Short Note

Key Points
University Exams
Practice Questions

Short Note
Key Points
University Exams
Practice Questions

Short Note
Key Points
University Exams
Practice Questions
Chapter Two : Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy
Foreign policy
It is the actions, decisions and goals that states pursue towards the outside world
the deriving motives behind foreign policy is the pursuit of national interest
States adopt foreign policy to achieve and promote their national interests
Foreign policy is shaped by both external/systemic factors and internal factors
external/systemic factor
International regimes, international organizations
the prevalence of great powers at international level
internal factors
economic, technological and military capabilities of states

2.1 Defining National Interest

National interest
the raison de`tat, (the reason of state), to justify its actions and policy towards other
states at international level
set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to achieve
in its international relations
controversies on the exact meaning, scope and contents of national interests
According to A. K. Holsti
an image of the future state of affairs and future set of conditions that
governments through individual policy makers aspire to bring about by wielding
influence abroad and by changing or sustaining the behaviors of other states
Power or the ability to influence the behaviors of other states is underscored as
the primary instrument to implement national interest
According to Seabury
In normative sense - set of purposes which a nation…should seek to realize in the
conduct of its foreign relations
descriptive sense - those purposes which the nation [states] through its
leadership appears to pursue persistently over time
whether national interest can be defined objectively (science) or whether it is a
subjective enterprise (art)
For Plato
 the good of the polis (that is the public good) could best be arrived at by
philosopher king aided by a few highly learned, detached and fair-minded
advisors
Plato‘s ideas have been used as the inspiration for dictatorial forms of
government
assuming that they should emphasize substance and wisdom of policies
rather than procedural issues such as public debate, consultation,
participation and criticism
one person with strength, wisdom, knowledge, and, above all, power can
make good decisions than participatory decision making
Note
foreign policy decision is not necessarily a clear-cut and rational process, Policies are
often generated through great internal political and bureaucratic debates
Criteria used in defining national interest
1. Operational Philosophy
Depending on time, location, your orientation toward the world around you, and in
particular the action of your predecessors, you may choose one of two major style
of operation
act in a bold and sweeping fashion/ synoptic orientation
Up on taking office, introduce major new practices, policies, and institutions
and discontinue
assuming there is enough information to develop a major policy with some
confidence that its consequence can be predicted or controlled
act in caution, probing, and experimental fashion/ incremental
following the trial and error approach
assuming complexity of political and economic problems and worrying about
their consequence
seeks to perfect existing legislations, policies, institutions and practices
2. Ideological Criteria
identify their friends or enemies countries using the litmus test of ideology
Example: During cold war, the ideology of communism and capitalism
3. Moral and Legal Criteria
act morally
moral behavior, in international politics involves
keeping your promise – treaties
 living and letting others live (the poor and the disadvantaged)
avoiding exploitation and uneven development between the developing
countries and the developed ones
Generally standing up for the principles to which you are morally committed and
that are widely accepted in your culture
4. Pragmatic Criteria
orientation is low key, matter of fact, not on emotions and professions
look at issues and events around you and the world with sense of prudence and
with sort of rationality
Act on the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and demerit to
your country interest
without considering normative issues, issues that involves judgment, be it bad or
good
5. Professional Advancement Criteria
consideration of your professional survival and growth, in short your personal
success
leaders might choose conformity to either to popular pressure or to strong elites
whose support they consider indispensable for their political survival
This attitude has been referred to cynically as the “go along to get along effect”
6. Partisan Criteria
equate the survival and the success of your political party, or ethnic or religious
origin with the survival and success of your country
equate the interest of your organization (the army, the foreign office, and so forth)
with the national interest
7. Foreign Dependency Criteria
usually applies to less developing countries, who had fallen under the yoke of
colonialism, and now, even after political independence, kept the colonial ties with
their ex-masters intact
dependent on their ex-colonial states for technical aid, expertise and technology,
sometimes even for their security
As a result of this state of dependency, the less developing countries face difficulties
to defend and promote their national interest
Views on determination of national interest
A. Realist view
 prioritize pragmatic criteria when defining national interest and employing foreign
policy
defines national interest in terms of pursuits of power
power is about establishing control or influencing the behaviors of others, either
diplomatically or use of coercion
International politics is a struggle among states and thus the prime interest of state
is survival and security among other things
national interest - ensuring survival and security of a state, than talking about justice
and morality
Leaders must be aware of that scope of national interest and their foreign policy
should be proportional to their capabilities
prudence should be the virtue of leaders
Prudence is the ability to assess one‘s needs and aspirations while carefully
balancing them against the needs and aspirations of others
B. Idealists view
strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements
They don‘t see legal and moral factors apart from the so called “reality”
specific actions and objective of foreign policy have often been derived from general
moral and legal guidelines and principles etc.
Note
Realists fail to recognize and prescribe solutions for addressing global problems
because of the exclusive emphasis given to state and national interest
Idealists believe on the prevalence of common problems of human beings as
environmental pollution, ecological imbalance, depletion of resource
The establishment of new institutions with global orientation may play vital role
in addressing global problems, instead of the state-centric particularism, States
could no longer be viable actors in addressing cross-cutting problems by
themselves
 Key Points [ 2.1 Defining National Interest ]
Foreign policy
It is the actions, decisions and goals that states pursue towards the outside world
the deriving motives behind foreign policy is the pursuit of national interest
Foreign policy is shaped by both external/systemic factors and internal factors
2.1 Defining National Interest
National interest
set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to achieve
in its international relations
Criteria used in defining national interest
1. Operational Philosophy
Depending on time, location, your orientation toward the world you may choose
one of two major style of operation
act in a bold and sweeping fashion/ synoptic orientation
introduce major new practices, policies, and institutions
act in caution, probing, and experimental fashion/ incremental
following the trial and error approach
2. Ideological Criteria
identify their friends or enemies countries using the litmus test of ideology
3. Moral and Legal Criteria
act morally, generally standing up for the principles to which you are morally
committed and that are widely accepted in your culture
4. Pragmatic Criteria
orientation is low key, matter of fact, not on emotions and professions
Act on the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and demerit to
your country interest, without considering normative issues
5. Professional Advancement Criteria
consideration of your professional survival and growth, in short your personal
success which is referred to cynically as the “go along to get along effect”
6. Partisan Criteria
equate the survival and the success of your political party, or ethnic or religious
origin or your organization with the survival and success of your country
7. Foreign Dependency Criteria
usually applies to less developing countries, dependent on their ex-colonial states
for technical aid, expertise and technology, sometimes even for their security
As a result face difficulties to defend and promote their national interest
Views on determination of national interest
A. Realist view
prioritize pragmatic criteria
defines national interest in terms of pursuits of power
International politics is a struggle among states and thus the prime interest of state
is survival and security among other things
Leaders must be aware of that scope of national interest and their foreign policy
should be proportional to their capabilities
B. Idealists view
strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological and moral elements
They don‘t see legal and moral factors apart from the so called “reality”
Note
Realists fail to recognize and prescribe solutions for addressing global problems
because of the exclusive emphasis given to state and national interest
Idealists believe on the prevalence of common problems of human beings
The establishment of new institutions with global orientation may play vital role
in addressing global problems, instead of the state-centric particularism, States
could no longer be viable actors in addressing cross-cutting problems by
themselves
E1

