Q1) What are various types of digital image formats?

Ans.

✅ Various Types of Digital Image Formats

Digital image formats are used to store, compress, and represent images in various ways
depending on the requirements such as quality, file size, transparency, or animation. These
formats can be broadly categorized into raster and vector, but most common formats are
raster-based.

🔹 1. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

 Extension: .jpg or .jpeg

 Compression: Lossy
 Best for: Photographs and web images
 Pros: Small file size
 Cons: Loss of quality after compression

🔹 2. PNG (Portable Network Graphics)

 Extension: .png
 Compression: Lossless
 Best for: Images requiring transparency (e.g., logos, icons)
 Pros: Maintains quality, supports alpha transparency
 Cons: Larger file size than JPEG

🔹 3. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)

 Extension: .gif
 Compression: Lossless (limited to 256 colors)
 Best for: Simple animations, small graphics
 Pros: Supports animation and transparency

 Cons: Poor for detailed images due to limited colors

🔹 4. BMP (Bitmap Image File)

  Extension: .bmp
 Compression: Uncompressed (or optional RLE compression)
 Best for: Windows systems and raw image data

 Pros: High quality, simple structure

 Cons: Very large file size

🔹 5. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)

 Extension: .tif or .tiff
 Compression: Lossless or uncompressed

 Best for: Medical imaging, professional photography, publishing

 Pros: Extremely high quality, supports layers
 Cons: Large file size, not web-friendly

🔹 6. WEBP
 Extension: .webp

 Compression: Lossy or lossless

 Best for: Web usage with smaller size and good quality
 Pros: Modern format with transparency and animation support
 Cons: Limited support in some older browsers or software

🔹 7. RAW Image Formats

 Extensions: .raw, .cr2, .nef, .arw, etc.
 Compression: Minimal or none
 Best for: Professional cameras and photography
 Pros: Stores all image data from the sensor
 Cons: Very large size, needs post-processing

🔹 8. SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) (Vector Format)

 Extension: .svg
 Compression: Text-based, scalable
 Best for: Graphics, logos, and illustrations
 Pros: Infinite scalability without loss of quality

 Cons: Not suitable for complex photographic images

Q2) Illustrate the term "image".
Ans.
a) An image is a two-dimensional visual representation of a real-world object or scene. In
digital image processing, an image is represented as a grid of pixels (picture elements),
where each pixel holds a specific intensity (grayscale) or color value.
b)

c)🔹 Types of Images:

1. Grayscale Image
o Only intensity levels (black to white)
o 8 bits per pixel (0–255)
2. Binary Image

o Only 0 (black) and 1 (white)

3. Color Image (RGB)
o Combination of Red, Green, and Blue components
o 24 bits per pixel (8 bits per channel)
4. Multispectral / Hyperspectral Images
 o Used in satellite and scientific imaging with more than 3 channels
d)
Q3) Classify image sensing sensors.
Ans.
Image sensing sensors are devices that capture images or visual information and convert it
into electronic signals for processing. They are widely used in cameras, medical imaging,
robotics, etc.

1. Based on the Working Principle

 Photoconductive Sensors:
These sensors change their electrical resistance when exposed to light.
o Example: Photoconductive cells (LDR - Light Dependent Resistors)
 Photovoltaic Sensors:
These generate a voltage when exposed to light, based on the photovoltaic effect.
o Example: Solar cells
 Photodiode Sensors:
They generate current proportional to light intensity. Usually operated in reverse
bias.
o Example: PIN photodiode, Avalanche photodiode (APD)
 Phototransistor Sensors:
Similar to photodiodes but with internal gain, providing higher sensitivity.

2. Based on Sensor Technology

 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCD):
Image sensors where charge is transferred across the chip and read at one corner.
High image quality, low noise, but more power-consuming and costly.
 Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS):
Sensors where each pixel has its own charge-to-voltage conversion, and the sensor
often includes amplifiers, noise-correction, and digitization circuits. Lower power,
cheaper, faster readout.

 Active Pixel Sensors (APS):

A type of CMOS sensor where each pixel includes an amplifier, improving sensitivity
and reducing noise.

3. Based on Spectral Response

  Visible Light Sensors:
Capture light in the visible spectrum (approx. 400–700 nm).
 Infrared (IR) Sensors:
Detect infrared light, used in night vision, thermal imaging.
 Ultraviolet (UV) Sensors:
Detect UV light, useful in scientific and industrial applications.
 Multispectral and Hyperspectral Sensors:
Capture images across multiple wavelengths beyond visible light for advanced
analysis.

4. Based on Imaging Mode

 2D Image Sensors:
Capture flat images with height and width.

 3D Image Sensors:
Capture depth information along with 2D images. Techniques include time-of-flight,
structured light, and stereo vision.

