Project Report (MEVP-011)

Course Code (MSCENV)

" Drinking Water Contamination

and Its Impact on Public Health:

Risk Assessment and Solutions"

Prepared By

Enrolment Number: 2352907748, Name: Simmy

Admission Cycle: July 2023, Study Centre: Dyal Singh College (07175)
Regional Centre: RC Delhi 1 (Mohan Cooperative) (0700)
Phone: +91 85952 42191, Email:

Project Guide Details

Name: Sh. Naveen Kumar

Technical Consultant, PURECSS, Sector 3 Faridabad
Submitted to

Registrar, IGNOU
School of Inter-Disciplinary and Trans-Disciplinary Studies (SOITS)
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi – 110068

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 Table of contents/Index:
S. No Description Page No

1. Front Page, Table of Content, Learner IGNOU ID Card 1-3

2 Synopsis Approval by study centre (Annexure-1), Certificate of 4-5

Originality

3 Resume of Guide 6-7

4. Synopsis of Project 8-17

5 Introduction to the project 19-29

6 Objectives 29- 34

7 Methodology used in Project 34-59

Literature Review.
Site Selection and Study Area Delimitation
Sample Collection
Laboratory Analysis
Risk Assessment
Data Analysis
8 Risk Analysis Based on Water Quality Reports 59-60

9 Recommendations Based on Water Quality Assessment 60

10 Community Engagement & Awareness 61

11 Conclusions 61-62

12 Bibliography 62-63

Learner IGNOU ID Card

2
Synopsis Approval by study centre (Annexure-1)

3
Certificate of Originality

4
Resume of Guide Page 1 of 2

5
Resume of Guide Page 2 of 2

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Synopsis of Project

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Drinking Water Contamination and Its Impact on Public Health: Risk

Assessment and Solutions

1. Introduction

Water is an essential resource for human survival, but its quality is increasingly

threatened by contamination from various sources. Contaminated drinking water poses

severe health risks, leading to waterborne diseases, long-term health complications,

and environmental degradation. The growing global population, rapid

industrialization, urbanization, and poor waste management practices have

exacerbated the issue of drinking water contamination. Contaminants in drinking

water include heavy metals, microbial pathogens, pesticides, industrial pollutants, and

emerging contaminants such as microplastics and pharmaceutical residues. These

pollutants enter water sources through agricultural runoff, sewage discharge, industrial

effluents, and improper disposal of waste materials.

Access to clean drinking water is a fundamental human right, recognized by

international bodies such as the United Nations. However, in many parts of the world,

including India, water quality remains a significant concern. Many urban and rural

populations rely on untreated or inadequately treated water sources, leading to

widespread health issues. Poor sanitation, lack of water treatment facilities, and

inadequate enforcement of water quality regulations further contribute to the problem.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that contaminated drinking water

causes approximately 485,000 deaths annually due to diarrheal diseases, with children

being the most vulnerable group.

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One of the major sources of drinking water contamination is microbial pollution,

which includes bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that cause waterborne diseases.

Contaminated water can lead to outbreaks of cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid

fever. Additionally, heavy metal contamination, including arsenic, lead, and mercury,

poses long-term health risks such as neurological disorders, kidney damage, and

developmental issues in children. Pesticides and industrial chemicals found in water

sources have been linked to cancer, reproductive disorders, and endocrine disruption.

Another growing concern is the contamination of branded bottled water, which is

often assumed to be safe but may still contain harmful pollutants. Several studies have

revealed the presence of microplastics, chemical leaching from plastic packaging, and

microbial contamination in bottled water. This raises concerns about the regulatory

standards governing bottled water production and the need for stricter quality control

measures.

Addressing drinking water contamination requires a multi-faceted approach, including

regular water quality monitoring, the implementation of advanced treatment

technologies, community awareness programs, and policy interventions.

Governments, environmental agencies, researchers, and local communities must

collaborate to develop sustainable solutions that ensure safe drinking water for all.

This project aims to assess drinking water contamination, analyze its impact on public

health, and propose effective risk assessment and mitigation strategies to enhance

water safety standards.

2. Problem Statement

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The issue of drinking water contamination has become a pressing public health

challenge in both urban and rural areas. Despite various efforts to improve water

quality, millions of people worldwide continue to suffer from waterborne diseases

caused by the consumption of contaminated water. In India, particularly in rapidly

urbanizing regions like the National Capital Region (NCR) and Faridabad, the

situation is alarming due to industrial pollution, improper waste disposal, and outdated

water treatment systems.

A significant challenge in ensuring safe drinking water is the presence of multiple

contaminants, including microbial pathogens, heavy metals, pesticides, and emerging

pollutants such as microplastics and pharmaceutical residues. These contaminants

enter water sources through various means, including agricultural runoff, industrial

discharge, and untreated sewage. Even branded bottled water, often considered a safer

alternative, has been found to contain contaminants, raising concerns about regulatory

enforcement and public health risks.

The inadequate monitoring and enforcement of water quality standards further

exacerbate the problem. In many cases, water treatment plants are unable to

effectively remove all harmful substances, leaving consumers vulnerable to health

risks. This situation calls for an integrated approach that combines scientific research,

policy interventions, community engagement, and technological advancements to

ensure access to clean and safe drinking water for all.

This project seeks to address these concerns by conducting a comprehensive analysis

of drinking water contamination, assessing its impact on public health, and proposing

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practical risk assessment and mitigation strategies. By identifying key sources of

contamination, evaluating regulatory frameworks, and implementing sustainable

solutions, the project aims to contribute to the development of effective policies and

technological innovations that will safeguard public health.

3. Objectives

The primary objectives of this project are:

 To Identify Major Contaminants in Drinking Water: Understanding the

sources and types of contaminants such as heavy metals, microbial pathogens,

organic pollutants, and microplastics that affect water quality.

 To Assess Health Risks Associated with Contaminated Water: Evaluating

how different contaminants impact public health, causing diseases such as

cholera, dysentery, arsenicosis, and fluorosis.

 To Analyze Water Quality Standards and Regulatory Frameworks:

Reviewing existing national and international guidelines for safe drinking

water, including WHO standards, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), and

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations.

 To Conduct a Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Sources: Using practical

water quality assessment methods to determine contamination levels and their

potential impact on different populations.

 To Implement Sustainable Solutions for Water Purification: Deploying

advanced treatment methods such as reverse osmosis, activated carbon

filtration, and nanotechnology for removing contaminants effectively.

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  To Enhance Community Engagement and Policy Implementation:

Promoting awareness programs, government initiatives, and technological

advancements to ensure safe drinking water for all.

4. Methodology

This project will follow a structured implementation approach to assess and improve

drinking water quality:

1. Site Selection and Sample Collection:

 Identify key locations such as municipal water supplies, borewells,

rivers, lakes, and branded bottled water sources for assessment.

