “lost volts”

Exercise 6:
For the circuit below the reading on A is 0,6A and each cell has an e.m.f. of 1,65V.

a) Calculate the internal resistance of each cell.

b) The same cells are now reconnected in parallel with each other.
Calculate the new reading on the ammeter.

c) What is the advantage of connecting cells in parallel?

109
Exercise 7:
A circuit is set up as shown in the diagram below. When switch S is closed the
reading on the voltmeter changes from 3,3 V to 2,4 V and the current changes from
1,1 A to 2,0 A.

a) Calculate the emf and internal resistance of each cell

b) How are the lost volts affected by the external resistance of a circuit?

Exercise 8:
For the circuit diagram given below, the ammeter reads 0,5 A and each cell has an
internal resistance of 2 Ω. Calculate the e.m.f. of each identical cell.

110
Experiment to determine the emf and the internal resistance of a cell

1. Connect the cell, ammeter and rheostat in series and the voltmeter
across the terminals of the cell.

2. Set the rheostat at its maximum value, close the circuit and record the
ammeter and voltmeter readings.

3. Vary the rheostat setting and take 6 sets of readings of ‘V’ and ‘I’ over
as wide a range as possible

Keep the circuit closed only for as long as necessary to take each
reading.

A. Plot a graph of current (x axis) against values of potential difference

across cell terminals (y axis)

B. A straight line is described as y = mx+c

Use your graph and REARRANGE the equation emf = V + I r to

allow you to identify what the intercept and the slope of your graph
represent.

C. Given that the emf is the voltmeter reading across the cell when
I = 0 A, use your graph to determine the emf of the cell.

D. Use your graph and your answer in B. to determine the internal

resistance of the cell.

E. Why was it necessary to open the circuit after each reading?

111
7. Energy and Power
Earlier, we defined the potential difference as the work done per unit positive
charge. We can use this definition to allow us to calculate the work done in a
resistor:
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞 but 𝑞 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 also 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
2
2 𝑉
𝑊 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 or 𝑊= 𝑅
t
Any one of the three equations may be used to determine the energy
dissipated in any electrical component.
2
2 𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅
𝑡

The unit of electrical energy is the joule (J)

Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑡

We can use the above equations for the work done in a resistor to write three
expressions that can be used to calculate the power dissipated in a device.
2
2 𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑅

The unit of power is the watt (W). 1 W = 1 J.s-1

Cost of electricity
We pay for electrical energy used in our homes and offices. The energy unit of
joules is a relatively small unit and so we are charged per an energy unit
called the kilowatt-hour (kWh). The kWh is a unit of energy which is a practical
unit for measuring the quantities of electrical energy that we use.

This kWh unit is obtained by expressing the power in kW and the time in
hours.

Exercise 9
A 60 W light globe burns for 6 hours each day of a 31 day month.
a) How many kilowatt-hours does this represent?
b) If the cost per kWh is 95 cents calculate the cost of the electricity
consumed by the 60 W globe in one month.

112
 Exercise 10
Calculate the energy dissipated by the globe in the following circuit, in a
period of 10 minutes. The cell has an emf of 2 V and an internal resistance of
1 Ω.

8. Brightness and the heating effect in resistors

The brightness of globes and heating effect on resistors is directly
proportional to the power. When comparing this effect at different points in a
circuit one of the 3 formulae on power need to be applied.

When solving problem relating to power:

a) For resistors in parallel a power formula with voltage should be used,

as voltage across each branch is the same.

b) For resistors in series a formula with current should be used, as current

is the same at all points in the series part of the circuit.

c) If the circuit is altered by opening and closing switches or by adding

branches, you must start all calculations again. This will affect the
external voltage, current and total resistance. The internal resistance,
resistance of individual resistors and the emf will remain unchanged.