University Exams
Topic: 2.1 Defining National Interest

Instruction: True/False
1. National Interest Is a cornerstone of the foreign policy of a state
Answer: True
Explanation: National interest is the most important factor in the formulation and
execution of foreign policy
Module Reference: National interest refers to set of values, orientation, goals and
objectives a given country would like to achieve in its international relations. It has
been the main driving force that determines the contents of foreign policy - Module
Page 45 Line 2

Debre Brihan University

P1

Practice Questions
Topic: 2.1 Defining National Interest

Instruction: True/False
1. Economic, technological and military capabilities of states are external/systemic
factor that shape foreign policy
Answer: False
Module Reference: Foreign policy of a state … is shaped by both external/systemic
factors and internal factors. International regimes, international organizations, the
prevalence of great powers at international level are some of systemic factors that
impinges on the foreign policy of a state. Internally, the economic, technological and
military capabilities of states heavily affect foreign policy – Module Page 44 Line 3
2. The deriving motives behind foreign policy is the pursuit of national interest
Answer: True
Module Reference: Module Page 45 Line 5
3. For Plato the good of the polis (that is the public good) could best be arrived at by
participatory decision making
Answer: False
Module Reference: the good of the polis (that is the public good) could best be
arrived at by philosopher king aided by a few highly learned, detached and fair-
minded advisors - Module Page 45 Line 26
4. Idealists don‘t see legal and moral factors apart from the so called “reality”
Answer: True
Module Reference: Idealists have strong belief in the relevance of legal, ideological
and moral elements which realists fail to recognize as the constituting elements of
national interest. They don‘t see legal and moral factors apart from the so called
“reality” - Module Page 49 Line 22
5. Idealists fail to recognize and prescribe solutions for addressing global problems
because of the exclusive emphasis given to state and national interest
Answer: False
Module Reference: It is realists who fail to recognize and prescribe solutions or
addressing global issues. On the other hand “Idealists believe on the prevalence of
common problems of human beings as environmental pollution, ecological
imbalance, depletion of resource” - Module Page 50 Line 4 - 7
Instruction: Multiple Choice
6. Up on taking office, introduce major new practices, policies, and institutions,
assuming there is enough information to develop a major policy with some confidence.
This is referred to as?
A. Ideological Criteria
B. Synoptic orientation
C. Experimental fashion/incremental
D. None
Answer: B
Explanation:
Module Reference: Module Page 46 Line 27
7. Following the trial and error approach assuming complexity of political and
economic problems and worrying about their consequence. This is referred to as?
A. Ideological Criteria
B. synoptic orientation
C. experimental fashion/incremental
D. None
Answer: C
Explanation:
Module Reference: Module Page 47 Line 3
8. States identify their friends or enemies countries using the litmus test of ideology.
This criteria is?
A. Ideological Criteria
B. Pragmatic Criteria
C. Partisan Criteria
D. None
Answer: A
Explanation:
Module Reference: Module Page 47 Line 9
9. Standing up for the principles to which you are morally committed and that are
widely accepted in your culture. This criteria is?
A. Foreign Dependency Criteria
B. Professional Advancement Criteria
C. Moral and Legal Criteria
D. None
Answer: C
Explanation:
Module Reference: Module Page 47 Line 15
10. Act on the basis of the scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and demerit
to your country interest. This criteria is?
A. Foreign Dependency Criteria
B. Professional Advancement Criteria
C. Moral and Legal Criteria
D. None
Answer: D
Explanation: This refers to Pragmatic Criteria
Module Reference: Module Page 47 Line 25
11. This attitude has been referred to cynically as the “go along to get along effect”
A. Foreign Dependency Criteria
B. Professional Advancement Criteria
C. Moral and Legal Criteria
D. None
Answer: B
Explanation:
Module Reference: In Professional Advancement Criteria, your action may be
manipulated and adjusted in consideration of your professional survival and growth,
in short your personal success. This attitude has been referred to cynically as the “go
along to get along” effect - Module Page 48 Line 3
12. Equate the survival and the success of your political party, or ethnic or religious
origin with the survival and success of your country
A. Ideological Criteria
B. Pragmatic Criteria
C. Partisan Criteria
D. None
Answer: C
Explanation:
Module Reference: Module Page 48 Line 11
13. Prioritize pragmatic criteria when defining national interest and employing foreign
policy and defines national interest in terms of pursuits of power
A. Idealists view
B. Realist view
C. Both
D. None
Answer: B
Explanation:
Module Reference: Realist international scholars reject the ideological, legal and
moral criteria to define and shape the contents of national interest. Realist scholars,
particularly, Hans Morgenthau advised leaders to prioritize pragmatic criteria when
defining national interest and employing foreign policy - Module Page 49 Line 1
Instruction: Short Answer
14. ___ is set of values, orientation, goals and objectives a given country would like to
achieve in its international relations
Answer: National interest
Module Reference: Module Page 45 Line 3
15. List the seven criteria used in defining national interest
Answer:
✓ Operational Philosophy
✓ Ideological Criteria
✓ Moral and Legal Criteria
✓ Pragmatic Criteria
✓ Professional Advancement Criteria
✓ Partisan Criteria
✓ Foreign Dependency Criteria
Module Reference: Module Page 46, 47, 48
16. In operational Philosophy what are the two major style of operation?
Answer:
 ✓ act in a bold and sweeping fashion/ synoptic orientation
✓ act in caution, probing, and experimental fashion/ incremental
Module Reference: Module Page 46 Line 27
17. ____ criteria usually applies to less developing countries, who had fallen under the
yoke of colonialism, and now, even after political independence, kept the colonial ties
with their ex-masters intact
Answer: Foreign Dependency Criteria
Module Reference: Module Page 48 Line 17
18. What are the two views on determination of national interest
Answer:
✓ Realist view
✓ Idealists view
Module Reference: Module Page 49, 50
2.2 Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors
2.2.1 Defining Foreign Policy
Foreign policy
It is something that a state would like to achieve in its external relations with
others
It involves the general purposes and specific strategies a state employs to achieve
or promote its national interest
According to Rochester, foreign policy refers to
the set of priorities and percepts established by national leaders to serve as
guidelines for choosing among various courses of action in specific situations in
international affairs
These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to achieve is commonly referred as
national interest
All states would like to promote their national interest as their capability or
power allows them to do
scope and content of foreign policy of a state is often determined by the
capabilities of the concerned state
minimum goal a state would like to achieve is survival - protect their physical,
political, and cultural identities against any encroachment by other states
Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be employed
to realize those objectives and goals. The most widely employed instruments
include
diplomatic bargaining
economic instruments
propaganda
terrorism (sabotage)
use of force (war)
Each instrument is used to affect the behaviors of other states, and has an
element of power
Diplomacy - states attempt to affect the behavior of others through bargaining that
involves less element of power as compared to other instruments
2.2.2 Foreign Policy Objectives
Foreign policy, just like any policy, sets short term, middle term and long term
goals and objectives to be achieved in proportion to a state‘s capability
Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is based on the combination of the
three criteria
 the value placed on the objective
the time element placed on its achievement
the kind of demands the objective imposes on other states in international
system
the foreign policy objectives of states categorizes in to three
1. Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives)
those kinds of goals for which most people are willing to make ultimate sacrifices
stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy and become article of faith
that society accepts without any questioning it
related to the self preservation of political and economic systems, the people and
its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state
core interests and values, is to ensure the sovereignty and independence
others goals cannot be realized if the existence of the state and its political units
are not ensured
The exact definition of core value or interest in any given country depends on the
attitudes of those who make foreign policy
Some governments place great values on controlling or defending neighboring
territories
Extraterritoriality - when the national interest and claims of a country is
projected beyond the limit of its geographic boundary. Example: Israel and
the United States
States may think that their national interest is at risk when the interests and
security of citizens, or kin ethnic or religious groups living in the neighboring
states and other states are threatened
So, liberating or protecting the interests of such individuals and groups might
be considered as part of its core national interest
2. Middle Range Objectives
Unlike, the short range objective, the middle range objectives drastically varies
across states, due to difference in the level of economic and technological progress,
as well as the military capability
Yet, bottom point that a state would like to achieve in its medium term is
to take a course of actions that have the highest impact on the domestic
economic and welfare needs and expectation
Social welfare and economic development, cannot be achieved through self-help, as
most states have only limited resources, administrative services, and technical skills
 Interdependence means that to satisfy domestic needs and aspirations, states
would have to interact with others
Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities, sources of supply, and
foreign market are for most states necessary for increasing social welfare
3. Long- Range Objectives
Long range goals are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate
political or ideological organization of the international system, and rules governing
relations in that system
Note: In pressing for middle range goals , states make particular demands against
particular interest
in pursuing long range goals, states normally make universal demands, for their
purpose is no less than to reconstruct an entire international system according to a
universally applicable plan or vision
long range visions and dreams may have international repercussions as far as they
are complemented by the capabilities and powers
Every country has its own visions and ambition proportional to its relative strength
and capabilities to be realized in the long run
2.2.3 Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends
Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other
these actions usually are not as ends in themselves, but are tied in some way
with larger purposes, from long range objectives to short term objectives
all foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down to three possible pattern
1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo)
maintaining the status quo/ the existing reality for one own benefit
Example: USA
international institutions (IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO) that were established
following Second World War have been strongly shaped by United States
underlying philosophy of such institutions, and even the decision making
procedures are all shaped to serve the global interests of the country
These days U.S has become the sole defender of the international system and
the liberal economic-political order
2) self-extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor)
Changing the reality for one own benefit
 Newly emerging powers such as China, India, Brazil, Germany and others are
competing to restructure the international institutions and different regimes so as
to create enabling environment to promote their national interest
3) self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‘s favor)
reflects the foreign policy trends that are being displayed in Less Developing
Countries
Such countries may succumb to such challenges and compromise its long lasting
national interest for temporary and immediate benefits
2.2.4 Foreign Policy Dimensions
behavior can change over time and with different style of leaderships and
circumstances
There are three Foreign Policy Dimensions
I. Alignment
alignment tendencies - whether national leaders choose to ally with certain
countries or to remain neutral
A country‘s alignment behavior can vary from time to time during its history in
response to changing circumstances and policy decisions
alignment tendencies classified in to three
Alliances
formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance
Allied countries can pool their military resources, acquire access to foreign bases
and stake out territories that enemies are on notice
alliance state also risks interference by allies in its domestic affairs, the possibility
being dragged
Neutrality
stance of formal non partisanship in world affairs
keeping a low profile, neutrals may avoid some of the problems associated with
alliances, particularly the generating of potential enemies and counter alliances
Example: Switzerland - neutrality to an extreme case in refusing membership to
United Nations till 2002
Nonalignment
foreign policy pattern of most developing state during cold war
movement-Non Alignment Movement (NAM) in which they called for a new
foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed disregarding the both the West and
East bloc politics and alliances
 Although that was practically impossible, NAM had noble agenda that called for
the South-south cooperation
II. Scope
Refers the scope of a country‘s activities and interests
There are three kind of actors regarding scope
Global actors – act in Global terms
interacting regularly with countries in nearly every region of the world
Example: USA, China
Regional actors – Act in regional terms
interacting primarily with neighboring states in the same geographical area
