Lesson 11: Biodiversity and Its Threats

Introduction
Biodiversity—or biological diversity—refers to the vast variety of life on Earth, encompassing
the full range of species, genetic variations, and ecosystems. It is the foundation of life on
Earth and essential for ecosystem stability, resilience, and human survival. From food
security and medicinal resources to climate regulation and cultural values, biodiversity
touches every aspect of human existence.

This lesson focuses on defining biodiversity, its types, importance, the biogeographic zones
of India, and the mounting threats to biodiversity due to human and natural factors.

1. Definition and Scope of Biodiversity

The term “biodiversity” was first popularized in the 1980s and refers to the variety of life
at multiple levels of biological organization:

Three Levels of Biodiversity

1.​ Genetic Diversity:

○​ Variation in genes within species.
○​ Provides the raw material for adaptation and evolution.
○​ Example: Different varieties of rice or wheat.
2.​ Species Diversity:
○​ Variety of species within a habitat or region.
○​ Measured through species richness and species evenness.
○​ Example: A tropical rainforest with many tree and animal species.
3.​ Ecosystem Diversity:
○​ Variety of ecosystems within a geographical location.
○​ Includes forests, deserts, grasslands, wetlands, marine areas, etc.
○​ Each ecosystem functions with its own set of species and processes.

2. Biodiversity in India
India is one of the world’s 17 mega-diverse countries, housing:

●​ Around 47,000 plant species

 ●​ Nearly 90,000 animal species

Biogeographic Zones of India

India is divided into 10 biogeographic zones, each with unique features and ecosystems:

1.​ Trans-Himalayan: Cold deserts of Ladakh.

2.​ Himalayan: Snow-capped mountains and alpine meadows.
3.​ Desert: Thar Desert, with xerophytic vegetation.
4.​ Semi-arid: Transitional zone with thorny scrub.
5.​ Western Ghats: One of the world’s top biodiversity hotspots.
6.​ Deccan Plateau: Dry forests and savannas.
7.​ Gangetic Plain: Fertile alluvial land with agriculture.
8.​ Coastal Zone: Mangroves, estuaries, lagoons.
9.​ North-East India: High endemism, tribal culture.
10.​Islands: Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep—coral reefs and marine diversity.

3. Importance of Biodiversity
a. Ecological Value

●​ Ecosystem services like pollination, decomposition, water purification, and climate

regulation.
●​ Stability and resilience against environmental fluctuations.

b. Economic Value

●​ Agriculture, horticulture, and forestry rely on biological resources.

●​ Source of medicine, timber, fibres, and biofuels.
●​ Ecotourism and bio-prospecting contribute to the economy.

c. Social and Cultural Value

●​ Biodiversity plays a central role in religious practices, traditional knowledge, and

community identity.
●​ Sacred groves and animal deities are examples.

d. Ethical and Aesthetic Value

●​ Every species has an inherent right to exist.

●​ Nature has aesthetic value and inspires art, literature, and spirituality.

4. Measures of Biodiversity
To quantify biodiversity, scientists use:

●​ Species Richness: The number of different species in an area.

●​ Species Evenness: How evenly individuals are distributed among species.
●​ Taxonomic Diversity: Evolutionary relationships between species.

5. Threats to Biodiversity
Human activities have accelerated biodiversity loss globally. The current extinction rate is
1,000 times higher than natural background rates.

Major Threats Include:

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

●​ Deforestation, agriculture, urbanization, and mining destroy natural habitats.

●​ Fragmentation isolates populations, reduces genetic diversity, and increases
vulnerability.

2. Over-exploitation

●​ Excessive hunting, fishing, logging, and harvesting of medicinal plants.

●​ Leads to resource depletion and extinction of species.

3. Pollution

●​ Air, water, and soil pollution disrupt ecosystems.

●​ Eutrophication due to fertilizers kills aquatic life.
●​ Pesticides harm pollinators and beneficial insects.

4. Invasive Alien Species

●​ Non-native species outcompete native flora and fauna.

●​ Example: Lantana, Parthenium, Water hyacinth in India.

5. Climate Change

●​ Alters habitats, migration patterns, and food availability.

●​ Causes coral bleaching, glacial retreat, and sea-level rise.

6. Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade

●​ Driven by demand for animal parts (tusks, horns, pelts).

●​ Major threat to tigers, elephants, pangolins, and rhinos.
7. Development Projects

●​ Dams, highways, and mining disrupt large landscapes.

●​ Displacement of people often leads to further exploitation of forests.

6. Biodiversity Hotspots
A biodiversity hotspot is a region with:

●​ At least 1,500 endemic plant species

●​ Lost at least 70% of its original habitat

India’s 4 Biodiversity Hotspots:

1.​ Himalayas
2.​ Indo-Burma
3.​ Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
4.​ Sundaland (Nicobar Islands)

These areas face intense human pressure and require priority conservation efforts.

7. Endangered and Endemic Species

Endangered Species

●​ Species at high risk of extinction.

●​ Example: Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian vulture, Great Indian bustard.

Endemic Species

●​ Species found in a particular region and nowhere else.

●​ Example: Nilgiri Tahr (Western Ghats), Hoolock Gibbon (North-East India).

8. IUCN Red List Categories

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies species into
categories:

●​ Extinct (EX)
●​ Extinct in the Wild (EW)
●​ Critically Endangered (CR)
 ●​ Endangered (EN)
●​ Vulnerable (VU)
●​ Near Threatened (NT)
●​ Least Concern (LC)

India has many species in the Critically Endangered and Endangered categories.

9. Case Studies of Threatened Species in India

a. Great Indian Bustard

●​ Critically endangered due to habitat loss and power line collisions.

●​ Found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

b. Vultures

●​ 97% population decline due to Diclofenac (a veterinary drug).

●​ Massive ecological consequences due to rise in carcass decomposers.

c. Olive Ridley Turtles

●​ Threatened by fishing nets and coastal development.

●​ Protected during mass nesting (arribada) on Odisha coasts.

10. Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

●​ Collapse of ecosystems and food webs.
●​ Loss of ecosystem services (e.g., water purification, pollination).
●​ Reduced climate resilience.
●​ Economic losses in agriculture, fisheries, tourism.
●​ Cultural erosion for indigenous and local communities.

11. Global Efforts to Protect Biodiversity

a. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

●​ 1992 treaty from the Earth Summit.

●​ Aims at conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits.

b. Ramsar Convention
 ●​ Focuses on wetlands of international importance.

c. CITES

●​ Regulates international trade in endangered species.

d. UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030)

●​ Mobilizes nations to revive degraded ecosystems.

12. Indian Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation

a. Legal Framework

●​ Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

●​ Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
●​ Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
●​ Biological Diversity Act, 2002

b. Institutions

●​ National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

●​ State Biodiversity Boards
●​ Protected Area Network: National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves

c. In-situ Conservation

●​ Protects species in their natural habitats.

●​ E.g., Project Tiger, Project Elephant, community reserves.

d. Ex-situ Conservation

●​ Zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, gene banks.

13. Role of Local Communities

●​ Indigenous and tribal groups have traditionally conserved biodiversity.
●​ Practices like sacred groves, shifting cultivation, and local seed banks.
●​ People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) document community knowledge.
14. Role of Education and Awareness
●​ Environmental education fosters respect for biodiversity.
●​ Campaigns like “Save the Tiger”, “Green India”, “Plastic Free India” mobilize youth
and citizens.

Conclusion
Biodiversity is more than a scientific concept—it is the living fabric that sustains all life on
Earth. India, with its rich and unique biological wealth, faces both the privilege and the
challenge of conserving this legacy. The loss of biodiversity is irreversible, and its impacts
are far-reaching. Therefore, protection of biodiversity must be integrated into national
development planning, local governance, and individual behavior.

From international treaties to grassroots movements, every level of society must engage in
biodiversity conservation. Ultimately, saving biodiversity is about saving ourselves—for our
food, health, culture, economy, and the planet's future.

Lesson 12: Biodiversity and Its Conservation

Introduction

Biodiversity—short for biological diversity—is the variety and variability of life forms on Earth,
encompassing all living organisms, their genetic differences, and the ecosystems they form.
It plays an essential role in the stability and functionality of ecosystems, provides services
vital to human life, and is a source of ecological, economic, and cultural value.

However, the alarming rate at which biodiversity is being lost has prompted urgent global
and national conservation efforts. This lesson explores the various methods and strategies
used to conserve biodiversity and explains India's initiatives, laws, and challenges in
achieving conservation goals.