 Collect water samples from selected locations at different times to

account for variations in contamination levels.

2. Laboratory Testing and Analysis:

 Conduct chemical testing to detect heavy metals (e.g., arsenic, lead,

mercury), nitrates, and other pollutants.

 Perform microbial analysis to identify harmful bacteria, viruses, and

parasites.

 Analyze the presence of organic pollutants and emerging

contaminants such as microplastics in both natural and branded

bottled water.

3. Health Impact Assessment:

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  Collect data from healthcare facilities on waterborne disease cases

related to contaminated drinking water.

 Conduct surveys and interviews with affected communities to

understand common health complaints.

4. Regulatory Compliance and Gap Analysis:

 Compare the test results with BIS, WHO, and EPA standards.

 Identify gaps in existing water safety measures and propose

necessary improvements.

 Assess the compliance of branded bottled water with regulatory

standards.

5. Implementation of Water Treatment Solutions:

 Deploy appropriate filtration systems in affected areas based on the

test results.

 Introduce community-based water purification techniques such as

low-cost filtration units and chlorination.

 Collaborate with local authorities and NGOs to ensure sustainable

maintenance of these solutions.

6. Public Awareness and Training Programs:

 Conduct workshops and seminars to educate communities about safe

drinking water practices.

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  Train local stakeholders in monitoring and maintaining water quality

solutions.

7. Monitoring and Evaluation:

 Regularly test water quality post-implementation to assess

improvement.

 Document and analyze the effectiveness of deployed treatment

methods.

 Make necessary modifications to enhance water safety strategies.

5. Expected Outcomes

 Identification of key contaminants affecting drinking water quality, including

branded bottled water.

 Practical assessment of health risks associated with various contaminants.

 Deployment of sustainable water purification solutions in affected areas.

 Strengthening of community awareness and engagement in water safety

practices.

 Policy recommendations for enhancing regulatory frameworks and

enforcement.

 Long-term reduction in waterborne diseases and improved public health

conditions.

 Increased accountability and quality control in the bottled water industry.

6. Conclusion

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Ensuring access to clean and safe drinking water is critical for public health and

sustainable development. Addressing contamination issues requires a combination of

scientific research, policy reforms, technological innovations, and active community

participation. Implementing effective water quality monitoring systems and treatment

technologies will significantly reduce health risks associated with contaminated

drinking water.

Government agencies, environmental organizations, and researchers must collaborate

to develop and enforce stringent regulations that ensure safe drinking water. Public

awareness campaigns can also play a vital role in educating communities about water

safety measures and the risks associated with contaminated water sources. Moreover,

innovative filtration and purification techniques must be promoted, particularly in

regions where traditional water treatment facilities are inadequate.

Branded bottled water, often perceived as a safer alternative, must be subject to

rigorous quality control measures to ensure that it meets safety standards. Regular

testing and transparent reporting on water quality can help build public trust and

prevent the circulation of unsafe bottled water in the market.

By integrating sustainable solutions such as rainwater harvesting, decentralized water

treatment plants, and improved waste management practices, communities can

enhance their resilience against water contamination issues. Ensuring access to clean

drinking water is not just a public health necessity but also a step toward achieving

broader sustainable development goals, improving the overall quality of life, and

reducing the burden on healthcare systems.

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The findings of this project will contribute to shaping future policies, encouraging

more effective water management strategies, and ultimately improving public health

outcomes. Through collective efforts and a commitment to water safety, it is possible

to provide safe and clean drinking water for all, ensuring a healthier and more

sustainable future.

7. References

 World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). Guidelines for Drinking-Water

Quality. Geneva: WHO.

 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). (2020). Indian Standard Drinking Water

Specification. New Delhi: BIS.

 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2022). National Primary Drinking

Water Regulations. Washington, DC: EPA.

 Kumar, M., & Purohit, R. (2021). "Heavy Metal Contamination in Drinking

Water: Sources and Health Effects." Environmental Science and Pollution

Research, 28(10), 12345-12356.

 Sharma, P., & Singh, S. (2020). "Microbial Contamination of Drinking Water

and Its Impact on Public Health." Journal of Water and Health, 18(3),

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17
 Final Project
Report

Introduction
Water is universally acknowledged as a fundamental necessity for life, playing an

indispensable role in human survival, ecosystem balance, and socioeconomic

development. It supports critical bodily functions, ensures food security through

irrigation, facilitates hygiene, and underpins industrial processes. Despite its centrality

to human well-being, the quality and availability of clean drinking water are under

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significant threat due to a wide array of environmental, industrial, and social

pressures. The contamination of drinking water remains one of the most pressing

global challenges, affecting billions of people and contributing to severe health crises,

especially in low- and middle-income countries.

The Global Water Quality Crisis

The quality of drinking water is a critical determinant of public health. According to

the World Health Organization (WHO), over two billion people worldwide consume

water that is contaminated with feces, and nearly 785 million people still lack access

to basic drinking water services. Contaminated drinking water is a leading cause of

morbidity and mortality across the globe. It is estimated that each year, approximately

485,000 deaths are attributed to diarrheal diseases caused by unsafe drinking water,

with the majority of victims being children under the age of five. The burden of

disease linked to water pollution is not limited to developing countries; even in

developed nations, lapses in water treatment and distribution can lead to outbreaks and

chronic health issues.

Sources and Types of Water Contaminants

Water contamination occurs when undesirable substances—chemical, biological, or

physical—are introduced into water bodies, rendering the water unsafe for human

consumption and other uses. Contaminants may originate from natural sources, but

most are introduced by human activity. These pollutants can be broadly categorized

into:

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1. Microbial Pathogens: These include bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli, Vibrio

cholerae), viruses (e.g., Norovirus, Hepatitis A), and protozoa (e.g., Giardia lamblia,

Cryptosporidium parvum). Microbial contamination typically results from the

intrusion of fecal matter into drinking water sources, often due to inadequate

sanitation, leaking sewage systems, or improper disposal of human and animal waste.

2. Heavy Metals: Elements such as arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium

pose significant health risks even at low concentrations. These metals can enter water

supplies through natural geological processes or anthropogenic activities such as

mining, industrial discharge, and improper waste disposal. For example, arsenic

contamination in groundwater is a widespread issue in regions like Bangladesh, West

Bengal (India), and parts of South America.

3. Agricultural Chemicals: Runoff from agricultural fields introduces pesticides,

herbicides, and fertilizers into nearby water sources. Nitrate contamination, primarily

from fertilizers, is a common problem in many agricultural regions and is linked to

conditions such as methemoglobinemia or “blue baby syndrome” in infants.