Worked Example
Comparing the brightness of the two globes in each of the following circuits:

When in series the current through When in parallel the voltage across
each resistor is the same. each resistor is the same.
2 2
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 so power is directly 𝑃 = so power is inversely
𝑅
proportional to resistance. Hence proportional to resistance. Hence
more power dissipated in bigger more power dissipated in smaller
resistor. The 6 Ω globe is brighter. resistor. The 3 Ω globe is brighter.

113
Exercise 11:
All globes have a resistance of 2 Ω and the emf of the battery is 4,5 V.
(Ignore the effects of
internal resistance).

a) Compare the brightness of each globe.

b) The switch S is opened, how does the brightness of R1 compare with

the brightness of R3.

114
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS - Key Examples and past IEB exam questions

K1 The ammeters and the battery in the circuit shown have no internal resistance.
Calculate readings on the ammeters.
A1
2W
3W 6W

A2 A3

V = 6V

K2 Ammeter A1 in the circuit shown reads 1,25 A. The internal resistance of the
ammeter can be ignored.
A1
2W
3W 6W

A2 A3

e.m.f. = 6V

a) Determine the internal resistance of each cell.

b) Determine the reading of A2 and A3.

K3 For the circuit the voltage across R1 is measured as 20V and the voltage across R3
is measured as 8V. (assume negligible internal resistance)

A1
R1 = 10W
R2= R3
20W
A2 A3

V1

a) Calculate the value of R3.

b) Determine the reading of V1.

115
K4 Consider the following circuit diagram: The internal resistances of the ammeters
are very small, while the voltmeters have very large internal resistance. The emf of
the battery is 24 V, with an internal resistance (r) that CANNOT be ignored.
When switch (S) is closed, the readings on A1 and A2 are 2 A and 1,5 A
respectively.
E=24V

V1

A1

S
R1=12W
A22

R2 = 8W R3

V2

a) Determine the reading on V1 when S is closed.

b) What will the reading on V1 be if switch (S) is open? Briefly explain your
answer.
c) Calculate the internal resistance (r) of the battery.
d) What will the reading on V2 be if S is closed?
e) What is the power dissipated in R3 with switch S closed?
(TVL 1990)

K5 In the circuit represented below all the globes are identical. The cells have no
internal resistance.

1 2

4 3

a) Which globes will burn with the same brightness?

b) Which globe/(s) burn dimmer?
c) Which globe/(s) burn the brightest?

K6 Two globes which are marked 100 W and 40 W at 220 V are brought at the local
supermarket. The two globes are incorrectly connected in series with a 220 V
power source. Calculate the rate at which work is dissipated for each globe when
connected in series.

116
K7 In the circuit represented below all the globes are identical. The cells have no
internal resistance.

Z A

Y
X

a) Determine how the brightness of x and y are affected when switch S is closed.

b) How do the voltages across x and y change as S is closed?

K8 In the circuit below the internal resistance of the cells cannot be ignored.
The voltmeter has a high internal resistance and the resistance of the ammeter
must be ignored.
V

Z A

a) When switch S is closed how is the brightness of globe Y affected?

b) What effect does the closing of switch S have on the voltmeter and ammeter
readings?

117
K9 The circuit shown contains a 12 V battery of negligible internal resistance. The
battery supplies power to the resistors at a rate of 24W. R3 is a resistor with an
unknown resistance.

A1

12V
R1 = 4W V1

R3

A2
R2 = 2,5W
a) Calculate the reading on A1.

b) Calculate the reading on V1.

c) Calculate the resistance of R3.

K10 A 12 V battery is capable of delivering 1 A for 45 hours (45 A.h rating) before it
goes flat.

a) Calculate the total energy stored in the battery when fully charged.
b) A globe is connected which uses electrical energy at a rate of 21 W. Calculate
how long it will take for the battery to discharge completely.

118
PAST IEB EXAM QUESTIONS

2017 November

7.1 A circuit consists of a battery with emf 16,5 V and an unknown internal resistance, three
resistors, an ammeter and a voltmeter. The circuit is connected as shown in the diagram
below.
The voltmeter measures a potantial difference of 12 V.