I. Importance of Biodiversity Conservation

Biodiversity conservation is critical because:

1.​ Ecological Stability: A rich variety of species maintains the food chain, nutrient
cycling, climate regulation, and other ecological processes.
 2.​ Economic Significance: Biodiversity provides raw materials for agriculture,
pharmaceuticals, industries, and tourism.
3.​ Cultural and Ethical Values: Many societies have deep spiritual connections with
plants, animals, and ecosystems.
4.​ Scientific and Medicinal Benefits: Countless life-saving drugs and treatments
originate from plants and animals.
5.​ Climate Resilience: Diverse ecosystems can better withstand environmental
stresses and changes.

Conserving biodiversity is not just about protecting species—it’s about preserving the
foundation of life on Earth.

II. Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

There are two broad approaches to biodiversity conservation:

A. In-Situ Conservation (On-site)

This method involves protecting species in their natural habitats and is considered the most
appropriate way to conserve biodiversity because it allows organisms to live and evolve in
their ecosystems.

Key In-Situ Methods:

1.​ National Parks

○​ Strictly protected areas set aside for wildlife conservation and recreation.
○​ Example: Jim Corbett National Park (India’s first National Park).
2.​ Wildlife Sanctuaries
○​ Areas where animal hunting and poaching are strictly prohibited.
○​ Example: Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary (Keoladeo Ghana) in Rajasthan.
3.​ Biosphere Reserves
○​ Larger areas designed for both conservation and sustainable use.
○​ Divided into core, buffer, and transition zones.
○​ Example: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
4.​ Sacred Groves
○​ Patches of forest preserved by local communities due to religious beliefs.
○​ Found in states like Meghalaya, Maharashtra, and Kerala.
5.​ Community and Conservation Reserves
○​ Legal provisions that enable local communities to participate in conservation.
○​ Encourage cooperation between state and village-level institutions.

B. Ex-Situ Conservation (Off-site)

Involves conserving components of biodiversity outside their natural habitats. It is used when
in-situ conservation is not feasible—due to habitat destruction or critical endangerment.

Key Ex-Situ Methods:

1.​ Zoos
○​ Provide shelter and care to endangered animal species.
○​ Engage in captive breeding and public education.
2.​ Botanical Gardens
○​ Preserve plant species for research, display, and breeding.
3.​ Seed Banks
○​ Store seeds under controlled conditions for future use.
○​ Ensure crop diversity and food security.
4.​ Gene Banks
○​ Preserve genetic material (DNA, gametes, tissue samples).
○​ Facilitate cloning and genetic studies.
5.​ Cryopreservation
○​ Freezing biological samples at extremely low temperatures.
○​ Used to conserve germplasm.
6.​ Tissue Culture
○​ Propagation of plants from tissues in laboratory settings.
○​ Useful in conserving rare and endangered plants.

III. Legal and Institutional Framework for Conservation

in India
India has implemented several laws, policies, and institutions for biodiversity conservation.

A. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

●​ First comprehensive law for the protection of wildlife in India.

●​ Established protected areas like national parks and sanctuaries.
●​ Regulates hunting, trade, and possession of wildlife products.
●​ Categorizes species into schedules; Schedule I provides the highest protection.

B. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

●​ Restricts the diversion of forest lands for non-forest purposes.

●​ Mandates prior approval from the Central Government for such diversions.
●​ Encourages afforestation and ecological restoration.
C. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

●​ Enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

●​ Serves as an umbrella legislation for environmental protection.
●​ Empowers the government to set pollution standards, close polluting industries, and
protect ecologically sensitive areas.

D. Biological Diversity Act, 2002

●​ Enacted to comply with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

●​ Aims to conserve biological diversity, promote sustainable use, and ensure equitable
benefit-sharing.
●​ Established the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards
(SBBs), and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).
●​ Mandates People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) to document local biodiversity
and knowledge.

IV. Biodiversity Hotspots

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both rich in endemic species and
under significant threat from human activities.

Criteria for Hotspots (as per Norman Myers):

●​ Must have at least 1,500 endemic plant species.

●​ Must have lost at least 70% of its original vegetation.

India’s Biodiversity Hotspots:

1.​ Himalayas
2.​ Western Ghats
3.​ Indo-Burma region
4.​ Sundaland (including Nicobar Islands)

These hotspots are priorities for global conservation efforts.

V. Community-Based Conservation
India has a long history of traditional conservation systems, where local communities play
a vital role.
Examples:

●​ Bishnoi Community in Rajasthan protects wildlife and trees based on religious

teachings.
●​ Chipko Movement in Uttarakhand focused on protecting forests by hugging trees.
●​ Appiko Movement in Karnataka adopted similar tactics to protest deforestation.
●​ Sacred Groves preserved by tribal groups as cultural landscapes.

Community conservation links ecology with ethics and indigenous knowledge.

VI. Role of International Conventions and Agreements

India is a party to several international treaties that influence national biodiversity policy:

A. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

●​ Signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

●​ Based on three goals: conservation, sustainable use, and equitable benefit-sharing.

B. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)

●​ Regulates global trade of wildlife and plant species.

C. Ramsar Convention

●​ Protects wetlands of international importance.

●​ India has 75 Ramsar sites (as of 2023), including Chilika Lake and Keoladeo
National Park.

D. UNESCO World Heritage Sites

●​ Includes ecologically important areas like Kaziranga, Sundarbans, and Nanda Devi
National Park.

VII. Challenges to Biodiversity Conservation

Despite legal and institutional efforts, conservation in India faces many challenges:

1.​ Rapid Urbanization and Industrialization

○​ Encroachment on forests, wetlands, and wildlife corridors.
2.​ Poaching and Wildlife Trade
○​ High demand for animal parts, skins, and exotic pets.
3.​ Climate Change
 ○​ Alters habitat conditions, disrupts migration, and leads to species extinction.
4.​ Lack of Awareness
○​ Limited understanding of biodiversity among the general public.
5.​ Inadequate Enforcement
○​ Wildlife laws are often poorly implemented.
6.​ Human-Wildlife Conflict
○​ Expansion of human settlements into forest areas leads to conflict and
casualties.
7.​ Pollution
○​ Air, water, and soil pollution affects species survival and reproduction.

VIII. Role of Education and Citizen Participation

Creating an environmentally conscious society is key to long-term biodiversity conservation.

●​ Environmental education in schools and colleges helps foster respect for nature.
●​ Eco-clubs and youth movements empower students to take action.
●​ Citizen science initiatives like bird counts and biodiversity mapping promote public
engagement.
●​ Responsible tourism and lifestyle choices also contribute significantly.

IX. Success Stories in India

1. Project Tiger

●​ Launched in 1973 to save the Bengal tiger.

●​ Expanded to cover over 50 tiger reserves.
●​ Helped stabilize tiger populations through habitat protection.

2. Project Elephant

●​ Launched in 1992 for long-term conservation of elephants.

●​ Focuses on corridors, mitigation of conflict, and research.

3. Vulture Conservation

●​ Banning of Diclofenac, a drug harmful to vultures, has helped revive populations.

4. Coral Reef Restoration

●​ Initiatives in Lakshadweep and Andaman-Nicobar islands to protect fragile marine

biodiversity.
Conclusion
Conservation of biodiversity is not just an ecological necessity but also an ethical and
developmental imperative. India, with its rich natural heritage, must balance the needs of its
growing population with the urgency of preserving its ecosystems. A multi-layered
approach—combining in-situ and ex-situ methods, legal frameworks, community
involvement, and public education—offers the most sustainable path forward.

By integrating modern science with traditional knowledge, and policy with grassroots
participation, India can lead the way in conserving global biodiversity for future generations.

Lesson 13: Sustainable Development and Sustainability

Introduction

Development has traditionally been measured in terms of economic growth, industrial

progress, and increased consumption. However, over time, it has become evident that
unchecked development has led to environmental degradation, social inequality, and
depletion of natural resources. This realization led to the evolution of the concept of
Sustainable Development (SD)—a model of progress that meets present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

Lesson 13 introduces the concept of sustainable development, explains its core principles,
discusses the necessity of adopting sustainable practices, and explores challenges in
achieving a balanced relationship between economy, society, and the environment.

1. What is Sustainable Development?

The concept of sustainable development gained global recognition with the Brundtland
Report (1987), published by the World Commission on Environment and Development. It
defined sustainable development as:

“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.”

This definition underscores two key principles:

1.​ Intergenerational Equity – Responsibility towards future generations.

