LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1.​ Introduction (Gleason & Ratner, 2024) zitatu

●​ What is language acquisition?

It is the natural, unconscious process by which humans—especially children—develop the

ability to understand and use language through exposure and interaction.

●​ What is the difference between acquisition and learning?

-​ Acquisition: Happens naturally, without formal instruction; usually during
early childhood.
-​ Learning: Is a conscious, structured process; often occurs in classroom
settings with explicit grammar instruction.
●​ How is the process developed?

It develops in stages—from cooing and babbling to one-word, two-word, and complex

sentence use—and is influenced by biological, cognitive, social, and emotional factors.

2.​ Major theories of language acquisition (bakoitzan esplikazioa)

Over the years, several theories have been proposed to explain how humans acquire
language. These perspectives reflect different understandings of the roles of biology,
environment, and cognitive development in the process.

Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner)

●​ What it says:

Behaviorist theory claims that children learn language through imitation and reinforcement.
When a child says a word or phrase, and an adult responds positively (e.g., smiling,
repeating the word, or giving what the child asked for), the child is more likely to repeat that
word in the future.

●​ Example:

If a child says “milk” and the parent gives them milk, the child learns that saying “milk” gets a
result, so they say it again.

●​ Limitation:

It doesn’t explain why children say things they've never heard before, like “I goed” instead of
“I went.”

Innatism (Noam Chomsky)

 ●​ What it says:

Innatist theory argues that humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—an
inborn mental structure that helps us learn language. Chomsky believed that all languages
share a set of basic rules called Universal Grammar (UG), and that children are naturally
equipped to learn any language they are exposed to.

●​ Example:

A child growing up in France learns French, while a child in Japan learns Japanese, even
though both start without prior language knowledge. Their brains are “ready” to learn any
language.

●​ Limitation:

It doesn’t fully explain how social interaction helps shape language development.

Cognitivism (Jean Piaget) (Gleason & Ratner, 2024) zitatu

●​ What it says:

Cognitivist theory links language development to a child’s overall cognitive development.

Piaget argued that children must first develop certain mental abilities—like understanding
that objects still exist when they are out of sight—before they can understand and use
language correctly.

●​ Example:

A child may not use past tense verbs (like “played”) until they grasp the concept of the past.

●​ Limitation:

Some children with delayed cognitive development still acquire language normally,
suggesting language may not depend entirely on cognitive growth.

Socio-interactionism

●​ What it says:

This theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in language development. Children
learn language through communication with adults and peers. Vygotsky introduced the
concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the difference between what a
child can do alone and what they can do with help.
Bruner extended this with the idea of the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS),
where adults scaffold (support) children's learning during activities like storytelling, playing,
or routines like mealtime.

●​ Example:

When an adult asks, “Do you want juice?” and the child responds “juice,” the adult might
expand it to “You want some juice?”—helping the child build more complex sentences.

●​ Limitation:

It may underemphasize the internal, biological components of language learning.

3.​ Stages of language acquisition

Pre-talking stage (0-6 months)

Also known as the cooing stage, infants produce soft, vowel-like sounds such as “ah,” “oh,”
and “uh.” These sounds are not yet intentional communication but show an early response to
human voices.

Aldezu adibide bezela gehitu ta zitatu: A baby named Miles (4 months old) produced
vowel-like sounds like “oh,” “uh,” and “ah,” which are typical of this stage. He could not yet
articulate consonants like [b] or [m] (Safitri, 2020, p. 167).

Babbling stage (6-8 months)

Infants begin to combine consonants and vowels into repetitive syllables such as “ba-ba-ba”
or “da-da-da.” Though these combinations resemble speech, they do not carry meaning yet.

Aldezu adibide bezela gehitu ta zitatu: “Babbling is the sounds which infants produce as
consonant-vowel combinations” (Safitri, 2020, p. 167). These sounds are common across
languages, such as [ma-ma-ma], [da-da-da], or [na-na-na].

Holophrastic stage (9-18 months)

In this stage, children begin using single words (holophrases) to express whole ideas or
sentences. The same word may mean different things depending on context and tone.

Aldezu adibide bezela gehitu ta zitatu: A child used “adi” to refer to “daddy.” In the
holophrastic stage, one word can mean “I want milk,” “That’s milk,” or “Give me milk,”
depending on the situation (Safitri, 2020, p. 168).

The two-word stage (18-24 months)

Children start combining two words to express simple ideas and relationships. These
combinations show early syntax and meaning.
 Aldezu zitatu: “At this stage... the relations between the two words show definite syntactic
and semantic relations” (Safitri, 2020, p. 168).

Telegraphic stage (24-30 months)

Utterances become longer and more sentence-like but omit grammatical function words
(e.g., “is,” “the”). The speech resembles a telegram: essential content words only.

Aldezu zitatu: “When the child begins to produce utterances that are longer than two words,
these utterances appear to be ‘sentence-like’” (Safitri, 2020, p. 168).

Later multiword stage (30+ months)

Children begin to use more complete and complex sentences. Vocabulary expands rapidly,
and utterances show clearer grammar and intention.

Aldezu zitatu: “At this stage is fastest increase in vocabulary with many new additions every
day... utterances have communicative intent” (Safitri, 2020, p. 168).