7.1.1 State Ohm’s Law [2]

7.1.2 Calculate the current in the 8 Ω [3]

7.1.3 Calculate the effective resistance of the resistors connected in parallel [3]

7.1.4 Calculate te current measured by the ammeter [3]

7.1.5 Calculate the internal resistance of the battery [3]

7.2 An electrical heater which has a resistance of 50 Ω is operated by connecting the

heater to a potential difference of 220 V.
7.2.1 Define power [2]

7.2.2 Calculate the power output of the heater [3]

Electricity costs R1,24 per kWh

7.2.3 For how long can this heater be operated with R 80 of prepaid electricity?[4]

119
CHAPTER 6 - PHOTONS AND ELECTRONS
Photoelectric Effect
8 −1
● Know that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant (𝑐 = 3×10 𝑚. 𝑠
)
● Know electron-volts are energy units
● Solve problems using the equation 𝑐 = 𝑓λ
● State that the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the
frequency of the light
ℎ𝑐
● Solve problems using the equation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 or 𝐸 = λ
● Know that electron-volts (eV) and joules (J) are suitable energy units
● Convert between electron volts and joules 1 eV = 1.6×10-19 J
● Describe the photoelectric effect as the process that occurs when light
shines on a metal and electrons are ejected
● Electron ejected from a metal by incident light are known as
photoelectrons
● State the significance of the photoelectric effect: it establishes the
quantum theory, and it illustrates the particle nature of light
● Define threshold (cut-off) frequency (𝑓𝑜) as the minimum frequency
of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from a
particular metal
● Define work function (𝑊𝑜) as the minimum amount of energy
needed to emit an electron from the surface of a metal and know
that the work function is material specific
● Know that the threshold frequency corresponds to a maximum
wavelength
● Apply the photo-electric equation:

𝐸 = 𝑊𝑜 + 𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

Where, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑜 = ℎ𝑓𝑜

1 2
𝐸𝐾(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥

● Explain why the number of electrons ejected per second increases with
the intensity of the incident radiation provided the frequency is above
the threshold frequency

120
● Explain why if the frequency of the incident radiation is above the
threshold frequency, then increasing the frequency of the radiation will
increase the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons

121
Emission spectra

● Explain the source of atomic emission spectra (of discharge tubes) and
their unique relationship to each element
● Relate the lines on the atomic emission spectrum to electron transitions
between energy levels
● Calculate the energy associated with a transition and the
ℎ𝑐
corresponding wavelength or frequency using 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = λ

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum. The narrow range of visible light is shown enlarged
at the right. (Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.).

122
1. THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: Evidence for the particle nature
of light

The metallic model is one of a positive kernel with a sea of electrons as shown in the
diagram below. It is the delocalised electrons which are responsible for the
conductivity of metals.

Although these electrons are delocalized, they are still held by the positive kernel. To
remove these electrons from the surface of the metal, work must be done on the
electrons. When the work done is in the form of light energy, the process whereby
the electron is removed from the metal, is known as photoelectric emission.

According to the wave theory of light, increasing the intensity of light would allow
more energy per second to reach the surface. If so, then by increasing the intensity
of a particular light source, a point would be reached where electrons would be
emitted irrespective of the frequency of light. However, it was found that incident light
with low frequencies would not allow for photoelectric emission, irrespective of the
light intensity, whereas incident light of higher frequencies would allow for
photoelectric emission at lower intensities. This observation indicated that in
photoelectric emission, light behaves as a particle.

To explain this, consider the following demonstration of photoelectric emission. In

this demonstration, a zinc plate is placed onto the cap of an electroscope and
charged negatively. In the first part of the demonstration (Figure 1) the intensity of
the red light is high and the amount of energy per second (intensity of light) reaching
the surface is higher than in the second part of the demonstration (Figure 2). In the
second part of the demonstration, photoelectric emission takes place even though
the energy per second (intensity) reaching the surface, is a lot lower.

Figure 1 Figure 2

123
Suggest a possible reason for this observation.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Define the concept of quanta relating to electromagnetic radiation.