except for contacts, frequently concerning economic issues such as trade
Example:
South Africa - in Africa in general and in Southern Africa in Particular
India - in South Asian region
Isolationism
scope of a country‘s foreign policy to become so narrow that isolationism result
by some moments in history, such as key weakness or geographic remoteness
Few countries have ever been totally cut off from the outside world
in an age of interdependence, isolationism becomes an increasingly less viable
foreign policy orientation
Example: Burma in 1960 and 70s
III. Mode of Operation/ ‘Modus Opernadi’
the method of operation to address different issues
Multilateral means
greater its tendency to seek solutions to problems through diplomatic forums in
which several states participate, such as the United Nations, rather than
utilizing purely bilateral, country to country approaches
Most developing countries used the multilateral approaches because
multilateral forum would enhance collective barraging power of these
countries vis-a-vis other developed countries
establishing bilateral relations (establishing Embassies and assigning
diplomatic staffs) are often found to be costly
Regardless of the power and capability question, countries may opt to use
multilateral frameworks as the best strategy to address issues. Example:
Germany, Scandinavian countries
Unilateral means
 They play the carrot and stick diplomacy to affect the outcomes of events or
influence the behaviors of others
like Intervention, threat of use of force and some time, use of force
The more unilateral a state is the more likely to initiate actions in international
relations or to resist initiatives taken by others
2.2.5 Instruments of Foreign Policy
1. Diplomacy
Diplomacy - process between actors (diplomats, usually representing a state) who
exist within a system (international relations) and engage in private and public
dialogue
diplomacy can promote exchanges that enhance trade, culture, wealth and
knowledge
Diplomacy is not foreign policy but part of foreign policy
state‘s foreign policy has two key ingredients; its actions and its strategies for
achieving its goals
The interaction one state has with another is considered the act of its foreign
policy. This act typically takes place via interactions between government
personnel through diplomacy
Diplomacy is a complex game of maneuver in which the goal is to influence the
behaviors of others in ones interest
Past democracy
practiced in formalistic and somewhat rigid manner that was limited to the
bilateral relations of countries
Now days democracy
involves powerful actors that are not states like international nongovernmental
organizations (INGOs) and international governmental organizations (IGOs),
These actors regularly partake in areas of diplomacy and often materially shape
outcomes
There arose multilateral diplomacy, public diplomacy, leader-to-leader (summitry
diplomacy) in sharp contrast to secret diplomacy and bilateral diplomacy
The essence of diplomacy is bargaining
a means of settling differences over priorities between contestants through an
exchange of proposals for mutually acceptable solutions
Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to reach agreements, compromises, and
settlements where governments objectives conflict
 The attempt to change the policies, actions, attitudes and objectives of other
government and their diplomats by persuasion, offering rewards, exchange
concessions, or making threats
Thus, like any foreign policy instruments, diplomatic bargaining also espouses an
element of power or influence
Rules of Effective Diplomacy
Be realistic - have goals that much your ability to achieve them
Be careful about what you say - plans out and weighs words carefully
Seek common ground - maintain a degree of flexibility
Understand the other side - Like appreciate an opponent‘s perspective even if
you do not agree with it
Be patient - Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are unwise and
may convey weakness to an opponent
Leave avenues of retreat open - it is important to leave yourself and your
opponent an “Out”
In general, states make considerable use of what are known to be “carrot and stick”
approaches
stick approach
Threats - involve hypothetical action
Punishment involve - area action
carrot approach
Promise - is hypothetical action, aims at influencing the behaviors based on the
future hope of giving something
Reward - is a promise in action
2. Economic
modern states rely up on each other for resources and commodities that enable
them to develop and sustain viable economies
degree of dependence and interdependence varies across states
states often uses their economic muscle to influence the behavior (action,
perception and role) of others
States may reward or punish states through the manipulation of economic
policies
economic, particularly trade instruments of foreign policy are normally used for
three purposes, namely
to achieve any foreign policy objective
to increase a state‘s capability or deprive a potential enemy‘s capabilities
to create economic satellites (guaranteed markets and resources of supply)
 When rewards are offered or economic punishment are threatened, at least two
conditions must be fulfilled to make the exercise of influence effective
the target of the influence or act must perceive that there is a genuine need for
the reward or for the avoidance of the punishment
no alternative market or source of supply must be easily available to the target
Techniques of economic reward and punishment
1. Tariff
Almost all foreign made products coming into a country are taxed for the purpose of
raising revenue, protecting domestic producers from foreign competition, or other
domestic economic reasons
tariff structure can be used effectively as an inducement or punishment
2. Quota
To control imports of some commodities
supplier usually sends his goods into the country at a favorable price, but is allowed
to sell only a certain amount in a given time period
3. Boycott
eliminates the import of either a specific commodity or the total range of export
products sold by the country against which the boycott is organized
4. Embargo
to deprive another country of goods prohibits its own business men from
concluding its transactions with commercial organization in the country against
which the embargo is organized
An embargo may be enforced either on specific category of goods or on the total
range of goods that private businessmen normally send to the country being
punished
5. Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations
Rewards may include favorable tariff rates and quotas, granting loans (favorable
reward offered by the major powers to developing countries) or extending credits
The choice of a technique or combinations of techniques to be used will be
influenced by
the goals being pursued
the type of economic sensitivity & vulnerability
6. Foreign Aid
 transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from donor to recipient
There are main type of aid program including, military aid, technical assistance,
grants and commodity import program, and development loans
Note
Most aid programs are obviously not undertaken solely for humanitarian
purpose
vast portion of the aid goes to a few countries-and sometimes not the countries
with the most pressing needs Because their strategic and symbolic importance
in world politics
Donors can easily manipulate economic and military aid program to change the
internal and external policies of a government
7. Military Aid
probably the oldest type of aid which had been used for buttressing alliances
In this aid scheme, the donors supply money and material, while the recipient
provided most of the man power
By helping recipients build up modern forces, the donors hope to obtain some
immediate political or security objective
military aid is used to create local power balances or preponderances, thus
reducing the likelihood that the donor will have to station troops abroad or
intervene militarily to protect its interests
Key Points [ 2.2 Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors ]
2.2.1 Defining Foreign Policy
Foreign policy
It is something that a state would like to achieve in its external relations with
others
set of priorities and percepts established by national leaders to serve as guidelines
for choosing among various courses of action in specific situations in international
affairs
minimum goal a state would like to achieve is survival
Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be employed
to realize those objectives and goals. This include: diplomatic bargaining, economic
instruments, propaganda, terrorism (sabotage), use of force (war)
Diplomacy involves less element of power as compared to other instruments
2.2.2 Foreign Policy Objectives
Foreign policy objectives of states categorizes in to three
1. Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives)
basic principles of foreign policy and become article of faith that society accepts
without any questioning it
related to the self-preservation of political and economic systems, the people and
its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state
core interests and values, is to ensure the sovereignty and independence
others goals cannot be realized if the existence of the state and its political units
are not ensured
2. Middle Range Objectives
course of actions that have the highest impact on the domestic economic and
welfare needs and expectation
3. Long- Range Objectives
those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or ideological
organization of the international system, and rules governing relations in that
system
states make universal demands, for their purpose is no less than to reconstruct an
entire international system according to a universally applicable plan or vision
2.2.3 Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends
 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other
all foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down to three possible pattern
1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo)
maintaining the status quo/ the existing reality for one own benefit
Example: USA
2) self-extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor)
Changing the reality for one own benefit, to create enabling environment to
promote their national interest
Example: Newly emerging powers such as China, India, Brazil, Germany
3) self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else‘s favor)
displayed in Less Developing Countries, compromise their long lasting national
interest for temporary and immediate benefits
2.2.4 Foreign Policy Dimensions
There are three Foreign Policy Dimensions
I. Alignment
alignment tendencies - whether national leaders choose to ally with certain
countries or to remain neutral
alignment tendencies classified in to three
Alliances
formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance
Neutrality
stance of formal nonpartisanship in world affairs
Nonalignment
foreign policy pattern of most developing state during cold war, call for a new
foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed
II. Scope
There are three kind of actors regarding scope
Global actors – act in Global terms
interacting regularly with countries in nearly every region of the world
Regional actors – Act in regional terms
interacting primarily with neighboring states in the same geographical area
Isolationism
 result by some moments in history, such as key weakness or geographic
remoteness
isolationism becomes an increasingly less viable foreign policy orientation
III. Mode of Operation/ ‘Modus Opernadi’
the method of operation to address different issues
Multilateral means
seek solutions to problems through diplomatic forums in which several states
participate, such as the United Nations
Most developing countries used the multilateral approaches because it enhance
collective barraging power and it is less costly
Unilateral means
They play the carrot and stick diplomacy to affect the outcomes of events or
influence the behaviors of others; like Intervention, threat of use of force
2.2.5 Instruments of Foreign Policy
1. Diplomacy
Diplomacy is a complex game of maneuver in which the goal is to influence the
behaviors of others in ones interest
Past democracy: practiced in formalistic and somewhat rigid manner that was limited
to the bilateral relations of countries
Now days democracy: involves powerful actors that are not states and there arose
multilateral diplomacy, public diplomacy, leader-to-leader (summitry diplomacy)
The essence of diplomacy is bargaining: an exchange of proposals for mutually
acceptable solutions
diplomatic bargaining also espouses an element of power or influence
states use of what are known to be “carrot and stick” approaches
stick approach
Threats - involve hypothetical action; Punishment involve - area action
carrot approach
Promise - is hypothetical action; Reward - is a promise in action
2. Economic
States may reward or punish states through the manipulation of economic policies
Two conditions must be fulfilled to make the exercise of influence effective
the target of the influence or act must perceive that there is a genuine need
no alternative market or source of supply must be easily available to the target
Techniques of economic reward and punishment
1. Tariff
Almost all foreign made products coming into a country are taxed for the purpose of
raising revenue, protecting domestic producers from foreign competition
2. Quota
To control imports of some commodities
supplier usually sends his goods into the country at a favorable price, but is allowed
to sell only a certain amount in a given time period
3. Boycott
eliminates the import of either a specific commodity or the total range of export
products sold by the country against which the boycott is organized
4. Embargo
to deprive another country of goods prohibits its own business men from
concluding its transactions with commercial organization in the country against
which the embargo is organized
5. Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations
Rewards may include favorable tariff rates and quotas, granting loans (favorable
reward offered by the major powers to developing countries) or extending credits
6. Foreign Aid
transfer of money, goods, or technical advice from donor to recipient
There are main type of aid program including, military aid, technical assistance,
grants and commodity import program, and development loans
Most aid programs are obviously not undertaken solely for humanitarian purpose
Donors can easily manipulate economic and military aid program to change the
internal and external policies of a government
7. Military Aid
probably the oldest type of aid which had been used for buttressing alliances
In this aid scheme, the donors supply money and material, while the recipient
provided most of the man power
By helping recipients build up modern forces, the donors hope to obtain some
immediate political or security objective
E2