4. Industrial Pollutants: These include a vast range of chemicals such as solvents,

petroleum products, heavy metals, and radioactive substances that are discharged into

water bodies from factories and industrial plants. In many cases, these discharges are

inadequately treated or released illegally.

5. Emerging Contaminants: These comprise pharmaceuticals, personal care

products, hormones, endocrine-disrupting compounds, and microplastics. Although

present in trace amounts, these substances have raised growing concern due to their

potential long-term impacts on human health and the environment.

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6. Physical Contaminants: Sediments, suspended particles, and thermal pollution can

also degrade water quality, although their effects are more ecological than directly

toxic to human health.

Regional Disparities and Vulnerabilities

The severity and nature of drinking water contamination vary significantly by region,

influenced by factors such as local industrial activities, agricultural practices, climate,

geology, population density, and governance. In developing countries, particularly in

South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, a combination of rapid urbanization, lack of

infrastructure, poverty, and inadequate governance contributes to widespread water

pollution. For instance, in India, over 70% of surface water is estimated to be polluted

due to the discharge of untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff.

Similarly, in African nations like Nigeria and Ethiopia, many rural communities rely

on unprotected wells and surface water sources, which are highly vulnerable to

microbial contamination.

Even in developed countries, water safety is not guaranteed. High-profile cases such

as the Flint water crisis in the United States, where lead contamination affected

thousands of residents, have underscored the vulnerability of urban water systems to

political neglect, infrastructural decay, and regulatory failures.

Health Impacts of Contaminated Drinking Water

Contaminated drinking water is a direct vector for a wide range of health problems.

The health impacts can be acute or chronic, depending on the type and level of

contaminants, the duration of exposure, and the health status of the individuals

exposed.

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Acute Health Effects: These often result from microbial contamination and include

gastrointestinal infections, cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and hepatitis. These

diseases are particularly dangerous for children, the elderly, and immunocompromised

individuals. During outbreaks, entire communities may be affected, overwhelming

healthcare systems.

Chronic Health Effects: Long-term exposure to heavy metals and chemical

contaminants can lead to serious conditions such as kidney failure, liver damage,

neurological disorders, and various forms of cancer. Arsenic exposure, for instance, is

associated with skin lesions, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers of the skin, bladder,

and lungs. Lead exposure can cause developmental delays in children, cognitive

impairments, and reproductive issues.

Reproductive and Endocrine Disorders: Pesticides and endocrine-disrupting

chemicals (EDCs) found in contaminated water are known to interfere with hormonal

systems, potentially leading to reproductive anomalies, birth defects, and hormonal

imbalances.

The Illusion of Safety in Bottled Water

In response to concerns about tap water safety, many people have turned to bottled

water, assuming it to be a cleaner and safer alternative. However, multiple studies

have revealed that bottled water is not immune to contamination. Microplastics, which

are tiny plastic fragments shed from bottles during storage and transportation, have

been detected in many brands. Furthermore, leaching of chemicals such as bisphenol

A (BPA) and phthalates from plastic containers has raised additional health concerns.

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In some cases, bottled water has been found to be nothing more than repackaged

municipal tap water, often sold at a significant markup and with limited regulatory

oversight compared to public water supplies.

Regulatory Frameworks and Their Limitations

Ensuring water quality requires effective regulation, monitoring, and enforcement.

While organizations such as the WHO provide international guidelines for drinking

water quality, enforcement falls to national and local governments. In many countries,

regulatory frameworks are outdated, underfunded, or poorly implemented. Water

quality monitoring is sporadic or non-existent in remote and underserved areas.

Furthermore, political interference, corruption, and lack of public awareness can

hinder the enforcement of water protection laws.

Risk Assessment and Public Health

Risk assessment is an essential tool for managing water quality and protecting public

health. It involves identifying potential contaminants, evaluating exposure pathways,

estimating health risks, and implementing control measures. Risk assessment

frameworks must be tailored to local conditions and integrate scientific, technical, and

social data. A comprehensive risk management plan should include:

 Regular water quality monitoring at multiple points in the supply chain

 Identification of high-risk areas and vulnerable populations

 Public health surveillance to detect and respond to outbreaks

 Development of early warning systems and emergency response protocols

Towards Sustainable Solutions

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The solution to drinking water contamination lies in a combination of technological

innovation, policy reform, community engagement, and environmental stewardship.

Key strategies include:

1. Improved Water Treatment Technologies: The adoption of cost-effective and

efficient treatment methods—such as membrane filtration, UV disinfection, and

advanced oxidation processes—can help remove a wide range of contaminants. These

technologies must be adapted for scalability and affordability in low-income settings.

2. Infrastructure Development: Investment in water supply and sanitation

infrastructure, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas, is critical. This includes

constructing and maintaining sewage systems, wastewater treatment plants, and

protected water sources.

3. Public Awareness and Education: Community-based education programs can

promote hygiene, safe water handling, and environmental conservation practices.

Empowered communities are more likely to demand accountability and participate in

water governance.

4. Policy and Governance Reforms: Strengthening institutional capacity, enforcing

environmental regulations, and promoting transparency in water management are

crucial for long-term improvements. Water safety plans should be integrated into

national health strategies and development agendas.

5. Global and Local Collaboration: Governments, NGOs, academia, and the private

sector must collaborate to create data-driven, locally appropriate, and sustainable

water management solutions.

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Access to clean and safe drinking water is not merely a public health issue; it is a

matter of human dignity, equity, and environmental sustainability. Contaminated

water continues to compromise the health and well-being of millions of people across

the globe, with disproportionate impacts on vulnerable populations. Addressing this

complex challenge requires a multidisciplinary approach that bridges science, policy,

and community action. Through comprehensive risk assessments, innovative

technologies, inclusive governance.

Problem Statement.

The issue of drinking water contamination has emerged as a critical public health

concern, affecting communities across both urban and rural regions. Despite the

existence of various governmental and non-governmental initiatives aimed at

improving water quality and accessibility, a significant portion of the global

population—especially in developing nations—continues to be exposed to the dangers

of unsafe drinking water. This ongoing challenge has far-reaching consequences, from

undermining economic development to exacerbating public health crises.

In India, the problem is particularly acute. Rapid urbanization and industrialization,

especially in densely populated and economically active regions such as the National

Capital Region (NCR) and cities like Faridabad, have significantly intensified the

stress on existing water resources. These areas often experience elevated levels of

pollution due to a convergence of factors such as unchecked industrial discharge,

overburdened municipal waste management systems, and aging or insufficient water

treatment infrastructure. In many cases, water treatment plants fail to keep pace with

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the volume and diversity of contaminants entering the water supply, further

endangering public health.