___________________________________________________________________

State another name for quanta of electromagnetic radiation.

___________________________________________________________________

The Photoelectric Effect – predictions based on Wave Theory of Light

Using the wave theory of light, certain observations are expected / predicted when
light shines onto a metal surface. These include:
● Electrons should be emitted for any frequency of light, after a period of
time (for low intensities) during which the electrons absorb sufficient
energy to escape from the metal surface.
● At high intensities, the electrons absorb more energy and so would
have a greater maximum kinetic energy when they are emitted from the
metal surface.

The Photoelectric Effect – experimental observations

In experiments (such as the zinc plate demonstration described above), the following
effects were actually observed:
● If the frequency, f, of the incident light is above a certain minimum
value that is termed, the Threshold Frequency, 𝑓0, electrons are
emitted instantaneously from the metal. For frequencies below 𝑓0 , no
electrons are emitted.
● Photoelectric emission takes place instantaneously: there is no delay
between the incident (incoming) electromagnetic radiation and the
emission of the photoelectron. (Note that the electron that is released
from the metal in the photo-electric emission process, is termed the
photoelectron).
● For incident light with frequencies above 𝑓0 the number of electrons
emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of the light. (Intensity
is proportional to number of photons incident on the metal per second.
Each photon ejects only one electron from the metal).

124
 ● The kinetic energy of the electrons emitted varies from zero up to some
maximum value, which depends on the frequency of light but not on its
intensity.

In 1921 Einstein won the Nobel Prize for Physics for using the photoelectric effect
experiments to explain the relationship between incident electromagnetic energy,
threshold frequency, and maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons.
Through experimentation, he established that the energy of the quanta is related to
the frequency of radiation given by:

ℎ = Planck’s constant = 6,6 10−34J.s

Threshold frequency and the work function.

The minimum amount of energy required to allow an electron to escape is called the
work function energy (symbol, Wf or W0 or φ). The value of this energy can be
calculated using:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓0

where 𝑓0 is the threshold frequency.

In photoemission, the incident electromagnetic light energy travels as discrete

photons of light. In the photoelectric emission process, all the energy carried in every
photon of incident light, is transferred to a delocalised electron in a metal atom. Part
of this energy is “used” to release the electron from its bond and what remains is
transferred to the photoelectron as kinetic energy. The photoelectric equation derived
by Einstein is based on the conservation of energy in this process:

photon energy = work function + maximum Ek of photoelectron

1 2
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 + 2
𝑚𝑣

Summary: important facts about photoelectric emission:

i. Photons (incident packages of light energy) are indivisible, and each photon
gives all its energy to one electron, which when emitted from the metal, is
known as the photoelectron.
ii. For any metal, the electron is only emitted if the frequency of the incident
electromagnetic radiation (or incident photons) is above the Threshold
Frequency for that metal.
iii. The specific value of the Threshold Frequency is dependent on the type of
metal (i.e., every metal has a different Threshold Frequency).
iv. The energy of the photon is directly proportional to the ____________of the
electromagnetic radiation.

125
 1. Good introduction to The Photoelectric Effect [6:30
mins] https://youtu.be/6VqNz4oT0ng
2. Good explanation of Einstein’s photoelectric
equation [5 mins] https://youtu.be/apYFhps14-8

Units of Energy
● The SI unit of energy is the joule (J)
● When dealing with small amounts of energy (like in the photoelectric effect),
an alternative unit for energy is often used. It is called the electronvolt (eV):

−19
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1. 6 𝑥 10 𝐽

Recall that in our study of electrical fields and current, potential difference, V, is
defined as the amount of work done (W) (or energy gained) per unit positive
charge, Q:
𝑊
𝑉 = 𝑄

−19
So that W = 1 eV is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a charge of 1. 6 𝑥 10 C
when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V. (The charge on 1
−19
electron = 1. 6 𝑥 10 C).