 2.​ Intragenerational Equity – Fair and equitable access to resources for all people
today.

Sustainable development aims to achieve a balance between environmental integrity,

economic growth, and social equity.

2. Pillars of Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is built upon three interconnected pillars:

A. Environmental Sustainability

●​ Focuses on the protection and responsible use of natural resources.

●​ Emphasizes conservation of biodiversity, forests, water bodies, and climate
regulation.
●​ Encourages renewable energy, waste reduction, pollution control, and sustainable
agriculture.

B. Economic Sustainability

●​ Seeks to create stable and inclusive economic growth.

●​ Promotes resource efficiency and green technologies.
●​ Encourages job creation without harming the environment.

C. Social Sustainability

●​ Aims to eliminate poverty, ensure access to education and healthcare, and uphold
human rights.
●​ Promotes social cohesion, cultural diversity, and community participation.
●​ Gender equality, social justice, and public health are core components.

These pillars must work in synergy to ensure a development model that is inclusive, resilient,
and long-lasting.

3. Need for Sustainable Development

The need for sustainable development arises from various global challenges:

a. Population Growth

●​ Exerts immense pressure on land, water, and energy.

●​ Increases demands for food, housing, transportation, and infrastructure.
b. Environmental Degradation

●​ Deforestation, soil erosion, and air and water pollution threaten ecosystems.
●​ Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

c. Climate Change

●​ Resulting from excessive greenhouse gas emissions.

●​ Causes global warming, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events.

d. Resource Depletion

●​ Overuse of fossil fuels, water, and minerals is unsustainable.

●​ Leads to conflicts over natural resources and regional instability.

e. Economic Inequality

●​ Wealth and resource gaps between developed and developing countries.

●​ Marginalized communities bear the brunt of environmental degradation.

4. Approaches to Achieving Sustainable Development

A. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

●​ A process that evaluates the environmental consequences of proposed projects

before they are approved.
●​ Helps prevent irreversible damage by identifying potential risks early.

B. Adoption of Cleaner Technologies

●​ Shift from fossil fuels to solar, wind, and hydro power.

●​ Use of fuel-efficient vehicles and non-toxic materials.

C. Waste Management

●​ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3Rs) to minimize solid and hazardous waste.

●​ Promote composting, e-waste recycling, and plastic bans.

D. Sustainable Agriculture

●​ Organic farming, agroforestry, and crop rotation to maintain soil health.

●​ Minimize chemical fertilizers and pesticide usage.

E. Urban Planning and Green Infrastructure

 ●​ Eco-friendly construction, rainwater harvesting, and mass transit systems.
●​ Promoting “Smart Cities” and energy-efficient buildings.

F. Community Participation

●​ Empowering local communities to manage resources.

●​ Integration of traditional knowledge with modern practices.

5. Challenges to Sustainable Development in India

India, as a developing nation, faces unique challenges in implementing sustainable
development:

a. Poverty and Unemployment

●​ Large sections of the population lack access to basic services like clean water and
education.

b. Industrial Pollution

●​ Rapid industrialization has led to polluted rivers, air, and degraded soil.

c. Urbanization

●​ Slums, traffic congestion, and inadequate waste disposal in cities.

d. Inadequate Environmental Governance

●​ Weak enforcement of laws and regulations.

●​ Delays in Environmental Clearances and lack of transparency.

e. Climate Vulnerability

●​ India is highly vulnerable to floods, droughts, cyclones, and heatwaves.

6. Role of Environmental Education in Sustainability

Environmental education plays a critical role in shaping attitudes, behavior, and policy:

●​ Creates Awareness: About the need to conserve resources and reduce waste.
●​ Builds Skills: For sustainable farming, energy use, and community management.
●​ Encourages Participation: Through eco-clubs, awareness campaigns, and clean-up
drives.
Institutions like schools, colleges, NGOs, and media are vital in spreading sustainability
awareness.

7. Global Efforts and Agreements

Sustainable development is a global responsibility. Several international agreements have
been established:

A. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

●​ In 2015, the UN adopted 17 SDGs to be achieved by 2030.

●​ Includes goals like:
○​ No Poverty (Goal 1)
○​ Clean Water and Sanitation (Goal 6)
○​ Affordable and Clean Energy (Goal 7)
○​ Climate Action (Goal 13)
○​ Life on Land (Goal 15)

B. Paris Agreement (2015)

●​ Aims to limit global temperature rise to below 2°C.

●​ Encourages countries to reduce carbon emissions through Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs).

C. Agenda 21

●​ An action plan from the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio.

●​ Encourages sustainable practices at the local level—“Think globally, act locally.”

8. Sustainable Development in India: Policies and

Initiatives
India has adopted several schemes and missions aligned with sustainable development:

a. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

●​ Comprises eight missions including:

○​ National Solar Mission
○​ National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
○​ National Water Mission

b. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

 ●​ Nationwide campaign for sanitation, waste segregation, and open defecation-free
villages.

c. Smart Cities Mission

●​ Promotes sustainable urban planning with efficient water, energy, and transport
systems.

d. Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA)

●​ Encourages use of LED bulbs to reduce electricity consumption.

e. National Electric Mobility Mission

●​ Promotes the use of electric vehicles to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

9. Role of Citizens in Sustainable Development

Sustainable development cannot be achieved without citizen participation. Every individual
can contribute through:

●​ Reducing plastic use

●​ Conserving electricity and water
●​ Using public transport or bicycles
●​ Supporting local and organic products
●​ Participating in tree plantations and cleanliness drives

Conclusion
Sustainable development is not just a global agenda—it is a local and personal
responsibility. It calls for a transformation in the way we live, consume, and govern. For a
country like India, balancing economic growth with ecological integrity and social justice is
critical.

By fostering environmental education, responsible citizenship, and inclusive policies, we can

collectively ensure a better world—not only for ourselves but for generations to come.
Sustainable development, when practiced sincerely, becomes the blueprint for a secure,
equitable, and vibrant future.

Lesson 14: Global Environmental Issues

Introduction

In recent decades, the world has witnessed an alarming rise in environmental degradation,
affecting ecosystems, climate systems, biodiversity, and human health. These environmental
problems, though sometimes originating in specific regions, often transcend borders and
become global issues. Addressing them requires coordinated international efforts, scientific
interventions, policy changes, and public awareness. Lesson 14 highlights the most pressing
global environmental issues and emphasizes the need for sustainable solutions.

1. Climate Change
Climate change refers to long-term changes in global temperature, precipitation
patterns, and atmospheric conditions, largely driven by human activity.

Causes

●​ Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane

(CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
●​ Main sources: fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, agriculture, and industrial
activities.

Consequences

●​ Global warming: rising average global temperatures.

●​ Melting glaciers and polar ice, leading to sea level rise.
●​ Extreme weather events: hurricanes, floods, droughts, and wildfires.
●​ Ocean acidification, affecting marine biodiversity.
●​ Disruption in agriculture and increased health risks.

International Measures

●​ UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)

●​ Kyoto Protocol (1997): binding emission targets for developed countries.
●​ Paris Agreement (2015): commitment to limit global warming to below 2°C,
preferably 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

2. Global Warming
Global warming is the specific phenomenon of rising average global temperatures,
which is a key component of climate change.
Major Contributors

●​ Carbon emissions from:

○​ Power plants
○​ Automobiles
○​ Deforestation
●​ Methane from livestock and rice paddies
●​ Nitrous oxide from fertilizers

Effects

●​ Glacial retreat in the Himalayas

●​ Rising ocean temperatures: coral bleaching and marine species migration
●​ Increased heatwaves, especially in tropical and subtropical regions

Preventive Strategies

●​ Renewable energy adoption (solar, wind, hydro)

●​ Afforestation and reforestation
●​ Energy efficiency in buildings and industries
●​ Carbon capture and storage technologies

3. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere, plays a vital role in blocking harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.

Cause

●​ Emission of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances

(ODS), commonly used in:
○​ Refrigeration and air-conditioning
○​ Aerosols
○​ Foam manufacturing

Impacts

●​ Increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts

●​ Harm to phytoplankton in oceans, disrupting marine food chains
●​ Reduction in agricultural productivity

Global Response

●​ Montreal Protocol (1987): international treaty to phase out ODS.

●​ Resulted in gradual healing of the ozone layer.
4. Acid Rain
Acid rain is precipitation with high levels of acidic components, primarily sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃).