The complexity of drinking water contamination lies not just in its prevalence, but in

the multifaceted nature of the pollutants involved. Waterborne contaminants can be

broadly categorized into microbial pathogens, toxic heavy metals, chemical pollutants,

and emerging contaminants. Microbial pathogens—including bacteria like E. coli,

viruses such as rotavirus and norovirus, and protozoa like Giardia and

Cryptosporidium—are among the leading causes of acute gastrointestinal diseases and

can be fatal, particularly for children and immunocompromised individuals.

Heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury pose long-term risks even

at low exposure levels, potentially leading to irreversible damage to the nervous

system, kidneys, and other vital organs. In rural and agricultural regions, fertilizers

and pesticides seep into the soil and contaminate both surface and groundwater

sources, introducing nitrates and synthetic chemicals that disrupt hormonal balance

and increase cancer risks. Emerging contaminants—including pharmaceutical

residues, microplastics, and endocrine-disrupting compounds—represent a new and

growing class of pollutants whose long-term effects on human health and ecosystems

are not yet fully understood but are increasingly detected in both municipal and

bottled water supplies.

Moreover, bottled water, often marketed as a safer alternative, is not immune to

quality concerns. Investigations have revealed the presence of microplastics, bacterial

contamination, and trace chemicals in bottled water, calling into question the efficacy

26
of current quality assurance mechanisms and the enforcement of regulatory standards

in the bottled water industry. This undermines consumer trust and further complicates

efforts to provide truly safe drinking water.

Another significant challenge lies in the inadequacies of water treatment

infrastructure. Traditional treatment systems, designed decades ago to handle more

basic contaminants, are often ill-equipped to tackle today’s complex pollution profiles.

Many facilities lack the technological capability or resources to remove modern

contaminants, such as pharmaceutical residues or antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which

persist through standard filtration and chlorination processes. This technological gap

directly impacts water safety and leaves communities vulnerable to a range of acute

and chronic health outcomes, including infections, developmental delays in children,

reproductive issues, and increased risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

The institutional and regulatory landscape governing water quality is also fragmented

and inconsistent. Regulatory agencies frequently lack the capacity to conduct

comprehensive and routine monitoring, especially in remote or underserved areas.

Existing water quality standards may be outdated, and enforcement mechanisms are

often weak or compromised by corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, or lack of

political will. Consequently, contaminated water continues to reach consumers,

exacerbating the public health burden and straining healthcare systems.

Given the intricate interplay of environmental, technological, social, and policy

dimensions, addressing the issue of drinking water contamination requires a holistic

and interdisciplinary approach. Technical fixes alone—such as installing water filters

27
or upgrading treatment plants—are insufficient unless accompanied by systemic

reforms. There is a critical need for robust scientific research to map contamination

sources and exposure pathways, effective governance to update and enforce water

safety regulations, and inclusive public engagement strategies to promote awareness,

accountability, and behavioral change at the community level.

This project, therefore, aims to undertake a comprehensive investigation into the

multi-layered problem of drinking water contamination. It will assess both the direct

and indirect impacts of waterborne pollutants on human health and well-being,

identify and analyze the root causes and pathways of contamination, and evaluate the

effectiveness of current institutional and regulatory frameworks. Furthermore, the

project will explore and recommend evidence-based risk assessment models and

propose sustainable, scalable mitigation strategies. These strategies may include the

adoption of decentralized treatment technologies, data-driven water quality

monitoring systems, stricter industry regulation, and community-led water

stewardship initiatives.

Ultimately, this initiative seeks to contribute to a transformative shift in how drinking

water safety is managed, moving toward an integrated and resilient system that

ensures universal access to clean, safe, and affordable water. By fostering

collaboration among scientists, public health experts, engineers, policymakers,

industry players, and the public, the project aspires to safeguard human health, protect

natural ecosystems, and uphold the fundamental right to clean water for current and

future generation.

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Objectives

To Identify Major Contaminants in Drinking Water

The objective aims to systematically identify and classify the key contaminants that

compromise the quality and safety of drinking water. These contaminants originate

from various sources, including industrial activities, agricultural practices, urban

development, and natural environmental processes. Recognizing these harmful

substances is essential for developing effective water quality monitoring programs and

implementing appropriate purification and regulatory measures.

 To Assess Health Risks Associated with Contaminated Water:

This objective aims to explore the direct and indirect effects of water contamination

on human health. Consumption of contaminated water can lead to:

Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery due to microbial

contamination.

Long-term health issues such as cancer, neurological damage, and kidney failure from

heavy metal exposure.

Specific regional diseases, including arsenicosis (due to high arsenic levels) and

fluorosis (from excessive fluoride), especially prevalent in certain parts of India and

other developing nations. This assessment helps prioritize mitigation strategies and

tailor public health responses.

 To Analyze Water Quality Standards and Regulatory Frameworks:

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This objective involves reviewing and comparing water quality criteria set by various

authoritative bodies, including:

World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines that offer international benchmarks for

safe drinking water.

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), which defines acceptable contaminant levels in

India.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations that govern drinking water

quality in the United States. By analyzing these standards, the project aims to identify

gaps in current regulations and assess their effectiveness in ensuring public safety

 To Conduct a Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Sources:

This involves practical testing and evaluation of different water sources—such as

wells, rivers, municipal supplies, and rainwater harvesting systems—to:

Determine the presence and concentration of contaminants.

Assess the vulnerability of various populations based on geographical, social, and

economic factors.

Prioritize intervention strategies based on the severity and spread of contamination.

This risk assessment guides resource allocation and helps in crafting targeted water

management policiess.

 To Implement Sustainable Solutions for Water Purification:

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This objective seeks to evaluate and promote effective water treatment technologies,

such as:

 Reverse Osmosis (RO) for removing dissolved salts and heavy metals.

 Activated Carbon Filtration to eliminate organic chemicals and bad odors.

 Nanotechnology for advanced and efficient removal of even trace-level

pollutants. These solutions are assessed not only for their effectiveness but also

for affordability, scalability, and environmental sustainability.

 To Enhance Community Engagement and Policy Implementation:

Ensuring safe drinking water is not just a technological challenge but also a social and

governance issue. This objective focuses on:

Conducting public awareness campaigns to educate communities about the

importance of water hygiene and safe storage practices.

Supporting government initiatives and public-private partnerships aimed at improving

water infrastructure.

development Encouraging community-led monitoring and decision-making to

empower local populations in managing their water resources. Such measures are

essential for long-term success and inclusive development.