University Exams
Topic: 2.2 Understanding Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy
Behaviors
Instruction: True/False
1. Summit diplomacy is a variety of diplomacy that involves the participation of the
general public
Answer: False
Explanation: Summitry diplomacy is a kind of diplomacy that involve leader-to-
leader however it is public diplomacy that involves the participation of the general
public
Module Reference: There arose multilateral diplomacy, public diplomacy, leader-to-
leader (summitry diplomacy) in sharp contrast to secret diplomacy and bilateral
diplomacy - Module Page 12 Line 1

Hawassa University

Instruction: Multiple Choice

2. A guide for the actions and decisions of a state to pursue its objectives is defined as
A. Diplomacy
B. National interest
C. Foreign policy
D. International relations
Answer: C
Explanation:
Module Reference:
✓ foreign policy refers to “the set of priorities and percepts established by
national leaders to serve as guidelines for choosing among various courses of
action in specific situations in international affairs” - Module Page 51 Line 4
✓ Foreign policy of a state is the actions, decisions and goals that states pursue
towards the outside world - Module Page 44 Line 3

Hawassa University
3. Among the following determinants of the foreign policy of a state, which one is not
categorized as external?
A. International Law
B. Great powers
C. International Organizations
D. The regime type of the state
Answer: D
Explanation: International Law, International Organizations and Great powers are all
external/systemic factors however the regime type of the state is an internal factor
that shape foreign policy of a state.
Module Reference: Foreign policy of a state … is shaped by both external/systemic
factors and internal factors. International regimes, international organizations, the
prevalence of great powers at international level are some of systemic factors that
impinges on the foreign policy of a state. Internally, the economic, technological and
military capabilities of states heavily affect foreign policy - Module Page 44 Line 4

Hawassa University

4. ____ can be defined as a mechanism used by states in private and public dialogue to
pursue their objectives peacefully
A. Foreign policy
B. International relations
C. Diplomacy
D. National interest
Answer: C
Explanation:
Module Reference: Diplomacy can be defined as a process between actors
(diplomats, usually representing a state) who exist within a system (international
relations) and engage in private and public dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their
objectives in a peaceful manner - Module Page 59 Line 9

Hawassa University

5. A state's foreign policy may constitute all of the following techniques except?
A. Diplomatic bargaining
B. Military force
C. Economic instruments
D. Propaganda
E. None of the above
Answer: E
Explanation: all of the options listed are techniques that a state may use in its
foreign policy
Module Reference: Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that
must be employed to realize those objectives and goals. The most widely employed
instruments include, diplomatic bargaining, economic instruments, propaganda,
terrorism (sabotage), and use of force (war) - Module Page 59 Line 9

Hawassa University

6. Among the following objectives of national interest, one is categorized as a

core/short-range interest?
A. Economic betterment
B. Access to foreign markets
C. Self-preservation of the state
D. Maintaining political obedience
Answer: C
Explanation: the core or short-range interests of a state are those that are vital for
its survival and independence. These include the preservation of the physical base
of the state, the preservation of its political system, and the preservation of its
culture
Module Reference: Core interests and values are most frequently related to the self-
preservation of political and economic systems, the people and its culture, and the
territorial integrity of a state - Module Page 52 Line 8

Hawassa University

7. Which one of the following economic instruments of foreign policy does not have a
coercive element?
A. Development aid
B. Embargo
C. Currency manipulation
D. Boycott
Answer: A
Explanation: development aid is an economic instrument of foreign policy that is
primarily used to assist other countries in their economic development and does not
have a coercive element
Module Reference: Foreign Aid: The transfer of money, goods, or technical advice
from donor to recipient-is an instrument of policy that has been in international
relation - Module Page 64 Line 23

Hawassa University

8. The criteria used in classifying foreign policy objectives include

A. The value placed on the objective
B. The time element placed on the achievement of the objective
C. The kind of demands the objective imposes on other states in the international
system
D. All of the above
Answer: D
Explanation:
Module Reference: Such classifications of foreign policy objectives is based on the
combination of the three criteria:(1) the value placed on the objective; (2) the time
element placed on its achievement; and (3) the kind of demands the objective
imposes on other states in international system - Module Page 52 Line 10

Debre Brihan University

9. Which one of the following bodies is not directly engaged in foreign policy and
diplomacy activities?
A. Ministry of education
B. Ministry of foreign affairs
C. Ambassadors and envoys
D. Embassies and legations
Answer: A
Explanation: The Ministry of education is not directly involved in foreign policy and
diplomacy, as its main function is to oversee the educational system and policies
within the state
Module Reference: Diplomacy has probably existed for as long as civilization has …
Records of regular contact via envoys travelling between neighboring civilizations …
they lacked many of the characteristics and commonalities of modern diplomacy
such as embassies, international law and professional diplomatic services - Module
Page 59 Line 19

Debre Brihan University

10. Which one of the following issues signifies the most peaceful instrument of foreign
policy?
A. Military pressure
B. Tariff and quota
C. Diplomacy
D. Warfare
Answer: C
Explanation: Diplomacy is considered a peaceful instrument of foreign policy
because it does not involve the use of force or coercion, but rather relies on
dialogue, persuasion, compromise, and mutual understanding
Module Reference: Diplomacy can be defined as a process between actors
(diplomats, usually representing a state) who exist within a system (international
relations) and engage in private and public dialogue (diplomacy) to pursue their
objectives in a peaceful manner - Module Page 59 Line 28