Example 1:

The work function energy of platinum is 9 × 10−19J. Electromagnetic radiation of

3,0 × 1015 Hz is incident on the platinum surface. Calculate the maximum kinetic
energy of a photoelectron.

Example 2:

What are the frequency and the energy of a photon of red light of wavelength
700 nm and a photon of violet light of wavelength 400 nm?

Example 3:

What is the threshold frequency of

a) sodium of work function 2.3 eV?
b) caesium of work function 1.9 eV?

Example 4:

What is the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron emitted from silver of work
function 4.7 eV, when illuminated with ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 122 nm?

126
Example 5:

The following graph illustrates the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
depending on the frequency of light shining on the metal.

a) What quantity does the x intercept represent?

b) What quantity does the slope represent?
c) The type of metal used is changed to one of a greater work function. Sketch
on the same set of axes a graph you would expect for this new metal.

2. Emission Spectra

You are familiar with electrons as they exist in atoms in their ground state. However,
when an element is heated strongly, or when a gas at low pressure is subjected to a
large electric potential difference, the element begins to glow, indicating that it is
emitting energy in the visible region of the spectrum (e.g., neon gas tube).
This arises from electrons that have absorbed a certain amount of energy and have
been promoted from their ground state to a higher energy state (become excited).
When the electrons revert to a lower energy state, they lose energy by emitting
photons. The energy of the photons corresponds to the energy lost as visible light:

E2 - E1 = hf = hc/λ

127
The diagram below shows how the energy lost by electrons produces an atomic
emission spectrum

The emission spectrum for hydrogen is shown below.

The more complex the electron configuration of the atom (remember that hydrogen
has only one electron), the more complex the spectrum becomes. Helium, with two
electrons, has the emission spectrum shown below. Helium was discovered by
observing the yellow line at 588 nm in1868. It was only found on Earth years later.

Every element has its own distinctive emission spectrum. In a mixture of elements,
each element will contribute its own set of distinctive lines, thus enabling one to
establish which elements are present in the mixture. Astronomers can also in this
way determine the elements that are present in very distant stars.

128
3. Absorption spectra (not examinable)

The spectrum of white light shows an uninterrupted change in colour from red to
violet, as shown below:

When looking at a hot source through a cool gas, an absorption spectrum is

observed.
E.g., When looking at the light from the sun, many dark lines are seen in the
spectrum observed from the sun. The spectrum has certain frequencies missing.

This phenomenon occurs because a source of white light is shining behind a sample
of cooler gas. When photons from the light source make their way through this gas,
some of them can interact with the atoms, provided they have just the right
frequency to bump/excite an electron of that element up to a higher energy level.
Photons at those particular frequencies are thus absorbed by the gas.
The spectrum of light that had been through the gas would just have some gaps in it,
at the frequencies that were absorbed.

129
Visual summary of continuous, absorption and emission spectra.

130
PHOTONS & ELECTRONS – Key Examples and past IEB questions

Key Examples

K1 [Extracted from NSC Nov 2009]

The photoelectric effect has many practical applications. A photocell, such as

the one represented below in burglar alarm systems is one such application.

Ultraviolet light

anode e cathode
e

Ultraviolet light of wavelength 100 nm is used to illuminate the photocell.

When a person interrupts the ultraviolet beam, the sudden drop in current
activates a switch which sets off the alarm.

a. Define the term threshold frequency [2]

b. How will an increase in intensity of the ultraviolet light influence the

ammeter reading? EXPLAIN your answer
[3]

c. The work function of the metal used as the cathode in the photocell is
8.7 x 10-19 J. Calculate the maximum velocity at which the electrons are
emitted. [6]

K2 Which one of the graphs best represents the relationship between the
energy W of a photon and the frequency f of the radiation?

131
K3 In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from a metal surface when it is
irradiated with electromagnetic radiation. The graph below shows the variation
of the maximum photoelectron kinetic energy with the frequency of the radiation
incident on the emitting surface.

a. Use the data from the graph to calculate the Planck constant. (3)
b. Determine the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the target metal. (2)

K4 An electroscope with a negatively charged zinc plate is shown below. The

gold leaf is deflected due to like charges repelling each other.