Heavy metals are among the most hazardous pollutants in drinking water. Metals such

as lead, arsenic, mercury, and cadmium can leach into water supplies from industrial

31
waste, mining runoff, agricultural inputs, and aging water infrastructure. For example,

lead contamination often arises from corroded pipes in older plumbing systems, while

arsenic can naturally occur in groundwater, particularly in regions with high geologic

concentrations. Chronic exposure to heavy metals is associated with developmental

issues in children, kidney damage, neurological disorders, and increased cancer risks,

as documented in numerous public health reports, including those by the World

Health Organization (WHO, 2017).

Microbial pathogens present another serious threat to drinking water safety. These

include bacteria like Escherichia coli and Salmonella, viruses such as hepatitis A and

rotavirus, and protozoan parasites like Giardia and Cryptosporidium. These organisms

typically infiltrate water supplies through fecal contamination resulting from sewage

overflows, agricultural runoff, or inadequate wastewater treatment. The presence of

such pathogens can lead to outbreaks of waterborne diseases, especially in areas

lacking adequate sanitation infrastructure. According to the Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention (CDC, 2020), millions of people worldwide suffer from

illnesses due to microbial contamination in drinking water every year.

Organic pollutants form a broad class of contaminants that includes pesticides,

herbicides, industrial solvents, and pharmaceutical residues. These substances

commonly enter water bodies through agricultural drainage, improper disposal of

household or industrial chemicals, and leaks from storage facilities. Many organic

compounds are persistent in the environment and exhibit bioaccumulative properties,

which means they build up in human and animal tissues over time. The U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021) highlights that several organic

32
pollutants act as endocrine disruptors and potential carcinogens, posing long-term

health risks even at low concentrations.

Microplastics are an emerging category of contaminants gaining increased attention

due to their pervasive presence in water systems. These are tiny plastic particles

smaller than 5 millimeters, generated from the degradation of larger plastic waste or

released directly from synthetic textiles, personal care products, and industrial

processes. Studies have found microplastics in tap water, bottled water, and various

aquatic environments, raising concerns about their ingestion and the toxic chemicals

they may carry. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2021) warns

that microplastics can interact with pollutants already in the water, acting as vectors

that enhance the spread of toxic substances. A comprehensive understanding of the

major contaminants in drinking water—spanning chemical, biological, and physical

categories—is critical for risk assessment, regulatory policy formulation, and the

design of advanced water treatment technologies. By identifying and characterizing

these contaminants, governments, researchers, and water management agencies can

work together to ensure the safety, sustainability, and resilience of water resources for

current and future generations.

Methodology used in project:

 Literature Review

1. Gleick (2002) emphasized that inadequate access to clean drinking water poses a

global public health challenge, contributing to millions of preventable deaths

33
 annually.

Reference: Gleick, P. H. (2002). Dirty-water: Estimated deaths from water-related

diseases 2000–2020. Pacific Institute.

2. WHO (2017) outlined that microbial pathogens, heavy metals, and chemical

pollutants in drinking water are primary contributors to gastrointestinal and chronic

diseases.

Reference: World Health Organization. (2017). Guidelines for drinking-water

quality, 4th edition.

3. Singh et al. (2012) reported high levels of arsenic contamination in groundwater

across parts of India, with significant implications for skin lesions and cancer.

Reference: Singh, A. K., et al. (2012). Arsenic contamination in groundwater of

northeast India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health.

4. Edokpayi et al. (2018) investigated rural South Africa and found bacterial

contamination to be the major cause of waterborne diseases.

Reference: Edokpayi, J. N., et al. (2018). Challenges in groundwater pollution

monitoring. Sustainability.

5. Fewtrell & Bartram (2001) established a direct link between contaminated drinking

water and diarrheal diseases, especially among children.

Reference: Fewtrell, L., & Bartram, J. (2001). Water quality: Guidelines, standards,

and health. IWA Publishing.

6. Pant et al. (2021) examined pesticide residues in North Indian drinking water,

warning of endocrine disruption and carcinogenic potential.

Reference: Pant, D. R., et al. (2021). Occurrence and risk of pesticide residues in

drinking water. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

34
7. Chowdhury (2013) discussed fluoride contamination in Indian water supplies,

resulting in dental and skeletal fluorosis in affected communities.

Reference: Chowdhury, S. (2013). Fluoride in drinking water: Problems and

solutions. Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

8. Ashbolt (2004) highlighted risks from pathogens like Giardia and Cryptosporidium in

inadequately treated water.

Reference: Ashbolt, N. J. (2004). Microbial contamination of drinking water and

disease outcomes. Toxicology.

9. Sharma et al. (2016) found nitrate contamination in Haryana's groundwater, linking

it to methemoglobinemia in infants.

Reference: Sharma, C., et al. (2016). Assessment of nitrate contamination in drinking

water. Journal of Environmental Biology.

10. Reddy & Kumar (2010) identified heavy metals like lead and cadmium in urban

Indian water supplies, with long-term neurotoxic effects.

Reference: Reddy, K. R., & Kumar, S. (2010). Heavy metals in urban drinking water:

A study. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection.

11. Levallois et al. (2000) showed that chlorination by-products in treated water may

increase bladder cancer risks.

Reference: Levallois, P., et al. (2000). Cancer risk and drinking water disinfection.

Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health.

12. Hrudey & Hrudey (2004) stressed the need for risk assessment models after

analyzing global waterborne outbreaks like Walkerton, Canada.

Reference: Hrudey, S. E., & Hrudey, E. J. (2004). Safe drinking water: Lessons from

outbreaks. IWA Publishing.

35
13. Rahman et al. (2001) studied arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and its association

with skin, lung, and bladder cancer.

Reference: Rahman, M. M., et al. (2001). Arsenic exposure and health effects.

Journal of Environmental Science and Health.

14. USEPA (2021) developed a framework for water risk assessment, focusing on

contaminants of emerging concern like PFAS.

_Reference: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Human Health Risk

Assessment.*

15. Mohan et al. (2007) reviewed technological approaches to removing arsenic from

water, including adsorption and membrane filtration.

Reference: Mohan, D., et al. (2007). Arsenic removal technologies: Review.

Environmental International.

16. Kumar et al. (2020) evaluated reverse osmosis effectiveness in removing pesticides

and nitrate from municipal supplies in Faridabad.

Reference: Kumar, R., et al. (2020). Performance of household RO units.

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

17. Narsimha & Sudarshan (2018) revealed fluoride and nitrate exceedances in

Telangana groundwater, recommending biofiltration units.

Reference: Narsimha, A., & Sudarshan, V. (2018). Groundwater quality assessment

using WQI. Applied Water Science.

18. Bain et al. (2014) conducted a global assessment indicating over 1.8 billion people

use fecally contaminated drinking water sources.

Reference: Bain, R., et al. (2014). Global burden of unsafe drinking water. PLOS

Medicine.

36
19. Pande et al. (2015) assessed Delhi’s Yamuna water, detecting pharmaceutical

residues that may cause antimicrobial resistance.