5. Based on Application
 Consumer Cameras Sensors:
Primarily CCD or CMOS sensors designed for everyday photography and video.
 Medical Imaging Sensors:
High-resolution sensors tailored for X-rays, MRIs, or endoscopy.
 Industrial Sensors:
For inspection, quality control, machine vision systems.
 Scientific Sensors:
Ultra-sensitive sensors for astronomy, microscopy, etc.
Q4) List the applications of image processing.
Ans.
Sure! Here’s a list of common applications of image processing across various fields:

Applications of Image Processing

1. Medical Imaging
o X-ray, MRI, CT scans analysis
o Enhancing images for diagnosis

o Tumor detection and segmentation

o Image-guided surgery
2. Remote Sensing
o Satellite image analysis
o Land use and land cover classification

o Weather forecasting
o Environmental monitoring
3. Industrial Automation
o Quality control and inspection of products
o Defect detection in manufacturing

o Robotics vision for automation

o Barcode and text recognition
4. Security and Surveillance
o Facial recognition
o Motion detection

o Object tracking
o License plate recognition
5. Multimedia Applications
o Image and video compression (JPEG, MPEG)
o Enhancement of photos and videos
o Special effects in movies and games
6. Document Processing
o Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
o Document scanning and archiving

o Handwriting recognition
7. Astronomy
o Processing images from telescopes
o Enhancing celestial images
o Object detection in space

8. Biometrics
o Fingerprint recognition
o Iris scanning
o Signature verification
9. Traffic and Transportation

o Vehicle counting and classification

o Traffic monitoring and control
o Automated toll collection
10. Agriculture
o Crop monitoring using drone images

o Disease detection in plants

o Soil analysis
11. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)
o Real-time image processing for immersive environments
o Object recognition and tracking

12. Forensics
o Image enhancement for crime investigation
o Face reconstruction
o Evidence analysis
Q5) A 8-bit digital image having 32 rows and 30 columns would require how many bits of
storage?
Ans.
Given:
 Image size: 32 rows × 30 columns

 Bit depth: 8 bits per pixel (since it's an 8-bit digital image)

Calculation:
1. Total number of pixels:
32×30=96032 \times 30 = 960 pixels
2. Bits required per pixel:
8 bits
3. Total bits required:
960×8=7680960 \times 8 = 7680 bits

Answer:
The 8-bit digital image with 32 rows and 30 columns requires 7680 bits of storage.
Q6) Compare Brightness and Contrast.
Ans.

Aspect Brightness Contrast

Refers to the overall lightness or Refers to the difference between the

1. Definition
darkness of an image. lightest and darkest parts of an image.

Alters the difference between pixel

2. Effect on Makes the entire image lighter or
intensities, enhancing or reducing
Image darker uniformly.
details.

Adding or subtracting a constant Scaling or stretching the range of pixel

3. Adjustment
value to pixel intensities. intensities.

4. Range Changes the spread between

Shifts all pixel values up or down.
Influence minimum and maximum pixel values.

Affects image sharpness and detail

Affects overall visibility; too bright
5. Visual Impact perception; higher contrast means
or too dark image can lose details.
more defined edges.

I′=a×(I−m)+mI' = a \times (I - m) + m
6. Mathematical I′=I+cI' = I + c (where cc is a
(where aa > 1 increases contrast, mm
Model constant)
is mean)

Brightness shifts pixel values Contrast increases spread from

7. Typical Range towards 0 (darker) or 255 narrow range to full 0-255 or
(brighter) in 8-bit images. compresses it.

Brightness increase: image looks High contrast: sharp distinctions

8. Image
washed out; decrease: image between edges; low contrast: image
Examples
looks dim. looks flat or faded.

9. Effect on Histogram shifts left or right along Histogram stretches or compresses

Histogram intensity axis. horizontally, affecting dynamic range.

10. Application Correcting lighting conditions or Improving feature visibility and image
Purpose exposure. clarity.

Independent of the distribution of Depends on the distribution and range

11. Dependency
pixel intensities. of pixel intensities.

12. Common Brightness sliders in photo Contrast sliders or levels/curves

Tools editors. adjustment tools.
Q7) Illustrate how the image is digitized by sampling and quantization process.
Ans.
1. Sampling

Definition:
Sampling is the process of converting the continuous spatial domain of an image into a
discrete spatial domain. It means selecting specific points or locations in the image and
measuring the intensity at those points.
How sampling works:

 An analog image can be thought of as a function f(x,y)f(x, y), where xx and yy

represent the spatial coordinates (position) on the image plane, and f(x,y)f(x, y)
represents the intensity (brightness or color) at that point.