Debre Brihan University

Instruction: Matching
Column A
11. Long-range interest
Answer: G
 Module Reference: Long range goals are those plans, dreams, and visions
concerning the ultimate political or ideological organization of the international
system, and rules governing relations in that system - Module Page 54 Line 12
12. Self-preservation
Answer: H
Module Reference: (1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo); (2) self-
extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor); self-abnegation (revising the
status quo in some else‘s favor) - Module Page 55 Line 6
13. Self-extension
Answer: A
Module Reference: (1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo); (2) self-
extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor); self-abnegation (revising the
status quo in some else‘s favor) - Module Page 55 Line 6
14. Alliance
Answer: B
Module Reference: Alliances are formal agreements to provide mutual military
assistance - Module Page 56 Line 19
15. Self-abnegation
Answer: C
Module Reference: (1) self-preservation (maintaining the status quo); (2) self-
extension (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor); self-abnegation (revising the
status quo in some else‘s favor) - Module Page 55 Line 6
16. Alignment
Answer: E
Module Reference: One can first speak of alignment tendencies, in particular
whether national leaders choose to ally with certain countries or to remain neutral -
Module Page 56 Line 9
Column B
A. Revising the status quo in one's favor
B. Formal agreement to provide mutual military assistance
C. Revising the status quo in someone else's favor
D. A stance of formal non-partisanship in world affairs
E. Arrangement of states in relation to one another
F. Interests are preserved at all times
G. States' ultimate political, economic and ideological interests
H. Maintaining the status quo