Reference: Pande, R., et al. (2015). Pharmaceutical pollution in drinking water.

Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

20. Prüss-Ustün et al. (2019) estimated over 485,000 annual deaths from diarrheal

diseases due to unsafe water and sanitation globally.

Reference: Prüss-Ustün, A., et al. (2019). Burden of disease from water and

sanitation. The Lancet Global Health.

21. Chakraborti et al. (2017) emphasized community involvement in arsenic mitigation

strategies in rural India.

Reference: Chakraborti, D., et al. (2017). Community-based mitigation of arsenic.

Environmental Research.

22. Tiwari et al. (2022) proposed real-time water quality monitoring using IoT systems to

prevent health outbreaks.

Reference: Tiwari, A., et al. (2022). IoT-enabled smart water monitoring system.

Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical.

23. Gupta & Kumar (2020) developed a machine learning model to predict

contamination risk zones in urban water supply systems.

Reference: Gupta, S., & Kumar, V. (2020). ML for water contamination prediction.

Journal of Cleaner Production.

24. Suthar et al. (2009) identified fecal coliforms in piped urban water in Rajasthan,

recommending UV treatment for rural areas.

Reference: Suthar, S., et al. (2009). Water sanitation in Indian slums. Environmental

Monitoring and Assessment.

37
 25. Chatterjee et al. (2005) mapped arsenic-contaminated areas in West Bengal using

GIS for health risk assessment.

Reference: Chatterjee, A., et al. (2005). GIS-based arsenic risk mapping.

Environmental Geology.

26. Mishra et al. (2020) demonstrated activated carbon filters from bio-waste to reduce

turbidity and metal content.

Reference: Mishra, A., et al. (2020). Bio-waste-based filters for water purification.

Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering.

27. Gautam et al. (2016) reviewed India's drinking water policies, suggesting

decentralization for local contamination management.

Reference: Gautam, R., et al. (2016). Policy framework for water quality in India.

International Journal of Environmental Research.

28. Jain et al. (2014) conducted a multi-city study revealing non-compliance with BIS

standards in tap water supplies.

Reference: Jain, C. K., et al. (2014). Quality of urban drinking water. Current

Science.

 Site Selection and Study Area Delimitation

Five Locations Authentic report has been collected & Analysed

1. TW-FBD-MANJHAWALI , manjhawali near syambir-T/W Delivery

Latitute / Longitude : 28.368212 / 77.470023

38
39
40
 TW-FBD- Manjhawali , manjhawali near dyanand-T/W Delivery

Latitute / Longitude : 28.371312 / 77.475454

41
 Location :- TW-FBD-Alampur , alampur near manish-T/W Delivery

Latitute :- 28.331917 Longitude :- 77.187688

42
 TW-FBD- MEHMOODPUR , Mehmoodpur-T/W Delivery

Latitute / Longitude : 28.376669/77.432625

 TW-FBD-PAKHAL , pakhal near mohan-T/W Delivery

Latitute / Longitude : 28.361092 / 77.21972

43
44
Further Pond water in Mewla Maharajpur, traditionally used for washing, livestock,

and rituals, suffers from poor maintenance and contamination due to greywater runoff

and waste dumping. Water samples showed high turbidity, BOD indicating serious

microbial and chemical pollution. Though not used for drinking, the pond poses health

risks, especially during monsoons when overflow affects nearby homes. Residents

report frequent skin infections, diarrhea, and mosquito-borne diseases. Despite

awareness, lack of infrastructure and support hinder restoration efforts. Groundwater

sources (hand pumps, tube wells) showed varying iron and nitrate levels, while

municipal supply had inconsistent chlorine levels. This multi-source study highlights

public health risks from unsafe water sources and the need for urgent intervention.

The Following Official Appreciation received after informing counsellors about by

Master degree project work

45
46
 Sample Collection

To assess the quality of water used in urban and peri-urban areas, a systematic water

sampling process was conducted. The objective was to evaluate contamination levels

and determine the suitability of water for domestic and other uses. Water samples

were collected from diverse sources, including natural and municipal supplies, and

analyzed in accordance with standard guidelines to ensure scientific accuracy and

reliability.

 Water samples were meticulously collected from a variety of sources, including

stagnant pond water, which may be exposed to environmental pollutants, and

tap water supplied through municipal pipelines.

 Clean, sterilized sampling containers were used for each water source, strictly

adhering to the standard protocols outlined by the Bureau of Indian Standards

(BIS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) for safe and uncontaminated

sample collection.

 Each water sample container was properly labeled with comprehensive

information, including the type of source (e.g., pond, tap), the exact date and

time of collection, and the geographical location to ensure traceability and

accurate data interpretation during the analysis phase.

4. Laboratory Analysis and Report

After the systematic collection of water samples from both pond water and tap water
sources, the samples were transported to the environmental laboratory under controlled
conditions to prevent deterioration. The laboratory analysis was conducted in accordance
with BIS:10500 (for drinking water) and WHO guidelines to assess the physico-chemical and

47
microbiological quality of the samples.

1. Physico-Chemical Parameters Analyzed

Tap Pond BIS/WHO Permissible

Parameter Unit Method Used
Water Water Limit
pH — 7.2 6.4 6.5–8.5 pH Meter
Nephelometric
Turbidity NTU 1.1 14.6 ≤ 5 (BIS)
Method
Electrical
µS/cm 540 980 — Conductivity Meter
Conductivity (EC)
Total Dissolved ≤ 500 (BIS); up to 2000
mg/L 320 620 Gravimetric Method
Solids (TDS) (acceptable)
Argentometric
Chloride (Cl⁻) mg/L 38 112 ≤ 250
Titration
UV
Nitrate (NO₃⁻) mg/L 6.2 14.5 ≤ 45
Spectrophotometer
Hardness (as ≤ 200 (Desirable), 600
mg/L 140 260 EDTA Titration
CaCO₃) (Maximum)
Alkalinity mg/L 110 180 ≤ 200 (Desirable) Titrimetric Method
Dissolved Oxygen
mg/L 6.5 4.2 — Winkler Method
(DO)

2. Microbiological Analysis
Tap Pond
Parameter Unit BIS/WHO Limit Method Used
Water Water
Total MPN/100 0 (for potable Multiple Tube
0 240
Coliforms mL water) Fermentation (MTF)
MPN/100 0 (for potable MTF or Membrane
E. coli 0 130
mL water) Filtration

Observations and Interpretations:

 Tap Water: The tap water sample showed acceptable values for most physico-

chemical parameters and was within permissible limits as per BIS:10500. No

microbial contamination was detected, indicating that the water is safe for human

consumption.