Cause

●​ Emission of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) from:

○​ Thermal power plants
○​ Automobiles
○​ Industrial processes

Effects

●​ Soil acidification: loss of nutrients and microbial activity

●​ Aquatic life destruction in lakes and rivers
●​ Damage to crops and forests
●​ Corrosion of buildings and cultural monuments

Solutions

●​ Use of clean fuels

●​ Installation of scrubbers in factories
●​ Adoption of emission standards for vehicles

5. Nuclear Hazards
Nuclear energy, though a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels, comes with serious
environmental and human health risks in case of accidents.

Major Nuclear Disasters

●​ Chernobyl (1986, USSR): catastrophic explosion and radiation leak.

●​ Fukushima (2011, Japan): tsunami-induced nuclear meltdown.
●​ Three Mile Island (1979, USA): partial core meltdown.

Impacts

●​ Radiation poisoning, cancer, and genetic mutations

●​ Long-term soil and water contamination
●​ Displacement of populations

Safety Measures
 ●​ Strict regulations and monitoring
●​ Radiation shields and containment vessels
●​ Emergency preparedness plans

6. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity loss refers to the extinction or severe decline of species and ecosystems due
to human activity.

Causes

●​ Habitat destruction (e.g., deforestation, wetland draining)

●​ Pollution and pesticide use
●​ Climate change
●​ Invasive species
●​ Overhunting and illegal wildlife trade

Impacts

●​ Collapse of ecosystem services like pollination, water purification, and climate

regulation
●​ Threat to food security and livelihoods
●​ Cultural and spiritual losses for indigenous communities

Global Actions

●​ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

●​ CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
●​ Biosphere reserves and protected areas

7. E-Waste (Electronic Waste)

E-waste refers to discarded electrical and electronic devices, such as computers, phones,
and televisions.

Hazards

●​ Contains toxic heavy metals like lead, mercury, cadmium

●​ Leaching into soil and water
●​ Health hazards for workers in informal recycling sectors

Management Solutions
 ●​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
●​ Safe recycling and disposal infrastructure
●​ Public awareness and take-back schemes

8. Plastic Pollution
Plastic is cheap and durable—but non-biodegradable, making it a massive environmental
concern.

Sources

●​ Single-use plastics
●​ Packaging materials
●​ Microplastics from synthetic clothing and cosmetics

Impacts

●​ Marine animals ingest plastic or get entangled

●​ Microplastics enter the food chain
●​ Clogging of urban drains and water bodies

Solutions

●​ Ban on single-use plastics

●​ Alternatives like biodegradable materials
●​ Clean-up drives and awareness campaigns

9. Urban Environmental Issues

Urbanization has led to a host of environmental problems, especially in developing countries.

Issues

●​ Air and noise pollution

●​ Waste generation and lack of proper disposal systems
●​ Loss of green spaces
●​ Traffic congestion and vehicular emissions

Sustainable Urban Solutions

●​ Public transport systems like metro rails and e-buses

●​ Urban forestry and green rooftops
●​ Smart waste management
 ●​ Rainwater harvesting and solar power adoption

10. International Environmental Cooperation

Recognizing the global nature of these issues, several international frameworks have been
established:

Key Treaties and Conventions

●​ Paris Agreement (2015) – Climate change mitigation

●​ Montreal Protocol (1987) – Ozone protection
●​ Kyoto Protocol (1997) – GHG emission reduction
●​ Basel Convention (1989) – Transboundary hazardous waste control
●​ Ramsar Convention (1971) – Wetlands protection

India is an active signatory to most of these and has incorporated their guidelines into
national policy.

Conclusion
Global environmental issues pose one of the greatest threats to human survival and
planetary health. They are interconnected and complex, requiring a multi-dimensional
approach. Individual nations cannot solve them in isolation. Global cooperation, supported
by strong governance, clean technology, public participation, and sustainable lifestyles, is
the only way forward.

As citizens, students, and future leaders, it is our responsibility to adopt sustainable

practices, conserve resources, and become environmentally conscious in our choices.
The health of our planet depends on the actions we take today.

Lesson 15: Environmental Law and Environmental

Legislations in India
Introduction

Environmental law in India forms a crucial part of the nation’s efforts to conserve nature and
natural resources. With the rising environmental degradation due to urbanization,
industrialization, and population growth, it has become essential to enforce legal measures
for the protection and conservation of the environment. India has developed a
comprehensive legal framework to address a wide spectrum of environmental issues, from
wildlife protection and forest conservation to air and water pollution.

Environmental legislation in India includes a range of acts, rules, policies, and judicial
decisions that regulate human interactions with the environment. These laws aim to ensure a
clean, safe, and sustainable environment for all citizens and to protect the rights of future
generations.

Historical Context and Need for Environmental Laws

India’s environmental legal regime evolved significantly after the Stockholm Conference of
1972, which emphasized the global importance of environmental protection. The Indian
Constitution was amended (42nd Amendment, 1976) to incorporate environmental protection
as a fundamental duty of every citizen under Article 51A(g). It also enabled both the Centre
and the States to legislate on environmental issues by inserting Article 48A, which directed
the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.

The realization that unchecked economic development could harm both people and
ecosystems triggered the need for specific environmental laws. Over the years, landmark
judgments by the Indian judiciary—particularly the Supreme Court and High Courts—have
expanded the scope of environmental rights under Article 21 (Right to Life) of the
Constitution.

Major Environmental Laws in India

1. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Objective: To protect wild animals, birds, and plants and ensure ecological and
environmental security.

Key Features:

●​ Establishes protected areas such as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries,

Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.
●​ Creates schedules of species with varying degrees of protection. Schedule I and II
species get absolute protection, while Schedule V includes species that may be
hunted.
●​ Prohibits hunting of endangered species.
●​ Empowers the central and state governments to declare any area as a protected
habitat.
●​ Provides for the appointment of wildlife wardens and establishment of advisory
boards.

Amendments: The Act has undergone several amendments to enhance its effectiveness,
such as increasing penalties for poaching and introducing new protected areas.
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

Objective: To prevent and control water pollution and to maintain or restore the
wholesomeness of water.

Key Features:

●​ Empowers the Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCBs) to
monitor and regulate the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.
●​ Provides the legal framework for effluent treatment and sewage management.
●​ Makes it mandatory for industries to obtain Consent to Establish and Consent to
Operate from the Pollution Control Boards.
●​ Violators are subject to fines and imprisonment.
●​ The Act defines water pollution as the contamination of water by such substances
which make it harmful for living organisms and unsuitable for agriculture or other
uses.

Importance: This was the first comprehensive water law in India and laid the foundation for
later pollution control laws.

3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Objective: To conserve forests and regulate the deforestation process.

Key Features:

●​ Central government’s approval is required before any forest land can be diverted for
non-forest purposes such as agriculture, mining, or construction.
●​ Restricts the dereservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forest activities.
●​ Encourages afforestation and reforestation as compensation for forest loss.
●​ Introduces the concept of Compensatory Afforestation: when forest land is
diverted, equivalent non-forest land must be afforested.

Context: This Act was a response to the rapid deforestation and loss of forest cover in the
post-independence era.

4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

Objective: To prevent, control, and reduce air pollution.

Key Features:

●​ CPCB and SPCBs are empowered to monitor air quality and control emissions from
industrial units and automobiles.
 ●​ Industries must obtain consent before setting up operations likely to emit pollutants.
●​ Authorizes the Pollution Control Boards to set air quality standards.
●​ Declares certain areas as Air Pollution Control Areas, where stricter norms apply.

Amendments: Later amendments included noise pollution under the definition of air
pollution.

5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

Objective: To provide a framework for coordination among various agencies and consolidate
environmental protection laws under one umbrella.

Key Features:

●​ Considered an umbrella legislation that fills the gaps in the existing laws.
●​ Enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) as a response to industrial hazards.
●​ Empowers the central government to take all necessary measures for environmental
protection.
●​ Enables setting standards for emission or discharge of pollutants.
●​ Empowers government to close down polluting industries or prohibit operations.
●​ Provides for penalties including imprisonment up to five years or fine up to Rs. 1 lakh.

Rules under EPA:

●​ Hazardous Waste Management Rules

●​ Biomedical Waste Management Rules
●​ E-Waste Management Rules
●​ Plastic Waste Management Rules

6. The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006

Objective: To recognize and vest forest rights in forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other
traditional forest dwellers.