Hawassa University
2.3 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
2.3.1 Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)
the King was predominantly concerned with establishing control over the
fragmented parts of the Empire
He wanted to create a united Ethiopia, but only partially succeeded
Tewodros tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond the
Horn Region
He sought the Western Christian world to recognize his country and help him to
modernize his country
he appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia as Christian nations to
assist him in whatever ways possible in his fight against the Turks, Egyptians and
Islam
The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his immediate
enemies claiming Christianity as instrument of foreign policy
However, the emperor‘s passionate demand for modern technology and skilled
man power from Britain was not concluded to his satisfaction as the latter sent
religious missionaries
Consequently Tewodros took desperate measures by taking hostage of several
British missionaries
Tewodros‘s Troops were easily defeated and the King did not surrender but
tragically committed suicide
2.3.2 Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)
Like his predecessor Tewodros II, Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the
territorial integrity of the polity
Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its continued attempt to invade
the country under many pretexts, yet its motive was to control the source of Blue
Nile
These, however, were not successful as Egypt faced subsequent defeat both in
1875 and 1876 at the Battle of Gundet and Gura respectively
In addition to Muslim threat, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater
threat to the survival of the country
In fact his calculation of threat has turned out to be real as Italy got a foot hold at
the port of Massawa in 1885
However, the emperor died fighting with the ‘Mahadists’
The Sudanese resistance groups against British rule happened to invade Western
Ethiopia because of their presumption that Yohannes IV was collaborating with
the British
2.3.3 Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)
Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his coronation as the Kings of Kings of
Ethiopia
expanded his sphere of influence towards the far South and East incorporating new
areas and communities peacefully or otherwise
the southward expansionism policy of the King was mainly targeted to have access
to Sea Port, Zeila
Minelik was aware of the strategic importance of outlet to the sea for the country as
he felt that the country‘s access to the sea in the North had fallen under Italy‘s
influence since the mid 1890s
Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic relation with Menelik
with the objective of weakening its immediate enemy in the North, Yohannes
Menelik‘s relation with Italy had disappointed Yohannes as witnessed by the
absence of Menelik from participation in the war against Mahadists
Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy continued to be the main challenge
in the North
Italy expanded towards the hinterland of Ethiopia from its first hold of Bogess,
later named Eritrea, and Missawa port crossing Tekeze river
The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain or reverse Italy‘s
expansion and maintain the territorial integrity of his country
On the one hand, he entered many treaties and agreements to solve the challenge
amicably
One of the remarkable treaties was the ‘Wuchalle’ friendship and peace treaty
where the parties agreed to avoid war and solve the problem peacefully
On the other hand the emperor was preparing himself by accumulating military
ammunitions to defend the aggression from any side of colonial powers, British,
French and of course Italy
However, the emperor‘s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in peace due
to Italy‘s misinterpretation of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty
The treaty did contain different meanings and interpretations in the respective
languages of the parties
According to the Italian version, Ethiopia failed under the protectorate of the
former which then led to the abrogation of the ‘Wuchale’ treaty by Ethiopia
in 1893
As a result, Italy prepared for war and started its systematic penetration of the
country from the north. Menelik was prepared to reverse this aggression raising
his traditional Army till only 1896
 In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy in defense of the
territorial integrity and sovereignty of the century old nation
After a severe battle, Menelik and his people managed to defeat the colonial
power
Ethiopian forces made a record of history by defeating a powerful European
colonial power
significance of the Adowa victory is loud and clear as many European powers
recognized Ethiopia as an independent African state on similar footing with the
Europeans
Indeed Britain, France, Russia and the vanquished Italy came to Menelik‘s
Palace to arrange formal exchange of Ambassadors. Moreover, these powers
signed formal boundary treaties with the emperor
the present boundary of Ethiopia vis -a-vis its neighbors had been defined at
least on paper, yet were not demarcated
the boundary issue was not settled, there have been disputes and counter claims
with the neighboring countries especially with Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea
What so ever the case may be, Ethiopia‘s foreign policy of the forth coming rulers
has significantly been informed by the notion of territorial integrity of the country.
And the issue of outlet to the sea remained the burning question determining its
policy and role in the region
2.3.4 Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)
emperor Haile Selassie I was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, centralized and
bureaucratic empire with unquestioned respect by the international community
This was clear as early as 1923, when as Regent to the Crown, Teferi Mekonen,
facilitated Ethiopia‘s entry to the League of Nations
When the Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941, the
Emperor fled to London and established a government in exile
the League ultimately failed to take any substantive measure against Italy and
the plea of the King was ignored
Apparently viewing the League of Nations‘ in action, the King continued to
believe in the ultimate value of effective diplomacy
His diplomatic skills and Britain‘s own strategic necessities in the area enabled him
to elicit the aid of the British in securing the liberation of Ethiopia
Ethiopia was extremely dependent on British military, economic and technical aid
the Emperor feared that Britain might declare Ethiopia a protectorate
Haile Sellasie‘s fear moved him to seek alternative relationships that would allow
him to loosen Ethiopia‘s tie with Britain
As an emerging power, U.S was willing to heed emperors plead to strengthen
diplomatic relations
Through diplomacy, Haile Selassie was able to regain complete administrative
control over the territory he claimed
In 1952 a U.N. resolution had made possible a federation between Ethiopia and
the former Italian colony of Eritrea
He was not satisfied until he secured the endorsement of both the Eritrean and
Ethiopian Assemblies in 1962, which allowed him to incorporate Eritrea fully in to
the Empire, making it a province of Ethiopia instead of a trustee-ship
British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952, and the King moved quickly to firm up
relations with the United States
Two agreements were concluded in 1953 to formulize this new relationship. As a
result, the United States guaranteed Ethiopia‘s security, which added greatly to
the confidence with which the emperor could approach the task of political
consolidation
In addition to the military aid Ethiopia received, its armed forces also benefited
from the presence of a Military Assistance Advisory Group
By 1975, the total U.S. military assistance to Ethiopia amounted to almost $ 280
million
The military aid was decisive for the Emperor to ensure his survival at home and
maintain the territorial integrity of the country
He effectively used military action against those riots and rebellions both in
rural and urban places
The United States contributed to the expansion of Ethiopian military as a hedge
against the Somalia threats
It also provided counterinsurgency training and on the ground advisors to
help to suppress Eritrean Nationalism
Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence
and to end colonialism and apartheid
In the United Nations, Ethiopia played its part in raising agendas and pressing for
resolutions against colonialism in collaboration with some countries that
supported the cause
the emperor can be considered as one of the founding fathers of African
Unification
The establishment of the organization of African Unity in the capital of Ethiopia
witnessed the prominent role of the emperor in African affairs as well
 Ethiopia also played a significant role in maintaining international peace and security
by commit ting its troops for peacekeeping operations in Korea in 1951 and the
Congo in 1961
Of course the emperor‘s strategic alliance with outside powers helped him to stay
on power for decades
Directly or indirectly he distanced potential rivals first with help from the British
and later on with the help of USA military and technical assistance
The emperor secured the territorial integrity of the country and also secured port
through Eritrea, yet the abrogation of the UN imposed federation arrangement of
Eritrea remained one of a foreign policy challenge to the military regime who came
to power through coup de‘tat. So was the question of Ogaden
2.3.5 Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974-1991)
The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a foreign
policy largely oriented to socialist ideology
primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival of the regime and maintaining
the territorial integrity of the country
The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives heavily focused on building
the military capability of the country
Since socialism was the guiding philosophy of the country, friendship and alliance
with socialist countries of the world was considered as a viable strategy for realizing
socialism at home and perhaps in the world
the country was heavily dependent on military aid on the Soviet Union which
prevented it from securing any kind of military and technical assistance from the US
and other European countries
The regime was condemned by the west for its human rights record, especially
its treatment of former government officials
Following such problems, internal and external enemies began to take action to
hasten the demise of the regime
Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched military attack on the
Ethiopian Army
Externally Somalia‘s invasion of the Ethiopian region of Ogaden
the regime managed to reverse the Somali aggression with the help of the
new powerful patron, USSR
The corner stone of Ethiopia‘s foreign policy at the time was maintaining continuing
friendship with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries
several others factors have facilitated the consolidation of this new special
relationship, including
 the immediate and unhesitant recognition of Mengistu‘s government by the
Soviet Union
the quick and generous support they offered when the military regime
needed assistance and guidance
Indicative of the magnitude of its foreign relations, the Dergue has signed numerous
agreements and protocols with almost all socialist countries
The Soviet Union and its allies were thus able to exert immense influence in both
domestic and foreign affairs of Ethiopia