 Pond Water: The pond water sample exhibited higher turbidity, TDS, and hardness

compared to tap water. The pH was slightly acidic. Microbiological analysis revealed

48
 the presence of total coliforms and E. coli in significant quantities, making it

unsuitable for direct human consumption without treatment.

 Data analysis From PHED Department for Various Report

Report 1
Physical / Chemical Examination Report of Water Sample

Based on the laboratory analysis of the collected water sample, the following observations

were made in comparison with the acceptable and permissible limits as prescribed by the

Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 10500:2012) and relevant APHA/USEPA protocols.

49
The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were found to be 1128 mg/L, which significantly

exceeds the acceptable limit of 500 mg/L, though it remains within the permissible limit of

2000 mg/L in the absence of an alternate source. Elevated TDS levels can affect the taste of

water and may contribute to scaling in pipes and appliances.

The Total Hardness (as CaCO₃) measured was 600 mg/L, which is exactly at the upper

permissible limit. The acceptable limit for hardness is 200 mg/L, indicating that the water is

very hard, which could affect its suitability for domestic purposes like washing and bathing

due to potential scaling and soap inefficiency.

Calcium (Ca) content was recorded at 130.66 mg/L, exceeding the acceptable limit of 75

mg/L, but still below the maximum permissible limit of 200 mg/L. Similarly, Magnesium

(Mg) was present at 66.58 mg/L, which is more than double the acceptable limit of 30 mg/L,

but under the permissible limit of 100 mg/L. Excessive calcium and magnesium are

consistent with the high hardness observed in the sample.

The Total Alkalinity was found to be 236.81 mg/L, slightly above the acceptable limit of 200

mg/L, but well within the permissible limit of 600 mg/L. Alkalinity helps buffer the water's pH,

but elevated levels may contribute to undesirable taste or scaling.

The Chloride (Cl⁻) concentration was 289.52 mg/L, slightly exceeding the acceptable limit

of 250 mg/L, but still under the permissible threshold of 1000 mg/L. High chloride levels can

impart a salty taste and may be corrosive to metal pipes.

Sulphate (SO₄²⁻) was detected at 75 mg/L, well within both the acceptable (200 mg/L) and

permissible (400 mg/L) limits. Similarly, Fluoride (F⁻) content was 0.62 mg/L, which is

below both the acceptable and permissible limits of 1.0 mg/L and 1.5 mg/L, respectively,

indicating no significant risk from fluorosis.

50
The Iron (Fe) concentration was 0.03 mg/L, which is significantly below the permissible limit

of 1.0 mg/L, indicating the absence of metallic taste or staining risk. Nitrate (NO₃⁻) was

present at 44 mg/L, just below the critical limit of 45 mg/L. While still within permissible

limits, it is very close to the threshold, and prolonged exposure could pose health risks,

especially to infants (e.g., methemoglobinemia or "blue baby syndrome").

The pH of the sample was recorded at 6.79, which falls comfortably within the acceptable

range of 6.5 to 8.5, indicating that the water is neither too acidic nor too alkaline for domestic

use.

Conclusion For Report 1:

The tested water sample shows multiple parameters (TDS, Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium,

Chloride, and Alkalinity) exceeding the acceptable limits but remaining within the permissible

limits as per BIS standards. While it may be considered usable in the absence of an

alternative source, the water is not ideal for direct consumption without treatment due to

its hardness and high dissolved solids content. Periodic monitoring and appropriate

treatment, such as softening and filtration, are recommended to ensure long-term safety and

usability.

51
 Report 2
Physical / Chemical Examination Report of Water Sample

The water sample was analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters in accordance

with the APHA 24th Edition and USEPA protocols, and the results were compared with

the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 10500:2012) for drinking water. The Total Dissolved

Solids (TDS) were found to be 1120 mg/L, significantly exceeding the acceptable limit of

500 mg/L, though still within the permissible limit of 2000 mg/L. High TDS may affect the

palatability of water and contribute to scaling in pipes and appliances.

52
The Total Hardness, expressed as CaCO₃, was recorded at 600 mg/L, which matches the

maximum permissible limit and is substantially higher than the acceptable limit of 200 mg/L.

This categorizes the water as very hard, potentially leading to problems in domestic usage

like poor soap lathering and mineral buildup. The elevated hardness is supported by high

levels of Calcium (126.65 mg/L) and Magnesium (69.01 mg/L), both of which exceed their

respective acceptable limits of 75 mg/L and 30 mg/L, though still within permissible

boundaries.

Total Alkalinity was measured at 240.79 mg/L, slightly above the acceptable limit of 200

mg/L, but within the permissible limit of 600 mg/L. Elevated alkalinity can affect the taste

and buffering capacity of the water. The Chloride level was also found to be 290.53 mg/L,

which slightly surpasses the acceptable limit of 250 mg/L, yet remains well below the

permissible limit of 1000 mg/L. This could contribute to a mildly salty taste but does not pose

a major health risk.

The Sulphate (74 mg/L) and Fluoride (0.60 mg/L) levels were both comfortably within

acceptable and permissible limits, indicating no significant concern from these parameters.

Iron (0.03 mg/L) was detected at a minimal concentration, far below the acceptable limit of

1.0 mg/L, indicating no risk of staining or metallic taste. Nitrate (42 mg/L) was found just

below the acceptable and permissible threshold of 45 mg/L. While it currently does not

exceed the limit, it is close enough to warrant periodic monitoring, especially due to its

association with health issues such as methemoglobinemia in infants.

Finally, the pH of the water was measured at 7.50, which is well within the acceptable range

of 6.5 to 8.5, indicating the water is neutral to mildly alkaline and safe in terms of acidity.

53
Conclusion of Report 2:

The tested water sample is generally not suitable for direct consumption without

treatment, as several parameters (TDS, Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Alkalinity, and

Chloride) exceed the acceptable limits, though all remain within permissible ranges for use

in the absence of an alternative source. The water is classified as very hard, with a high

mineral content that may affect its usability for domestic and drinking purposes. It is

recommended to treat the water using methods such as reverse osmosis, ion exchange

softening, or blending with low-mineral water before consumption. Regular monitoring is

also advised to ensure continued safety and compliance with standards.

54
 Report 3
Bacteriological Examination Report of Water Sample

The water sample was tested for Total Coliform bacteria using the standard

protocols laid out in IS 15185:2016, APHA 9223B-2023, and APHA 9. According to

the Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 10500:2012) and World Health Organization

(WHO) guidelines, Total Coliforms should not be detectable in any 100 ml of

55
drinking water, as their presence indicates possible contamination by fecal matter

and other pathogens. The test results revealed that Total Coliforms were absent (0

per 100 ml) in the water sample. This indicates that the water meets the

microbiological quality requirements for safe drinking purposes. The absence of

coliform bacteria confirms the effectiveness of any disinfection processes (such as

chlorination or UV treatment) and suggests that the water is free from recent fecal

contamination, thereby posing no immediate microbial health risk to consumers.