Key Features:

●​ Recognizes individual and community rights over forest land and resources.
●​ Empowers tribal communities to protect, regenerate, and conserve forest areas.
●​ Provides rights to minor forest produce, grazing areas, and traditional cultivation.
●​ Empowers Gram Sabhas (village assemblies) to determine rights and manage forest
resources.
●​ Aims to correct the historical injustice done to forest dwellers by denying them rights
over land and forest.
Role of Judiciary in Environmental Protection

The Indian judiciary has played a proactive role in environmental conservation. The Public
Interest Litigation (PIL)mechanism has allowed citizens to approach the courts for
environmental protection.

Some landmark judgments include:

●​ MC Mehta vs. Union of India (1986): Clean-up of the Ganga River.

●​ Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996): Recognized the
precautionary principle and polluter pays principle.
●​ Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991): Right to pollution-free water and air is part
of Right to Life under Article 21.

Principles of Environmental Law in India

1.​ Precautionary Principle: In case of serious threats to the environment,

precautionary measures must be taken even if some cause-and-effect relationships
are not fully established scientifically.
2.​ Polluter Pays Principle: The polluter is responsible for the cost of damage caused
to the environment.
3.​ Public Trust Doctrine: The government is a trustee of all natural resources and
must protect them for the benefit of all.
4.​ Intergenerational Equity: The environment must be preserved for the benefit of
present and future generations.

Challenges in Implementation

Despite comprehensive laws, enforcement remains a major challenge:

●​ Lack of political will.

●​ Corruption and red-tapism.
●​ Lack of coordination between various departments.
●​ Insufficient funding and manpower for pollution control boards.
●​ Public apathy and lack of awareness.
●​ Conflict between development and conservation, particularly in infrastructure and
mining projects.

Recent Developments and Policy Frameworks

●​ National Green Tribunal (NGT): Established in 2010 for expeditious disposal of

environmental cases.
 ●​ National Environment Policy (2006): Provides a vision for sustainable
development.
●​ Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Aims at improving sanitation and reducing pollution.
●​ Clean Energy Initiatives: Focus on solar, wind, and hydropower.
●​ Draft Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020: Generated
public debate due to its perceived dilution of environmental norms.

Conclusion

Environmental legislation in India is vital for conserving biodiversity, ensuring sustainable

development, and protecting public health. While laws exist on paper, their effective
implementation remains the key challenge. Strengthening environmental governance
requires:

●​ Better enforcement mechanisms.

●​ Transparent public consultation processes.
●​ Strengthened institutions like CPCB and SPCBs.
●​ Greater citizen participation and awareness.
●​ Integration of traditional ecological knowledge.

A clean and healthy environment is a constitutional right and a moral obligation. For India to
progress sustainably, environmental laws must not only be implemented effectively but also
continually updated to meet emerging challenges such as climate change, e-waste, and
urban pollution.

Lesson 16: Human Communities and the Environment

Introduction

Human beings are not separate from the environment; rather, they are a fundamental part of
it. The interdependence between human communities and nature is deeply rooted in history,
culture, and survival. Over time, however, rapid industrialization, urbanization, and
population explosion have led to severe environmental degradation. This lesson examines
how human communities interact with their environment, the consequences of population
growth, and the various initiatives and practices aimed at achieving a harmonious balance
between development and environmental conservation.

Factors Responsible for Human Population Growth

Human population growth is one of the most significant environmental issues today. The
global population, particularly in developing countries like India, has risen exponentially over
the last few decades due to several key factors:
 1.​ Improved Healthcare: Advancements in medical science have significantly lowered
death rates and infant mortality, thereby increasing life expectancy.
2.​ Lack of Family Planning Awareness: In many rural and underprivileged
communities, limited access to family planning methods contributes to higher birth
rates.
3.​ Poverty and Illiteracy: Poor families often view having more children as a source of
additional income, especially in agrarian economies.
4.​ Social and Religious Beliefs: Certain traditions and religious beliefs encourage
large families.

These factors together contribute to a rapidly growing population, which increases pressure
on natural resources and contributes to pollution, deforestation, and habitat loss.

Impacts of Population Growth on Environment and Human Health

1.​ Depletion of Natural Resources: A larger population demands more water, energy,
and food, leading to over-extraction of resources and degradation of ecosystems.
2.​ Air and Water Pollution: Urban sprawl and industrialization result in high levels of
air and water pollution, which in turn affect public health.
3.​ Loss of Biodiversity: Expanding human settlements and agricultural land result in
the destruction of wildlife habitats.
4.​ Increased Waste Generation: More people means more waste, including hazardous
and non-biodegradable materials that pollute land and water.
5.​ Health Challenges: Overcrowding and pollution contribute to diseases such as
respiratory infections, water-borne diseases, and malnutrition.

Steps for Population Control

Recognizing the adverse effects of overpopulation, several measures are being adopted:

●​ Family Planning Programs: Government and NGOs promote birth control, spacing
methods, and awareness about small families.
●​ Women Empowerment: Educating and empowering women to make decisions
regarding reproduction significantly reduces fertility rates.
●​ Improved Healthcare Access: Ensuring maternal and child health reduces infant
mortality, which in turn discourages larger families.
●​ Economic Incentives: Providing incentives for small families in government
schemes or employment opportunities.

Carbon Footprint and Its Impact

A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (mainly CO₂) emitted directly or
indirectly by human activities. It is a critical indicator of environmental impact.
 ●​ Sources: Transportation, electricity use, industrial processes, and deforestation.
●​ Consequences: Increased carbon emissions lead to climate change, global
warming, melting glaciers, rising sea levels, and extreme weather conditions.
●​ Mitigation Strategies: Shifting to renewable energy sources, reducing waste,
promoting afforestation, and adopting sustainable transportation methods.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) of Development-Affected People

Large-scale development projects such as dams, highways, mining, and industrial zones
often displace thousands of people. Proper R&R is essential for maintaining social justice
and minimizing human suffering.

Key Components of Effective R&R:

●​ Compensation: Fair and timely compensation for lost land and property.
●​ Rehabilitation: Provision of housing, employment, and access to health and
education services.
●​ Community Participation: Involving local people in planning and decision-making
ensures more effective and humane rehabilitation.

Case Studies:

●​ The Narmada Bachao Andolan highlighted the plight of people displaced by large
dams.
●​ Various dam projects in India have been criticized for inadequate R&R policies,
causing long-term social and economic distress.

CNG Vehicles Initiative in Delhi

To address the severe air pollution in Delhi, the government initiated the Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG) vehicle program:

●​ Background: In the 1990s, Delhi’s air pollution levels became hazardous, largely
due to vehicular emissions.
●​ Court Intervention: In 1998, the Supreme Court of India mandated the conversion of
public transport vehicles (buses, autos, taxis) to CNG.
●​ Results:
○​ Significant improvement in air quality.
○​ Reduction in diseases caused by air pollution.
○​ Promotion of cleaner fuel technologies across India.

This initiative is considered a landmark environmental success story in urban India.

Conclusion

Human communities are both the cause and the victim of environmental degradation. As the
population continues to grow, so does the pressure on natural systems. However, with
informed policies, community participation, sustainable practices, and technological
innovation, it is possible to mitigate the adverse effects of human activity.

Key to environmental sustainability is a balance between development and conservation.

People must be aware of their ecological responsibilities, and governments must ensure that
laws and programs are implemented effectively, especially in vulnerable communities.
Promoting environmental education, reducing carbon footprints, and improving resettlement
policies are vital for building a sustainable future for both people and the planet.

Lesson 17: Environmental Movements in India

Introduction

Environmental movements in India have played a crucial role in preserving nature, protecting
traditional rights over resources, and spreading environmental awareness. These
movements are usually grassroots efforts led by local communities, activists, and sometimes
non-governmental organizations. They have responded to ecological degradation, industrial
exploitation, deforestation, displacement, and environmental injustice. This lesson explores
the significant environmental movements in India, their causes, impacts, and how they have
shaped policy and public consciousness.

India’s environmental activism blends scientific, ecological, and social concerns with spiritual
and cultural traditions, often championed by those most directly dependent on natural
resources—tribal communities, farmers, and women.

Major Environmental Movements in India

1. The Bishnoi Movement (1700s – Continuing)

Origin: Rajasthan

Background: The Bishnoi community, followers of Guru Jambheshwar, have long been
committed to protecting flora and fauna. In 1730, the famous Khejarli Massacre occurred,
where 363 Bishnois led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives to protect Khejri trees from
being cut down by the king’s men.

Core Principles:

●​ Non-violence toward all living beings.

●​ Conservation of trees and wildlife.
 ●​ Promotion of a sustainable lifestyle.

Impact: The Bishnoi movement is perhaps India’s earliest known ecological movement. It
laid the foundation for future environmental activism and highlighted the spiritual connection
between people and nature.