4.​ First vs. Second language acquisition

According to Brown (2000), first language acquisition (FLA) happens naturally and
spontaneously during early childhood when children are immersed in a rich linguistic
environment. In contrast, second language acquisition (SLA) usually occurs later, often in
formal or social settings, and can be more conscious and effortful. FLA is intuitive, while SLA
may require more deliberate learning strategies.

First language acquisition Second language acquisition

Age factor There is a "critical period" in early While a second language can be learned at
childhood for naturally acquiring the first any age, acquisition after childhood tends to
language, taking advantage of brain be more difficult and less automatic, especially
plasticity. regarding pronunciation and fluency.

Input Input is abundant, natural, and Input may be limited, less natural, or less
contextualized in daily life; children receive comprehensible, depending on the
a constant flow of comprehensible environment. Often, input comes from
language. classrooms or social interactions that are less
rich than in first language acquisition.

Approached to Based on theories emphasizing Can include both conscious and unconscious
first language unconscious acquisition, such as Universal approaches; formal and explicit learning is
acquisition Grammar, and learning through social common alongside social interaction.
interaction and imitation.
Classroom Not formally taught; children simply learn
methodology the language through natural exposure. Requires specific teaching methodologies that
promote communicative practice, interaction,
and meaningful language use to facilitate
acquisition.

Psychological Children typically have high intrinsic Learners may experience anxiety, low
factors motivation and low anxiety because the motivation, or insecurity, which affect learning.
process is natural and part of their Attitudes toward the target language and
development. culture also play an important role.

5.​ Influential factors in language acquisition

Biological

Biological foundations play a crucial role in language development. The human brain is
naturally wired to acquire language, with specialized areas such as Broca’s and Wernicke’s
regions supporting speech production and comprehension (Burkette & Kretzschmar, 2018).
Additionally, genetic predispositions and neurological maturation determine the timing and
efficiency of language acquisition. Gleason and Ratner (2024) emphasize that infants are
born with innate capacities that make language learning possible, such as the ability to
discriminate phonemes and to produce speech sounds.

Cognitive

Cognitive development is deeply intertwined with language acquisition. According to Anaya

Reig and Calvo Fernández (2019), children's intellectual growth enables them to process,
understand, and produce language. Higher cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and
problem-solving support vocabulary expansion and the grasp of grammar rules. Gleason
and Ratner (2024) also point out that language acquisition depends on the child’s capacity to
connect symbols (words) with meanings, and to use language in increasingly complex ways
as their cognitive skills evolve.

Social

Language learning is fundamentally social. Interaction with caregivers, peers, and the
community provides essential input and motivation for language use (Burkette &
Kretzschmar, 2018). Anaya Reig and Calvo Fernández (2019) highlight that social context
determines the opportunities children have to engage in meaningful communication, which
enhances their linguistic competence. Furthermore, exposure to rich, responsive language
environments promotes faster and more effective acquisition (Gleason & Ratner, 2024).

Emotional

Emotional well-being significantly affects language learning. Positive emotional states foster
engagement and reduce anxiety, allowing children to experiment and take risks in language
use (Anaya Reig & Calvo Fernández, 2019). A secure attachment with caregivers creates a
safe environment for linguistic exploration, which Burkette and Kretzschmar (2018) describe
as vital for the development of communicative competence. Emotional support encourages
persistence and motivation in the language learning process.

6.​ Educational implications

The process of language acquisition provides important insights for educational practices,
especially in early childhood and language learning settings. Burkette and Kretzschmar
(2018), Gleason and Ratner (2024), and Anaya Reig and Calvo Fernández (2019) highlight
several key educational implications that support effective language development:

Interactive environments

Creating rich, interactive environments is essential for fostering language acquisition.

Burkette and Kretzschmar (2018) emphasize that children learn language best through
active engagement with caregivers and peers. Interactive settings encourage children to
practice speaking and listening in natural contexts, promoting deeper understanding and use
of language. Gleason and Ratner (2024) also stress that these environments provide
abundant opportunities for children to negotiate meaning and receive immediate feedback,
which supports their language growth.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding refers to the instructional support that adults or more knowledgeable peers
provide to help learners achieve higher levels of language competence than they could
reach independently. Anaya Reig and Calvo Fernández (2019) explain that scaffolding
involves adjusting language input and providing guidance tailored to the learner’s current
abilities. According to Gleason and Ratner (2024), effective scaffolding might include
modeling correct language use, asking open-ended questions, or expanding on the child’s
utterances, gradually reducing help as the child gains confidence and skill.

Individual differences

Acknowledging individual differences is crucial in language education. Each learner brings

unique biological, cognitive, social, and emotional characteristics that influence their rate and
style of language acquisition (Burkette & Kretzschmar, 2018). Anaya Reig and Calvo
Fernández (2019) argue that recognizing these differences allows educators to personalize
teaching methods and materials, addressing diverse needs to optimize learning outcomes.
Gleason and Ratner (2024) further highlight that factors such as motivation, prior knowledge,
and learning preferences shape how children acquire and use language.

Meaningful communication

Fostering meaningful communication is a foundational principle in language education.

Language is not only a system of rules but a tool for expressing ideas, emotions, and social
relationships (Burkette & Kretzschmar, 2018). Anaya Reig and Calvo Fernández (2019)
stress the importance of providing authentic communicative experiences where children use
language for real purposes, such as storytelling, problem-solving, or social interaction.
Gleason and Ratner (2024) note that meaningful communication enhances motivation and
helps children internalize linguistic structures more effectively than rote learning or isolated
drills.​

7.​ Conclusions