Apart from socialism, Ethiopia‘s strategic locations and other questions, such as;
Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue of the Nile, had also shaped the foreign policy
orientation and behavior of military government
Ethiopia being located in the Horn of Africa is at the cross roads to the oil rich
middle East region and Indian Ocean, As a result of this the U.S.S.R was keen to
have stronghold over the area, replacing the United States
Ethiopia shares the Nile and its longest border with Sudan, yet the relation between
the two had been strained for decades
Sudan was one of the host countries for Ethiopian opposition forces
In turn Ethiopia had been supporting the dissent groups in southern Sudan,
including the Sudan‘s People‘s Liberation Army/SPLA
With regard to Africa‘s broader issues of decolonization and anti-Apartheid struggle,
Ethiopia played significant role
The regime had extended its military and technical support to Freedom fighters
in Angola and Rhodesia
Finally, the regime collapsed following the end of cold war unable to survive in the
absence of military aid from the socialist blocs, USSR, Cuba
In general the adoption of socialism and its subsequent impact on the foreign policy
of the country could be considered as a departure from its predecessors; however
the policy objective of the country remained unchanged
The country‘s policy towards its neighbors, the region, and the Arab world
remained unchanged
The issue of Nile River, boundary issues, the strategic location of the country, unique
culture (Christianity) amid the Islam religion and Arab culture had cumulative effect
in shaping the foreign policy the country
2.3.6 The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991
With EPRDF‘s ascent to power the country adopted a new foreign policy orientation
and objectives
In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia‘s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to
ensure national interest and security
one of the goals of the foreign policy is to ensure the survival of the multi-
national state
foreign policy of Ethiopia has been designed to create favorable external
environment to achieve rapid economic development and build up democratic
system
So democracy and development are the foreign policy visions of the country
foreign policy has been considered as an instrument to solve the domestic problems
of the country, including; lack of good governance, instability and lack of economic
development
The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to put the focus on domestic
issues first
in the age of globalization emphasizing on external issues such as; seeking
financial aid, loans or technical issues would subject the country to dependency
and vulnerability
That will limit not only the diplomatic leverage of the country but also will
neglect the crux of the matter at home, viz., the issue of democratization and
good governance and issues of development would not be addressed
This strategy is called an ‘inside-out’ approach
‘inside-out’ approach - If we solve our domestic problems the country would
not be vulnerable and its peace and survival can be ensured
The inside out approach would then help to reduce the countries
vulnerability to threat
At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the domestic
efforts in fighting poverty and backwardness and address the issues of development
Economic diplomacy involves
attracting foreign investments
seeking markets for Ethiopian exportable commodities
seeking aid and confessional loans
Economic diplomacy has also been considered as viable strategy under the age
of globalization
It helps to exploit the opportunities that globalization offers, such as free
trade, investment and technological transfers
The Security and Foreign Policy of the country also indicated that Ethiopia would
adopt a kind of East-look policy
Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries economic successes and
development paths
The other foreign policy strategy is building up the military capability of the country
Diplomatic solutions can always be taken prior attention when dealing even
disputes. But above all building up military capability would have a deterrence
effect
Looking at the patterns of the country‘s foreign policies over the years, there have
been changes and continuities in the foreign policy goals and tactics adopted by
different governments of Ethiopia
Though strategies may sometimes differ the primary foreign policy objective of
all the three regimes remained the maintenance of the territorial integrity and
independence of the country
To this end the three regimes used a combination of both military force and
diplomacy to address both internal and external challenges depending on the
circumstances
In this manner, while the imperial and the military regime‘s foreign policy
strategy is largely an approach the current regime followed ― ‘in-side out’
approach
 Key Points [ 2.3 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia ]
2.3.1 Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)
the King was predominantly concerned with establishing control over the
fragmented parts of the Empire
tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached out beyond Horn Region
sought the Western Christian world to recognize his country and help him to
modernize his country
appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia as Christian nations to assist
him in whatever ways possible in his fight against the Turks, Egyptians and Islam
However, Britain sent religious missionaries instead
Consequently Tewodros took desperate measures by taking hostage of
several British missionaries
Tewodros‘s Troops were easily defeated and the King did not surrender but
tragically committed suicide
2.3.2 Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)
Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the territorial integrity of the polity
Egypt tried to put a serious security threat, yet its motive was to control the source
of Blue Nile, however, were not successful as Egypt faced subsequent defeat
In addition, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater threat to the
survival of the country. Italy got a foot hold at the port of Massawa in 1885
The emperor died fighting with the ‘Mahadists’ because of their presumption that
Yohannes IV was collaborating with the British
2.3.3 Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)
Menelik was King of Shoa region before his coronation as Kings of Kings of Ethiopia
the southward expansionism policy of the King was mainly targeted to have access
to Sea Port, Zeila
Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic relation with Menelik
Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy continued to be the main challenge
in the North
The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain or reverse Italy‘s
expansion and maintain the territorial integrity of his country
The ‘Wuchalle’ friendship and peace treaty where the parties agreed to avoid
war and solve the problem peacefully
On the other hand the emperor was preparing himself military
The Emperor‘s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in peace due to Italy‘s
misinterpretation of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty
 In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy
Menelik and his people managed to defeat the colonial power
European powers recognized Ethiopia as an independent African state and
signed formal boundary treaties with the emperor
the boundary issue was not settled, there have been disputes and counter claims
with the neighboring countries especially with Sudan, Somalia and Eritrea
2.3.4 Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)
The emperor, Teferi Mekonen, facilitated Ethiopia‘s entry to the League of Nations
Italian Fascists invade Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941, the Emperor fled to London
and established a government in exile
the League ultimately failed to take any substantive measure against Italy
His diplomatic skills and Britain‘s own strategic necessities in the area enabled him
to elicit the aid of the British in securing the liberation of Ethiopia
Ethiopia was extremely dependent on British military, economic, technical aid
British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952, and the King moved quickly to firm up
relations with the United States
The United States contributed to the expansion of Ethiopian military as a hedge
against the Somalia threats and to suppress Eritrean Nationalism
Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence
and to end colonialism and apartheid
the emperor considered as one of the founding fathers of African Unification
The establishment of the organization of African Unity in the capital of Ethiopia
witnessed the prominent role of the emperor in African affairs as well
Ethiopia also played a significant role in maintaining international peace and security
the emperor‘s strategic alliance with outside powers helped him to stay on power
for decades
2.3.5 Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974-1991)
Adopted a foreign policy largely oriented to socialist ideology
primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival of the regime and maintaining
the territorial integrity of the country
the country was heavily dependent on military aid on the Soviet Union
The regime was condemned by the west for its human rights record
Internal and external enemies began to take action
Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched military attack
Externally Somalia‘s invasion of the Ethiopian region of Ogaden
the regime managed to reverse the Somali aggression with the help of the
new powerful patron, USSR
 The corner stone of Ethiopia‘s foreign policy at the time was maintaining continuing
friendship with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries
The Soviet Union and its allies were thus able to exert immense influence in both
domestic and foreign affairs of Ethiopia
Ethiopia‘s strategic locations and other questions, such as; Eritrea, Somalia, and the
issue of the Nile, also shaped the foreign policy orientation and behavior
Regard to issues of decolonization and anti-Apartheid struggle, Ethiopia played
significant role
Finally, the regime collapsed following the end of cold war unable to survive in the
absence of military aid from the socialist blocs, USSR, Cuba
2.3.6 The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991
In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia‘s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to
ensure national interest and security
foreign policy of Ethiopia has been designed to create favorable external
environment to achieve rapid economic development and build up democratic
system
So democracy and development are the foreign policy visions of the country
foreign policy has been considered as an instrument to solve the domestic problems
of the country
This strategy is called an ‘inside-out’ approach
‘inside-out’ approach - If we solve our domestic problems the country would
not be vulnerable and its peace and survival can be ensured
At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the domestic
efforts in fighting poverty and backwardness and address the issues of development
Economic diplomacy involves
attracting foreign investments
seeking markets for Ethiopian exportable commodities
seeking aid and confessional loans
The Security and Foreign Policy of the country also indicated that Ethiopia would
adopt a kind of East-look policy
Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries economic successes and
development paths
Note
Primary foreign policy objective of all the three regimes remained the maintenance
of the territorial integrity and independence of the country
E3