2. The Chipko Movement (1973)

Origin: Uttarakhand (then Uttar Pradesh), in the village of Reni

Leaders: Sunderlal Bahuguna, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, and Gaura Devi

Background: The movement began as a protest against the government’s policy of allowing
commercial logging in the forests of the Himalayas, which local people depended on for their
livelihood.

Method:

●​ Villagers, especially women, hugged trees (hence "Chipko", meaning “to cling”) to
prevent contractors from cutting them.

Objectives:

●​ Stop deforestation and commercial exploitation of forests.

●​ Promote sustainable forest management by local communities.

Outcomes:

●​ Ban on felling of trees in Himalayan regions for 15 years by the Indian government.
●​ Spread of awareness on forest conservation nationwide.
●​ Recognition of the role of women in environmental protection.

3. Save Silent Valley Movement (1978–1985)

Origin: Kerala

Background: The movement was started to oppose a proposed hydroelectric project on the
Kunthipuzha River in the Silent Valley, a pristine tropical evergreen forest rich in
biodiversity and home to the endangered Lion-tailed macaque.

Supporters:

●​ Kerala Sasthra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP)

●​ Ecologists and scientists from across India

Impact:
 ●​ The project was ultimately shelved in 1985.
●​ The Silent Valley was declared a National Park.
●​ The movement marked the beginning of scientifically supported environmental
activism in India.

4. Appiko Movement (1983)

Origin: Karnataka

Inspired by: The Chipko Movement

Leader: Pandurang Hegde

Background: The movement started in the Western Ghats to protect forests from
commercial logging and monoculture plantations.

Method:

●​ Hugging trees and preventing felling.

●​ Conducting awareness campaigns in schools and villages.

Objectives:

●​ Conserve forests and biodiversity.

●​ Educate people about the ecological importance of forests.
●​ Promote use of alternative energy and sustainable development.

Impact:

●​ Brought attention to deforestation in the Western Ghats.

●​ Led to re-evaluation of state forest policies.
●​ Contributed to broader forest conservation campaigns.

5. Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) (1985 onwards)

Region: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat

Leaders: Medha Patkar, Baba Amte, and others

Background: NBA began as a protest against the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam
on the Narmada River, which would displace thousands of people, especially tribal
communities, and submerge vast tracts of forests and fertile agricultural land.

Issues Raised:

●​ Displacement of people without proper rehabilitation.

●​ Environmental degradation.
 ●​ Injustice to tribal and rural communities.

Key Demands:

●​ Stop construction of big dams.

●​ Consider smaller, decentralized water management systems.
●​ Adequate compensation and rehabilitation for affected communities.

Achievements:

●​ Raised national and international awareness.

●​ Delayed the project and forced re-assessment of dam policies.
●​ Triggered judicial and policy debates on sustainable development, human rights,
and environmental justice.

Common Themes Across Movements

1.​ People-Centric: These movements were largely driven by people who were directly
affected—tribals, women, farmers, and fisherfolk.
2.​ Role of Women: Women often played central roles, as they are traditionally the most
dependent on local natural resources for household needs.
3.​ Non-Violent Protest: Inspired by Gandhian philosophy, most movements used
peaceful resistance, such as hugging trees or sit-in protests.
4.​ Cultural and Spiritual Connections: Many movements integrated cultural traditions
with ecological ethics (e.g., Bishnoi practices, sacred groves).
5.​ Decentralization: A strong demand for empowering local communities and Gram
Sabhas to manage natural resources.

Significance of Environmental Movements

●​ Policy Impact: Led to formulation and reform of environmental laws like the Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980, and Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
●​ Awareness Generation: Educated people and policymakers about ecological issues
and the long-term consequences of unchecked development.
●​ Judicial Intervention: Encouraged the judiciary to consider environmental rights as
fundamental rights under Article 21.
●​ Research and Documentation: Created space for academic and scientific studies
to influence public policy.

Limitations and Challenges

Despite their successes, these movements have faced numerous challenges:

 ●​ State Resistance: Governments have often been reluctant to halt development
projects.
●​ Media Coverage: Rural and tribal voices are often underrepresented in mainstream
media.
●​ Economic Pressure: The need for energy and infrastructure can sometimes
outweigh ecological concerns.
●​ Fragmentation: Movements often remain localized and disconnected from broader
national policies.

Legacy and Relevance Today

Environmental movements in India laid the foundation for:

●​ Environmental Justice: Recognizing the link between social equity and ecological
health.
●​ Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA): Projects now require thorough EIAs
before approval.
●​ Civil Society Engagement: NGOs, students, and academics continue the legacy of
environmental activism.
●​ Green Laws: India now has a robust legal framework to manage air, water, forests,
and biodiversity.

In the present context of climate change, these movements remain relevant as they offer
sustainable, community-driven models of development.

Conclusion

Environmental movements in India are powerful reminders of the role citizens can play in
shaping policies and protecting natural resources. They highlight the deep connection
between human rights, ecology, and justice. From the Bishnoi community’s 18th-century
sacrifices to modern-day struggles like the Narmada Bachao Andolan, these movements
continue to inspire ecological consciousness, public participation, and democratic resistance
to exploitative development.

They urge us to rethink the meaning of "progress" and champion models of growth that are
inclusive, just, and ecologically sustainable. In an age of climate emergencies, their
message is more important than ever: that protecting nature is not an option, but a necessity
for survival and dignity.

Lesson 18: Disaster Management

Introduction
Disasters—both natural and human-made—have always posed challenges to civilizations.
From ancient floods and earthquakes to modern industrial accidents and nuclear meltdowns,
the scale and frequency of disasters have grown, particularly in the face of climate change
and technological advancement. In a country like India, with diverse geographical features
and high population density, disaster management becomes not only a necessity but a
national priority.

This lesson explores the concepts, types, causes, and management strategies of disasters,
focusing on prevention, mitigation, and institutional mechanisms at both national and
international levels.

Definition and Concept of Disaster

A disaster is defined as a sudden, calamitous event that causes significant damage to life,
property, and the environment, often exceeding the ability of the affected community to cope
using its own resources. Disasters disrupt normal life and can result in loss of lives,
livelihoods, infrastructure, and natural ecosystems.

Key aspects of disasters:

●​ Unpredictability
●​ Sudden onset
●​ Large-scale impact
●​ Requirement of emergency response

Types of Disasters

Disasters are generally classified into two broad categories:

1. Natural Disasters

These originate from natural phenomena and include:

●​ Earthquakes: Sudden shaking of the Earth caused by tectonic movements.

●​ Floods: Overflow of water submerging normally dry areas, often due to heavy rainfall
or dam failures.
●​ Cyclones: Intense circular storms originating over warm ocean waters, characterized
by strong winds and heavy rainfall.
●​ Droughts: Prolonged periods of insufficient rainfall causing water scarcity.
●​ Tsunamis: Giant sea waves caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.
●​ Landslides: Downward movement of soil and rock due to gravity, often triggered by
rainfall or deforestation.
●​ Volcanic Eruptions: Emission of magma, ash, and gases from a volcano.
2. Anthropogenic (Human-made) Disasters

These are caused by human negligence or technological failures:

●​ Industrial Accidents: Such as the Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

●​ Nuclear Disasters: Like Chernobyl or Fukushima.
●​ Chemical Spills
●​ Fire Hazards
●​ Terrorist Attacks and Bombings
●​ Transportation Accidents (rail, road, air)

India’s Vulnerability to Disasters

India is particularly disaster-prone due to:

●​ Its geographical diversity (Himalayas, coastlines, desert, river systems)

●​ High population density
●​ Poor urban planning in many areas
●​ Climatic variability

Statistics:

●​ Over 58% of Indian landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes.

●​ About 12% is prone to floods.
●​ Nearly 570 million people live in cyclone-prone areas.
●​ Drought affects nearly 68% of the country’s land area.

Disaster Management: Meaning and Objectives

Disaster Management refers to the systematic process of planning, organizing,

coordinating, and implementing measures to prepare for, respond to, and recover from
disasters. It encompasses both short-term emergency relief and long-term mitigation
strategies.

Main Objectives:

●​ Minimize loss of life and property.

●​ Restore normalcy post-disaster.
●​ Build resilience and preparedness among communities.
●​ Promote sustainable and risk-sensitive development.