 Since xx and yy vary continuously, there are infinitely many points in the image.
 Sampling involves selecting points at regular intervals along the horizontal and
vertical directions. These intervals are called the sampling intervals or sampling rate.
 The image is divided into a grid of small squares (pixels). The intensity is measured at
the center of each pixel.
 The result of sampling is a matrix or array of pixels, each representing the intensity at
that sampled location.
Effect of sampling rate:
 If the sampling rate is too low (large intervals), the image will lose detail and appear
blocky or pixelated. This is called under-sampling.
 If the sampling rate is high (small intervals), more pixels are captured, and the image
retains more detail.
 According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
highest spatial frequency in the image to avoid aliasing (distortion).

2. Quantization
Definition:
Quantization is the process of converting the continuous range of intensity values at each
sampled pixel into a finite set of discrete values (levels). It converts the analog amplitude
into digital form.

How quantization works:

 After sampling, each pixel has an intensity value that is still continuous, meaning it
can take any value within a range (for example, brightness could be any value from 0
to 1).
  Quantization divides the intensity range into a finite number of discrete intervals or
levels.
 Each continuous intensity value is assigned (rounded) to the nearest discrete level.
 The number of discrete levels depends on the bit depth of the image.
o For example, an 8-bit image uses 256 intensity levels (from 0 to 255).

o A 1-bit image uses only 2 levels (black and white).

 This step converts the intensity values into digital numbers that can be stored in
memory.
Effect of quantization levels:
 More levels mean better image quality because intensity variations are preserved.
 Fewer levels cause loss of detail and produce quantization noise or banding, where
smooth gradients become stepped.
Q8) Define and explain Intensity contrast. [Hint: Use formula]
Ans.
a)Intensity contrast is a measure of the difference in brightness (intensity) between different
regions or features within an image.
b)It indicates how much the intensity of a pixel or area differs from its surroundings or from
the average intensity of the image.
c)Contrast plays a crucial role in image perception, as it determines the visibility of objects
and details within the image.
d) Higher contrast means greater differences between light and dark areas, making objects
more distinguishable.
e)Lower contrast results in a flatter image where details may be lost or harder to see.

f)

g)
Q9) Assume a 7×7 Digital Image and apply histogram equalization algorithm to it.
Assume suitable grey scale if needed.
Ans.
Q10) Assume a 6×7 Digital Image and apply Histogram Shrinking algorithm to it.
Assume suitable grey scale if needed.
Ans.
Q11) Explain in detail about image acquisition system.
Ans.
Image Acquisition System

An image acquisition system is a combination of hardware and software used to capture

and digitize images from the physical environment for processing, analysis, or display. The
primary objective of an image acquisition system is to convert an analog image—such as a
scene viewed by a camera—into a digital form suitable for computer manipulation.
The image acquisition process is the first crucial step in any digital image processing
workflow because the quality of the acquired image directly affects the effectiveness of
subsequent image processing tasks.

Components of an Image Acquisition System

1. Image Sensor
The image sensor is the heart of the acquisition system. It is responsible for detecting the
light from the scene and converting it into an electrical signal.
 Types of Image Sensors:
o Charge-Coupled Devices (CCD): CCD sensors are widely used in digital
cameras and scientific imaging.
o Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS): CMOS sensors have
photodetectors and amplifiers integrated into each pixel, allowing random
access and faster readout.
o Photodiode Arrays: Some systems use linear photodiode arrays to scan
images line by line, especially in industrial inspection.
2. Optical System
The optical system focuses the light from the scene onto the sensor. It usually consists of one
or more lenses and sometimes filters.

 Lenses: Lenses control the field of view, focus, and magnification of the image
 Filters: Filters may be used to select specific wavelengths or block unwanted light
(e.g., infrared filters) to improve image quality or isolate specific features.
3. Illumination
Proper illumination is essential for acquiring clear images. In many applications, external
lighting sources are used to ensure the object is well-lit and shadows are minimized.
 Types of illumination include visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, or structured light
patterns.
  The illumination method depends on the application — for example, medical imaging
may require specialized lighting to enhance tissue contrast.
4. Signal Conditioning
The electrical signals generated by the image sensor are analog and often weak. Signal
conditioning circuits are used to amplify, filter, and convert these signals to a form suitable
for digitization.
 Amplifiers boost signal strength while minimizing noise.
 Filters remove unwanted frequency components to improve signal quality.

5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

Since the image sensor outputs analog signals, these must be converted to digital form for
processing.
 The ADC samples the conditioned analog signal at discrete intervals and converts
each sample into a binary number.
 The sampling rate and bit depth of the ADC determine the spatial and intensity
resolution of the digital image.
 Higher bit depth means more grayscale levels and better image quality but larger
data size.
6. Image Capture and Storage
Once digitized, the image data is stored in memory for processing or transmission.
 This could be temporary RAM or long-term storage like hard drives or flash memory.

 Data compression algorithms may be applied to reduce storage space.