University Exams
Topic: 2.3 Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

Instruction: True/False
1. One of the remarkable implications of Adwa Victory is Ethiopia’s good international
reputation
Answer: True
Explanation: The Battle of Adwa was a significant event that earned Ethiopia a good
international reputation. In this battle, traditional Ethiopian warriors defeated a
well-armed Italian army . This victory ensured Ethiopia’s independence, making it
the only African country never to be colonized
Module Reference: The significance of the Adowa victory is loud and clear as many
European powers recognized Ethiopia as an independent African state on similar
footing with the Europeans - Module Page 68 Line 20

Debre Brihan University

2. Emperor Yohannes IV known to have pursued the policy of patient diplomacy

Answer: False
Explanation: Yohannes IV diplomacy was not a patient diplomacy. He fought against
the Egyptians and Mahdists that tried to threaten Ethiopian sovereignty. He was
carefully observing the expansion of colonial powers as a great threat.
Module Reference:
✓ Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to the territorial integrity of the polity -
Module Page 67 Line 5
✓ Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its continued attempt to invade
the country under many pretexts, … however, were not successful as Egypt
faced subsequent defeat - Module Page 67 Line 5

Debre Brihan University

3. Mengistu’s Ethiopia had diplomatic relations with capitalist countries

Answer: False
 Explanation: Mengistu’s Ethiopia had a socialist ideology that aligned itself with the
Soviet Union and other socialist countries. It had severed diplomatic relations with
most capitalist countries, especially the United States
Module Reference:
✓ The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a foreign
policy largely oriented to socialist ideology - Module Page 72 Line 6
✓ The corner stone of Ethiopia‘s foreign policy at the time was maintaining
continuing friendship with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries -
Module Page 73 Line 3

Debre Brihan University

Instruction: Multiple Choice

4. The primary foreign policy orientation and objective of Ethiopia during the EPRDF
regime was
A. Regaining historical access to the sea
B. Maintaining international peace and security
C. Realizing socialism at home and in the world
D. Ensuring the survival of the multi-national state through an inside-out approach
Answer: D
Explanation: the foreign policy of Ethiopia in the post-1991 period was guided by the
principle of “inside-out”, which means that the internal stability and development of
the country was the precondition for its external relations
Module Reference:
✓ As such, one of the goals of the foreign policy is to ensure the survival of the
multi-national state - Module Page 75 Line 8
✓ This strategy is called an “inside-out” approach. If we solve our domestic
problems the country would not be vulnerable and its peace and survival can
be ensured - Module Page 75 Line 28

Hawassa University