Phases of Disaster Management

 1.​ Preparedness: Planning, training, simulations, public awareness, and early warning
systems.
2.​ Mitigation: Efforts to reduce the impact, such as building earthquake-resistant
structures or maintaining flood plains.
3.​ Response: Immediate action after disaster strikes—rescue, relief, evacuation, and
medical care.
4.​ Recovery: Rebuilding infrastructure, rehabilitating displaced people, and restoring
economic activity.

This is often depicted as a Disaster Management Cycle, emphasizing continuous

improvement.

Mitigation Strategies

Mitigation is crucial for minimizing the destructive effects of disasters. Examples include:

●​ Zoning and land-use regulations

●​ Coastal protection infrastructure
●​ Flood embankments
●​ Earthquake-resistant buildings
●​ Use of GIS and satellite imagery for vulnerability mapping

The principle of “Build Back Better” is key to ensuring safer recovery after disasters.

Institutional Framework for Disaster Management in India

India has established a robust legal and administrative framework for disaster management.

Disaster Management Act, 2005

●​ Established the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the

leadership of the Prime Minister.
●​ Created State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) and District Disaster
Management Authorities (DDMAs).
●​ Laid down roles for ministries, departments, local bodies, and NGOs.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

●​ Apex body for disaster management.

●​ Prepares policies, plans, and guidelines.
●​ Coordinates responses across ministries and states.

State and District Authorities

●​ Implement state-level disaster plans.

●​ Coordinate relief and rehabilitation locally.
 ●​ Headed by Chief Ministers (state) and District Collectors (district).

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

●​ A premier training and capacity-building institution under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

DRR aims to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards through prevention and
preparedness.

Key Components:

●​ Hazard assessment
●​ Vulnerability analysis
●​ Risk mapping
●​ Community-based disaster risk management
●​ Integration of DRR into school curricula and development policies

India is also a signatory to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2015–2030), which emphasizes:

●​ Understanding risk
●​ Strengthening governance
●​ Investing in resilience
●​ Improving response capacity

Role of Community in Disaster Management

Community participation is essential, as local residents are usually the first responders.
Strategies include:

●​ Training local volunteers

●​ Creating village-level disaster plans
●​ Involving women and youth
●​ Strengthening traditional coping mechanisms

Case studies show that disaster preparedness at the grassroots level significantly reduces
casualties and economic losses.

Role of Technology in Disaster Management

Modern technology plays a vital role in disaster prevention, prediction, and response:
 ●​ Remote Sensing & GIS: For hazard mapping and monitoring.
●​ Doppler Radars: For cyclone and storm tracking.
●​ Early Warning Systems: Issued by Indian Meteorological Department and INCOIS.
●​ Communication Networks: For disseminating alerts.
●​ Mobile Applications: Such as NDMA’s “Disaster Alert” app.

Major Disasters in India: Case Studies

1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984)

●​ Leakage of methyl isocyanate gas from Union Carbide plant.

●​ Over 15,000 deaths and lakhs injured.
●​ Resulted in environmental and legal reforms.

2. Gujarat Earthquake (2001)

●​ Magnitude 7.7; epicenter near Bhuj.

●​ Over 20,000 deaths.
●​ Massive destruction but also set examples for reconstruction.

3. Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004)

●​ Triggered by a 9.1 magnitude undersea earthquake.

●​ Affected Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Andaman-Nicobar.
●​ Over 10,000 people killed in India alone.

4. Uttarakhand Flash Floods (2013)

●​ Cloudburst and glacier collapse led to floods and landslides.

●​ Destroyed the pilgrimage town of Kedarnath.
●​ Highlighted need for ecological safeguards in Himalayan region.

5. Cyclone Fani (2019)

●​ One of the strongest tropical cyclones in recent history.

●​ Odisha’s successful evacuation of 1.2 million people was globally praised.

Challenges in Disaster Management in India

Despite improvements, several challenges remain:

●​ Inadequate infrastructure
●​ Poor enforcement of building codes
●​ Lack of trained personnel at grassroots levels
●​ Urban encroachments in hazard-prone areas
●​ Climate change increasing unpredictability
Future Directions and Recommendations

To strengthen disaster resilience, India must:

●​ Invest in research and early warning systems.

●​ Make disaster education part of all curricula.
●​ Involve private sector and civil society in disaster planning.
●​ Ensure inclusive policies considering vulnerable groups like women, children,
disabled, and elderly.
●​ Promote nature-based solutions like mangrove plantations and watershed
management.

The goal is to move from a reactive to a proactive approach.

Conclusion

Disaster management is no longer merely about emergency relief. It is a multi-dimensional,

multi-sectoral responsibility involving preparedness, capacity-building, governance,
community engagement, and environmental sustainability. India, given its vulnerability, must
prioritize risk reduction and resilience-building to safeguard its people, economy, and
ecosystems.

The ultimate goal is not only to save lives but also to protect livelihoods, reduce economic
loss, and build a culture of safety and sustainability.

Lesson 19: Sustainable Development and

Environmental Education

Introduction

In the 21st century, environmental concerns have become central to the global development
agenda. With the escalation of climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution, and resource
scarcity, a new paradigm of development—Sustainable Development (SD)—has emerged
as a key concept. It emphasizes meeting human needs while ensuring ecological balance for
future generations. Integral to this goal is Environmental Education (EE), which equips
individuals with the knowledge, skills, values, and motivation to take responsible action for
the environment.
Lesson 19 elaborates on these two interlinked domains—Sustainable Development and
Environmental Education—highlighting their principles, significance, implementation
strategies, and global and Indian contexts.

Part I: Sustainable Development (SD)

Definition and Origin

The term sustainable development gained global prominence with the publication of the
Brundtland Report ("Our Common Future") by the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) in 1987. It defined sustainable development as:

“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”

This definition reflects the dual concern for environmental protection and
social-economic progress.

Pillars of Sustainable Development

Sustainable development rests on three interdependent pillars:

1.​ Environmental Sustainability

○​ Protects ecosystems, maintains biodiversity, and manages natural resources
responsibly.
○​ Examples: conservation of water, afforestation, waste reduction, clean energy
adoption.
2.​ Economic Sustainability
○​ Ensures long-term economic growth without degrading environmental or
social systems.
○​ Includes employment generation, efficient resource use, green technologies.
3.​ Social Sustainability
○​ Promotes social equity, justice, and inclusive development.
○​ Ensures access to education, healthcare, gender equality, and community
participation.

Importance of Sustainable Development

●​ Environmental Health: Prevents overexploitation of natural resources.

●​ Economic Resilience: Creates stable, green economies with long-term viability.
 ●​ Social Equity: Reduces poverty and bridges disparities between communities.
●​ Climate Action: A key strategy in fighting climate change and global warming.

Global Initiatives on Sustainable Development

1. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

In 2015, the UN adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including 17
SDGs and 169 targets, to guide global action until 2030.

Examples of SDGs:

●​ Goal 1: No Poverty
●​ Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being
●​ Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
●​ Goal 13: Climate Action
●​ Goal 15: Life on Land

2. Agenda 21

A non-binding action plan from the Earth Summit (1992), encouraging countries to adopt
environmentally sound development practices.

3. Paris Agreement (2015)

An international treaty under the UNFCCC aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and limiting global warming to well below 2°C.

Sustainable Development in India

India has incorporated sustainability into its national policies:

●​ National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): Includes 8 missions such as

National Solar Mission, National Water Mission.
●​ Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Aims at improving sanitation and waste management.
●​ Smart Cities Mission: Promotes urban sustainability.
●​ National Electric Mobility Mission: Encourages electric vehicle use.

India also aligns its development goals with the SDGs, focusing on inclusive growth, rural
development, and environmental protection.

Part II: Environmental Education (EE)

Definition

Environmental Education is defined by UNESCO as:

“A process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in

problem-solving, and take action to improve the environment.”

It builds environmental awareness and promotes sustainable practices through a life-long

learning process.

Objectives of Environmental Education

1.​ Awareness: Foster understanding of environmental issues.

2.​ Knowledge: Provide accurate, interdisciplinary environmental information.
3.​ Attitude: Encourage concern and respect for nature.
4.​ Skills: Develop abilities to identify and solve environmental problems.
5.​ Participation: Motivate active involvement in protecting the environment.

Scope of Environmental Education

EE encompasses a wide range of subjects:

●​ Ecology and biodiversity

●​ Pollution and waste management
●​ Climate change and global warming
●​ Forests and water resources
●​ Renewable energy
●​ Environmental ethics and rights

Levels of Implementation

1. Formal Environmental Education

●​ Integrated into school and university curricula.