When visible light is shone on the plate, nothing is observed. When ultraviolet
light is shone on the negatively charged electroscope, the gold leaf collapses.

132
133
 a. Name the phenomenon described. (2)

b. Explain why visible light has no effect, while the ultra-violet light
collapses the gold leaf. (3)

K5 The work-function of caesium is 3,36 × 10-19 J.

a. Define work-function. (2)

b. Calculate the lowest frequency photon that can eject an electron from
caesium. (3)

c. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of an electron ejected from

caesium by a photon of wavelength 400 nm. (4)

K6 Electron A is at its lowest atomic energy level as shown below.

If each of the following interacted with the atom, say whether you think
ionization, excitation or nothing will probably happen:
a. a 7.0 eV photon
b. a 4.0 eV electron
c. a 22 eV electron
d. an 11 eV photon
e. an 11.5 eV photon

K7 An electron in a hydrogen atom drops from an excited state of -1.5 eV to the

-13.6 eV ground state, emitting a photon.
a. How much energy, in eV, is released from this transition?
b. Where does this energy go?
c. Find the frequency of the photon emitted.
d. Find the wavelength of the light emitted.

134
K8 Explain briefly how scientists can use emission line spectra and absorption
line spectra

K9 In a helium-neon laser, the electrons in the neon atoms drop down from their
excited state at -4.026 eV to -5.990 eV. What is the wavelength of the light
emitted?

K10 The apparatus shown below was used to investigate the photoelectric effect.
The apparatus allows for the investigation of several variables. The frequency
and intensity of the incident radiation can be changed; the type of metal used
and the emf supplied across the electrodes can be adjusted.

a. Early investigators of this effect found that a zinc plate, when negatively
charged, would lose its charge when exposed to ultraviolet light, while a
positively charged zinc plate showed no such effect. What could the
investigators conclude from these observations?

b. A source of bright red light and a source of faint blue light are shone in turn
onto the metal surface for the same length of time. In both cases,
electrons are ejected from the metal surface.

c. The wavelength of blue light is 440 nm. Calculate the energy of a photon
from this source. Convert your answer to a value in eV.

d. Define threshold frequency.

e. The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected by the faint blue light
is greater than the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons ejected by the

135
 bright red light. With reference to one or more suitable formulae explain
why this happens?

f. The faint blue light is replaced by a bright blue light. What effect will this
have on the number of photoelectrons emitted from the metal surface?
Explain your answer.

K11 Light from a white-hot filament of a lamp is focused on a tube containing

sodium vapour. When the spectrum produced is analysed, two yellow lines in
an otherwise black display as shown in the diagram below.
The diagram shows the spectrum obtained when sodium vapour is heated.

a. Which type of spectrum is shown above?

b. Explain how these two spectral lines are formed?

c. The wavelengths of the two bright yellow lines in the spectrum of sodium
are 589,0 nm and 589,6 nm.

d. Which of these two spectral lines has the higher frequency?

e. Which spectral line corresponds to a photon of highest energy being

emitted?

f. Calculate the energy of a photon of light emitted in d.

K12 The photoelectric effect has many practical applications. A photocell, such as
the one below used in burglar alarm systems, is one such application.

a. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 100 nm is used to illuminate the photocell.

When a person interrupts the ultraviolet beam, the sudden drop in current
activates a switch, which sets off the alarm.

136
 b. How will an increase in intensity of the ultraviolet light influence the
ammeter reading? Explain your answer.

The work function of the metal used as a cathode in the photocell is

8,7 x 10-19 J.

c. Calculate the energy of a photon of ultraviolet light.

d. Calculate the maximum velocity of the emitted photoelectrons.

e. Will photoelectrons be emitted from the surface of this metal if it is

irradiated with X-rays? Give a reason for the answer.

