MODULE - 04

1. Channel Allocations in MAC Sublayer

In shared communication environments, multiple devices attempt to access the same
communication channel, and it is the job of the MAC sublayer to manage how the channel is
allocated to these devices. There are two main types of channel allocation:
Static Channel Allocation:
• In static channel allocation, each device has a fixed time slot or specific part of the
channel assigned to it. This method avoids collisions but may be inefficient if some
devices do not need to use the full bandwidth of their assigned time slots.
o Example: Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), where each device is
assigned a specific time slot for transmission.
Dynamic Channel Allocation:
• In dynamic channel allocation, devices are allowed to access the channel when
needed, and the MAC layer uses protocols to control the access and avoid collisions.
This method is more flexible and is commonly used in many network protocols.
o Example: Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) and ALOHA.

2. Multiple Access Protocols

Multiple access protocols are designed to allow multiple devices to share the same
communication medium, minimizing collisions and ensuring fair access to the medium.
Some of the most common multiple access protocols are:
ALOHA (Areal Link Overhead)
• ALOHA is one of the earliest protocols used for managing access to a shared
communication medium. It works on a simple principle: a device sends data
whenever it has data to transmit and listens for acknowledgments.
• Pure ALOHA:
o A device sends data when it has data to send.
o If there is no collision, the sender receives an acknowledgment (ACK).
o If a collision occurs, the sender waits for a random amount of time before
retransmitting.
o Efficiency: Pure ALOHA is inefficient because collisions are common, and the
protocol requires frequent retransmissions.
 • Slotted ALOHA:
o In Slotted ALOHA, time is divided into slots, and each device waits for the
beginning of a time slot before sending data.
o This reduces the possibility of collisions by aligning the transmission times of
multiple devices.
o Efficiency: Slotted ALOHA is more efficient than pure ALOHA, but collisions
still occur.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• CSMA is a protocol that listens to the medium before transmitting data to avoid
collisions. It works by sensing whether the channel is free or occupied.
o Non-persistent CSMA:
▪ The sender checks the channel and if it is busy, it waits for a random
amount of time before checking again.
▪ If the channel is free, the sender begins transmission immediately.
o 1-persistent CSMA:
▪ The sender waits for the channel to be idle and then transmits
immediately once the channel is free.
▪ If the channel is busy, the sender continuously checks until it becomes
free.
▪ This approach can cause collisions if multiple devices transmit at the
same time.
o p-persistent CSMA:
▪ It is a compromise between non-persistent and 1-persistent CSMA. If
the channel is idle, the sender transmits with probability p and waits
with probability (1-p) if the channel is busy.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
• CSMA/CD is an extension of the CSMA protocol and is used to detect and handle
collisions on the network. CSMA/CD is primarily used in Ethernet networks.
• How it works:
o A device first senses the medium to see if it is idle or busy.
o If the medium is idle, the device starts transmitting.
o While transmitting, the device continues to listen for any possible collision. If
it detects a collision, it stops the transmission immediately.
 o After stopping, the device sends a jam signal to notify other devices of the
collision.
o Then, it waits for a random backoff time before attempting to retransmit.
• Efficiency: CSMA/CD improves efficiency compared to ALOHA and simple CSMA by
detecting collisions early and resolving them quickly.

3. LAN Architectures
Local Area Networks (LANs) are networks that typically span a small geographical area, such
as a building or campus. The MAC sublayer protocols (such as ALOHA, CSMA/CD) are integral
to the functioning of LANs.
Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
• Ethernet is one of the most common LAN technologies and uses the CSMA/CD
protocol to manage how devices access the shared communication medium.
o Ethernet frames include the destination address, source address, data, and a
CRC for error detection.
o Ethernet Characteristics:
▪ Bus Topology: In early Ethernet setups, a shared bus topology was
used, where all devices were connected to a single cable.
▪ Star Topology: Modern Ethernet LANs typically use a star topology
where each device is connected to a central switch.
▪ Bandwidth: Traditional Ethernet networks use 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps
(Fast Ethernet), and 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet) speeds. Modern
Ethernet standards, like 10 Gbps Ethernet, are used in high-speed
networks.
• Ethernet and CSMA/CD:
o Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to share bandwidth and avoid data
collisions. As devices are transmitting, they listen for collisions and handle
them efficiently by backing off and retransmitting after a random time.
IEEE 802 Standards
• The IEEE 802 family of standards defines various technologies for LANs and MANs
(Metropolitan Area Networks).
o IEEE 802.3: Standard for Ethernet, which uses CSMA/CD for medium access
control.
 o IEEE 802.11: Standard for Wireless LAN (WLAN), which is based on the
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol
instead of CSMA/CD because collision detection is not possible in wireless
communication.
o IEEE 802.5: Standard for Token Ring networks, which use a token-passing
method for media access rather than CSMA/CD.

4. OSI and MAC Sublayer

The MAC sublayer is part of the Data Link Layer in the OSI model, and it is responsible for
ensuring that devices on the same network can communicate efficiently without
interference.
OSI Model Overview:
• Layer 1 (Physical Layer): Deals with the transmission of raw bits over a physical
medium.
• Layer 2 (Data Link Layer): Handles error detection and correction, framing, and
manages access to the shared medium.
o The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
▪ MAC (Medium Access Control): Responsible for managing access to
the communication medium.
▪ LLC (Logical Link Control): Handles flow control and error
management.