●​ Subjects like Environmental Studies (EVS), Geography, Biology cover environmental
topics.
●​ National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasizes environmental literacy.

2. Non-formal Education

●​ NGOs, community groups, and media campaigns play a role.

 ●​ Eco-clubs in schools conduct awareness drives, tree plantations, and waste
management.

3. Informal Education

●​ Learning through personal experience, social media, books, and documentaries.

●​ Examples: nature walks, recycling at home, eco-tourism.

Environmental Education in India

India has taken several steps to promote EE:

a. Supreme Court Directive (2003)

Mandated compulsory environmental education at all levels of education.

b. National Green Corps (NGC)

Eco-clubs in over 1 lakh schools across India promote eco-awareness.

c. University Grants Commission (UGC)

Introduced Environmental Studies as a compulsory subject for all undergraduate students.

d. National Policy on Education

Recognizes EE as a tool for promoting sustainable development.

Challenges in Implementing EE

●​ Lack of trained teachers and teaching resources.

●​ Overcrowded curricula in schools.
●​ Urban-rural divide in access to EE.
●​ Insufficient linkage with practical action.

Integration of EE and SD

Environmental Education and Sustainable Development are deeply interlinked:

●​ EE promotes values of responsibility and critical thinking necessary for SD.

●​ SD provides real-world context for applying EE knowledge.
●​ Together, they promote a culture of sustainability, responsibility, and action.
Key Themes Linking SD and EE
1.​ Climate Literacy
○​ Understanding causes and consequences of climate change.
○​ Promotes actions like energy conservation and carbon footprint reduction.
2.​ Biodiversity Conservation
○​ Teaches ecological interdependence and value of all life forms.
3.​ Resource Efficiency
○​ Encourages “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” (3Rs) mindset.
4.​ Environmental Justice
○​ Advocates for fair treatment of all people regardless of race or income in
environmental laws.
5.​ Youth Empowerment
○​ Engages students in hands-on projects and campaigns (e.g., Plastic-free
campus drives).

Role of Stakeholders

a. Government

●​ Formulates policies and provides funding.

●​ Integrates EE into national development plans.

b. Educational Institutions

●​ Develop environment-friendly campuses.

●​ Promote green audits and environmental clubs.

c. Teachers and Educators

●​ Act as facilitators of environmental thinking.

●​ Use experiential learning and participatory methods.

d. NGOs and Civil Society

●​ Organize workshops, rallies, and grassroots environmental campaigns.

e. Youth and Citizens

●​ Take personal and collective action.

●​ Example: Climate strikes, green innovation.

Best Practices in India and Globally

 ●​ Green Schools Programme (India): Promotes sustainability in school infrastructure
and practices.
●​ ECO-UNESCO (Ireland): Youth-led environmental action.
●​ NatureBridge (USA): Outdoor education promoting environmental stewardship.
●​ Green Olympiad (TERI): National-level quiz for students on environmental issues.

Outcomes of Environmental Education for Sustainability

When effectively implemented, EE leads to:

●​ Informed decision-making
●​ Pro-environmental behaviors
●​ Civic engagement
●​ Sustainable consumption
●​ Community resilience

Way Forward: Recommendations for India

1.​ Curriculum Reform

○​ Make EE more practical and interdisciplinary.
○​ Include local environmental issues in syllabi.
2.​ Capacity Building
○​ Train teachers and educators in environmental pedagogy.
3.​ Monitoring and Evaluation
○​ Develop tools to assess EE impact on student behavior.
4.​ Technology Integration
○​ Use digital media, mobile apps, and gamification in EE.
5.​ Community Participation
○​ Encourage parent and community involvement in school environmental
activities.
6.​ Policy Synergy
○​ Align education policies with climate action and sustainable development
goals.

Conclusion

Environmental Education and Sustainable Development are two sides of the same coin.
While SD provides the vision of a better world, EE builds the knowledge and motivation to
realize that vision. For a populous and diverse country like India, both are indispensable in
ensuring ecological integrity, economic equity, and human well-being.

With continued efforts in education, policy, and public awareness, we can empower present
and future generations to not only survive but thrive within the limits of our planet.
1.​ The term “biodiversity hotspot” was coined by ________ in the year ________.​
→ Norman Myers, 1988
2.​ According to the IUCN Red List categories, a species facing an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild is termed ________.​
→ Critically Endangered
3.​ The core-buffer strategy of Project Tiger was officially recommended in the
________ Task Force Report of the Government of India.​
→ 1972
4.​ The ________ Biosphere Reserve was the first to be included under UNESCO’s
MAB Programme from India.​
→ Nilgiri
5.​ The Indian forest classification used by Champion and Seth divides forest
types into ________ major groups and ________ sub-types.​
→ 5, 16
6.​ According to the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, local-level implementation is
entrusted to ________, established at the level of Panchayats.​
→ Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)
7.​ The maximum number of Ramsar wetlands in India are located in the state of
________.​
→ Uttar Pradesh
8.​ The “Polluter Pays Principle” was explicitly upheld by the Supreme Court of
India in the case of ________.​
→ Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum vs. Union of India (1996)
9.​ The ________ Protocol aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while the
________ Protocol seeks to protect the ozone layer.​
→ Kyoto, Montreal
10.​The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 empowers the Central Government
under Section ________ to take measures to protect and improve the
environment.​
→ Section 3
11.​The tiger census in India is conducted every ________ years by the ________.​
→ 4, National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
12.​The main chemical component responsible for ozone depletion is ________,
which contains chlorine and fluorine atoms.​
→ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
13.​The use of the drug ________ in veterinary medicine led to a catastrophic
decline in vulture populations in India.​
→ Diclofenac
14.​Project Elephant was launched by the Government of India in the year
________ to ensure long-term survival of the Asian elephant.​
→ 1992
15.​The carbon footprint of an activity is commonly expressed in terms of
equivalent ________ emissions.​
→ carbon dioxide (CO₂)
16.​As per the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, approval for the diversion of forest
land for non-forest purposes must be obtained from the ________.​
→ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
17.​The Narmada Bachao Andolan primarily opposed the construction of the
________ Dam under the Sardar Sarovar Project.​
→ Sardar Sarovar
18.​The Appiko Movement in Karnataka was led by ________, who mobilized locals
using the slogan “to save, to grow, to use.”​
→ Pandurang Hegde
19.​The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 classifies species into ________ schedules,
where species under Schedule I receive the highest protection.​
→ Six
20.​The wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention are
selected based on the criteria laid down in ________ Resolution adopted in the
year ________.​
→ Ramsar, 1999 (COP7)
21.​The Brundtland Report, titled “Our Common Future,” was published in the year
________ and introduced the modern concept of sustainable development.​
→ 1987
22.​The disaster management cycle includes four key stages: mitigation,
preparedness, response, and ________.​
→ recovery
23.​The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India was established
under the Disaster Management Act of ________.​
→ 2005
24.​The Chipko Movement was a response to logging activities in the ________
Himalayas.​
→ Garhwal
25.​The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) succeeded the
earlier ________ Framework.​
→ Hyogo
26.​Social sustainability emphasizes equity, access to resources, cultural identity,
and ________ inclusion.​
→ social
27.​The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan was launched in the year ________ and aims to
eliminate open defecation and improve solid waste management.​
→ 2014
28.​The Disaster Management Act, 2005 designates the ________ as the
Chairperson of the NDMA.​
→ Prime Minister
29.​The most earthquake-prone region in India is classified as Seismic Zone
________.​
→V
30.​The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in
________ by UNEP and the WMO.​
→ 1988
31.​The movement led by Medha Patkar to protest large dam construction in the
Narmada Valley is known as the ________.​
→ Narmada Bachao Andolan
32.​The primary objective of the Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) policy is to
ensure minimum ________ for the displaced persons.​
→ disruption
33.​The concept of “Intergenerational Equity” was first legally recognized in the
Indian context through the ________ case.​
→ MC Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1996)
34.​The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) is
also popularly known as the ________.​
→ Earth Summit (1992)
35.​The International Day for Disaster Risk Reduction is observed annually on
________.​
→ 13th October
36.​The “Ecological Footprint” is a measure of human demand on ________
systems.​
→ ecosystem
37.​Biodiversity conservation is a key target under Goal ________ of the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals.​
→ 15
38.​The 73rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution empowered local
self-governance through ________ institutions.​
→ Panchayati Raj
39.​The phrase “think globally, act locally” reflects the essence of ________
environmental governance.​
→ participatory
40.​The National Green Corps (NGC) programme promotes eco-club formation in
________ schools across India.​
→ government