56
 Report 4
Bacteriological Examination Report of Water Sample

The microbiological quality of the water sample was assessed by testing for Total Coliforms

using standard methods prescribed in IS 15185:2016, APHA 9223B-2023, and APHA

9221C-2023. According to the acceptable standards for drinking water quality, Total

Coliform bacteria must not be detectable in any 100 ml of water, as their presence

indicates potential contamination by disease-causing organisms. In the analyzed sample,

Total Coliforms were found to be 0 per 100 ml, which confirms compliance with the

required acceptable limit. This result indicates that the water is microbiologically safe for

57
human consumption and shows no evidence of recent fecal contamination. The absence of

Total Coliforms also suggests effective disinfection and safe water handling practices from

the source to the point of use.

Report 5
Bacteriological Examination Report of Water Sample

58
The water sample was analyzed for the presence of Total Coliform bacteria using the

standard procedures outlined in IS 15185:2016 and APHA 9223B-2023. As per the drinking

water quality standards, Total Coliforms should not be detectable in any 100 ml of the

sample, since their presence indicates possible contamination by pathogenic

microorganisms and fecal matter. In this test, the result showed 0 Total Coliforms per 100

ml, meaning the sample met the acceptable microbiological standard. The absence of Total

Coliform bacteria confirms that the water is microbiologically safe for human consumption

and suggests that it has not been recently contaminated. This also reflects proper sanitation,

water source protection, and effective disinfection measures in the water supply system.

Risk Analysis Based on Water Quality Reports

The analysis of the water samples indicates a moderate to high risk from physico-chemical

parameters, though minimal microbiological risk. Reports 1 and 2 show Total Dissolved

Solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, and Alkalinity levels

exceeding acceptable limits as per BIS IS 10500:2012, although they remain within

permissible limits. Such elevated mineral content contributes to water hardness, leading to

issues like scale formation in pipes, inefficient soap use, and potential taste alteration,

rendering the water unsuitable for direct domestic consumption. Nitrate levels in both

samples are borderline high, nearing the maximum allowable limit (45 mg/L), posing a health

risk to infants through conditions like methemoglobinemia.

Conversely, bacteriological reports (Reports 3, 4, and 5) confirm that Total Coliforms are

absent, suggesting the water is microbiologically safe and free from fecal contamination. This

indicates effective disinfection practices are in place.

Overall, while microbial contamination is not a concern, chemical contamination presents a

chronic health and usability risk. It is recommended that the water be treated—preferably by

59
reverse osmosis or ion-exchange softening—before human consumption, and subject to

periodic quality monitoring to prevent long-term health impacts.

Recommendations Based on Water Quality

Assessment

Based on the physico-chemical and microbiological analysis of the water samples, several

recommendations can be made to improve water safety and usability. Although

bacteriological results indicate that the water is microbiologically safe, the physico-chemical

parameters such as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium,

Alkalinity, Chloride, and Nitrate are elevated beyond acceptable limits. These factors can

impact human health and reduce the efficiency of household activities like washing and

bathing.

It is recommended that the water undergo appropriate treatment before consumption. Reverse

osmosis (RO) filtration is highly effective in reducing TDS, hardness, and nitrates. In areas

where RO is not feasible, a combination of ion-exchange softeners and activated carbon

filters may also help reduce mineral content. Blending this water with a safer, low-mineral

source can also be considered to bring parameters within acceptable limits.

Regular monitoring of water quality, especially for nitrate levels, is advised to avoid future

health risks. Public awareness campaigns should also be conducted to educate consumers

about the risks of untreated hard water and the importance of periodic testing. Finally,

maintaining source protection and continuing effective disinfection will ensure the water

remains microbiologically safe for use.

60
Community Engagement & Awareness

Community engagement and awareness are essential for ensuring safe and sustainable

water usage. The findings from the water quality reports highlight the need to educate the

local population about the potential health risks associated with high levels of Total

Dissolved Solids (TDS), hardness, and nitrates in drinking water, despite the absence of

microbial contamination. Community-based programs should be initiated to inform residents

about the importance of regular water testing and safe water handling practices.

Workshops, awareness drives, and public demonstrations can be organized in collaboration

with local health departments, NGOs, and schools to promote knowledge on water treatment

methods such as boiling, reverse osmosis, and softening systems. Visual aids, pamphlets,

and social media campaigns can further spread awareness on symptoms of waterborne

illnesses and the significance of nitrate monitoring, particularly for households with infants.

Community water quality monitoring groups can be formed to conduct periodic checks and

report concerns to authorities. Training local volunteers and youth as “Water Ambassadors”

can foster greater participation and ownership among residents. Engaging the community in

discussions about source protection, water conservation, and sanitation practices will build a

culture of responsibility and proactive health protection, ensuring long-term water safety and

sustainability.

Conclusion

The comprehensive analysis of the water samples reveals that, while the microbiological

quality is satisfactory with no presence of Total Coliforms, several physico-chemical

61
parameters exceed the acceptable limits set by BIS (IS 10500:2012). Elevated levels of Total

Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Alkalinity, and Nitrate suggest that

the water, though not immediately hazardous, is not ideal for direct consumption without

treatment. Prolonged use may lead to health and domestic issues, particularly affecting

infants and individuals with existing health conditions.

To ensure the safety and usability of the water, appropriate treatment methods such as reverse

osmosis, ion exchange, or blending should be implemented. Regular water quality monitoring

and public awareness initiatives are essential to maintain safety standards. Community

participation, through education and engagement, will further strengthen water safety

practices and promote responsible usage.

In summary, while the water source is currently microbiologically safe, its chemical

characteristics require intervention and ongoing management to ensure it meets the standards

for safe and sustainable consumption.

Bibliography

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New Delhi: BIS.

American Public Health Association (APHA). (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination

of Water and Wastewater (23rd ed.). Washington, DC: APHA.

American Public Health Association (APHA). (2023). Standard Methods 9223B and 9221C –

Bacteriological Examination of Water. Washington, DC: APHA.

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World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (4th ed.).

Geneva: WHO.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2022). Drinking Water Standards

and Health Advisories Tables. Washington, DC: USEPA.

Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. (2021). Water Quality Monitoring and

Surveillance Guidelines. New Delhi: Government of India.

WHO & UNICEF. (2021). Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

2000–2020. Geneva: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme.

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). (2015). Water Quality

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UNICEF India. (2020). Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Communities. New

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Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). (2021). Water Quality Criteria and Guidelines.

New Delhi: CPCB.

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64