Past IEB Exam Questions

1. [Extracted from IEB 2019: Question 9]

137
2. [Extracted from IEB 2019 Supplementary: Question 8]

138
3. [Extracted from IEB 2018: Question 9]

9.1 The graph shows how the maximum kinetic energy EK(max) of electrons
emitted from a surface of calcium metal varies with the frequency f of
the incident radiation.

9.1.1 Define work function [2]

9.1.2 Calculate the work function of calcium [4]

9.1.3 The experiment is repeated using magnesium instead of calcium metal.

The work function of magnesium is 1,3 times the work function of
calcium. On the diagram, draw a second line to illustrate the results of
the experiment with magnesium. [2]

139
140
4. [Extracted from IEB 2017: Question 9]

141
5. [Extracted from IEB 2017 Supplementary: Question 9]

142
6. [Extracted from IEB 2016 Supplementary: Question 9]

9.1 Describe the photoelectric effect [2]

9.2 An energy level diagram is drawn to scale below. The only positions
that the outer electron can occupy are energy levels E1 , E2 and E3.

9.2.1 How many spectral lines are possible for this element? [2]
9.2.2 Which transition would release light with the highest frequency?
[2]

For this energy-level diagram, the longest possible wavelength of

emitted light is 618 nm.

9.2.3 On the diagram, show the transition that would result in

emission of this wavelength. [2]
9.2.4 Calculate the energy, in joules, that corresponds to a
wavelength of 618 nm [4]
9.2.5 Explain why a transition between energy levels produces an
emission line [2]

143
 29/21

EXAMINATION DATA SHEET FOR THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

(PHYSICS)

TABLE 1 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME SYMBOL VALUE

Acceleration due to gravity on Earth g 9,8 ms–2
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3,0  108 ms–1
Universal gravitational constant G 6,7  10−11 Nm2kg–2
Coulomb's constant k 9,0  109 Nm2C–2
Magnitude of charge on electron e 1,6  10–19 C
Mass of an electron me 9,1  10–31 kg
Planck's constant h 6,6  10–34 Js
1 electron-volt eV 1,6  10–19 J

TABLE 2 PHYSICS FORMULAE

MOTION
v+u vf + vi
v = u + at or vf = vi + at s= ( ) t or x = ( ) Δt
2 2

v2 = u2 + 2as or v2f = v2i +2aΔx s = ut + ½ at2 or x = vi t + ½ a(t)2

FORCE AND MOMENTUM

∆p
Fnet = J = ∆p = mv - mu
Fnet = ma ∆t or
or
J = ∆p = mvf - mvi
Fnet ∆t = m∆v

Fmax
fs = μs FN
p = mv Fg = mg
Ffk = μk FN

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

W = Fs or W = Fx W
P= P = Fv
or W = Fx cos t

1
powerout
Ep = mgh EK = mv2 Wnet = EK % efficiency = × 100
2 powerin

IEB Copyright © 2014–2023 NATIONAL SENIOR CERTIFICATE HANDBOOK

IMPLEMENTATION DATE: GRADE 12, 2023
 29/22

GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

m1 m2 F M
F=G g= g=G
r2 m r2

q1 q2 F Q
F=k E= E=k
r2 q r2

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
q W
I= V=
t q

V emf = I(Rext + r)
R= or
I emf = Vload + Vinternal resistance
1 1 1
RS = R1 + R2 + …… = + + …..
RP R1 R2

W
P= or W = Pt
t

2
V
W = VIt or W = I2Rt or W= t
R

2
V
P = VI or P = I2R or P=
R

ELECTRODYNAMICS
∆
 = BAcos emf = − N F = IBℓ sin
∆t
Ns Vs
VpIp = VsIs =
Np Vp

PHOTONS AND ELECTRONS

hc
c=f E = hf or E=
λ

1
E = W0 + EK(max) W0 = hf0 EK(max) = mv2max
2

IEB Copyright © 2014–2023 NATIONAL SENIOR CERTIFICATE HANDBOOK

IMPLEMENTATION DATE: GRADE 12, 2023