PSC150S: Physics

Lecture 11: Magnetic Fields

Monday 19th May, 2025

Disclaimer: These lecture notes are not meant to replace the course textbook. The content may
be incomplete. Some topics may be unclear. These notes are only meant to be a study aid and a
supplement to your own notes. Please report any inaccuracies to the me (Evidence).

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1 Magnetism
Is ubiquitous in every-day life!
• Refrigerator magnets (who could live without them?)
• Coils that deflect the electron beam in a CRT television or monitor
• Cassette tape storage (audio or digital)
• Computer disk drive storage
• Electromagnet for Magnetic Resonant Imaging (MRI)
Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other.

1.1 Magnets
• Materials that attract other metals
• Three classes: natural, artificial and electromagnets
• Permanent or Temporary
• CRITICAL to electric systems:
– Generation of electricity
– Operation of motors
– Operation of relays
• Laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion
– Like magnetic poles repel each other
– Unlike magnetic poles attract each other
– Closer together, greater the force

Magnets contain two poles: “north” and “south”. The force between like-poles repels (north-north,
south-south), while opposite poles attract (north-south). This is reminiscent of the electric force be-
tween two charged objects (which can have positive or negative charge).

Recall that the electric field was invoked to explain the “action at a distance” effect of the electric
force, and was defined by:
⃗
⃗ = F
E (1)
qeq
where qel is electric charge of a positive test charge and F⃗ is the force acting on it.

We might be tempted to define the same for the magnetic field, and write:

⃗ = F⃗
B (2)
qmag

where qmag is electric charge of a positive test charge and F⃗ is the force acting on it.

However, such a single magnetic charge, a “magnetic monopole,” has never been observed experi-
mentally! You cannot break a bar magnet in half to get just a north pole or a south pole. As far as

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we know, no such single magnetic charges exist in the universe, although we continue to look. Thus,
we must look for other interactions with magnetic force to define the magnetic field.

It turns out that an electrically charged object can also be accelerated by a magnetic force, and
through that interaction we can define the magnetic field.

In fact, the electric and magnetic force share a much deeper relation. They are really manifesta-
tions of the same force, and can be shown to be related by transformations in Einstein’s theory of
Special Relativity. But here let us discuss the historical perspective.

1.2 Cathode Ray Tube

Consider a “Crooke’s Tube”, which is otherwise known as a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)-a primitive
version of what is in a television. Such a CRT has an electron gun that accelerates electrons between
two electrodes with a large electric potential difference between them (and a hole in the far plate).
The resulting beam of electrons can be rendered visible with a phosphorous screen, and then we can
observe the effects on the deflection of the beam in magnetic fields.

From such experiments we can determine several characteristics of electrically charged particles
interacting with magnets:
• The force depends on the direction of the magnetic field (i.e. whether it emanates from a north
pole or a south pole).
• The force is perpendicular to both the velocity and magnetic field directions

• The force is zero if the particle velocity is zero (and depends on the sign of v)
• The force depends on the sign of the electric charge

1.3 Definition of the Magnetic Field

Recall electric field = space around an electrified object - a space in which electric forces act.

Now, magnetic field = the space around a magnetized object - a space in which magnetic forces
act.

Electric field: defined by considering the electric force on a smalltest charge.

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Magnetic field: defined by considering the magnetic force F⃗B experienced by a charged particle mov-
ing with a velocity, ⃗v .

Assume (for now) there are no gravitational or electric fields present.

The magnetic field at some point in space can be defined in terms of the magnetic force, F⃗B ex-
perienced by a test charged particle moving with velocity ⃗v .

Thus, we will converge on the following relation for the magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged
object:
F⃗B = q⃗v × B ⃗ (3)
From our discussion of cross product we know that ⃗a × ⃗b = |a||b|sinθ. It follows that the magnitude
of magnetic force is given by
|F⃗B | = q|⃗v ||B|
⃗ sin θ (4)
or, turned around, allows us to define the magnitude of the magnetic field as

⃗ = |F⃗B |
|B| (5)
q|⃗v | sin θ
⃗
where θ is the angle between the velocity, ⃗v , and the magnetic field, B.

the resulting vector is always pointing in a direction perpendicular to the plane formed by F⃗B and ⃗v .
N N N
The units of the magnetic field are m = C m = = T = τ = T esla A non-SI magnetic-field
Cs s
A−m
unit in common use, called the gauss (G), is related to the tesla through the conversion 1 T = 104 G.

1.4 Direction of the Magnetic Field

What direction do we assign to the magnetic field to insert into the force equation? We imagine field
lines the are directed outward from the north pole of a magnet, and inward to the south pole.

Now in full vector form, we write the expression for the magnetic force acting on a electrically
charged particle as:
FB = q⃗v × B⃗ (6)
We can see that it will satisfy all the empirical observations noted earlier.

The vector cross-product is defined by:

î ĵ k̂
⃗×B
A ⃗ ⃗ ×A
= −B ⃗ = ax ay az (7)
bx by bz
= |A||B|sinθ (8)

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1.5 Right-Hand Rule
⃗ throughout space.
Imagine some source (which we will investigate later) establishes a magnetic field B
Now imagine a particle with charge q is placed in that field. The particle interacts with the magnetic
⃗ The directions are shown
field so that the particle experiences a magnetic force given by FB = q⃗v × B.
in the figure below.

If we consider the following simple example, that ⃗v = v0 î and B ⃗ = B0 ĵ , then we see that the
magnetic force direction is given by a right-hand rule: F = qv0 B0 k̂

1.6 Magnetic Fields and Work

Let’s calculate the work done by the magnetic force acts on a moving charged particle that moves
from point 1 to point 2:

1.7 Lorentz Force Equation

We can combine what we learned about the electric force to that we just learned about the magnetic
force into one equation, the Lorentz force equation:
F⃗ = q(E
⃗ + ⃗v × B)
⃗ (9)
We can apply this to some historical work done by J.J. Thompson, who determined that the carrier
of electricity was an electrically charged particle dubbed the “electron.”

1.8 e/m Determination of the Electron-the Carrier of Electricity

It was determined by J.J. Thompson in 1897 that cathode rays are charged particles emitted from
a heated electrical cathode. It was known that such heated cathodes lead to an electrical current,
so Thompson determined that electricity was quantized into individual charged particles (dubbed
electrons). He deduced this by analyzing the motion of cathode rays through perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields, as shown below:

Here is a review of the procedure used to determined the charge-to-mass ratio for electrons by
application of the Lorentz Force equation, F⃗ = q(E
⃗ + ⃗v × B).
⃗ What J.J. Thompson assumed was that

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cathode rays were actually individually charged particles.

In the absence of a magnetic field, with an electric field aligned in the y-direction, we have:

Fy = qEy = may (10)

qEy
=⇒ ay = (11)
m
Let electric field occupies a region of length l through which the cathode rays pass. The cathode
rays initially have a velocity v0 in the x-direction.

Time to cross the electric field region

l
t≈ (12)
v0
Velocity in y - direction upon exit
qEy l
vy = ay t = (13)
mv0
Tangent of exit angle
vy qEy l
tan θ = = (14)
vx mv02
The angle θ can be measured in the experiment, and the length of the electric plates is obviously
known. The electric field can be determined from the electric potential difference V applied to the
parallel plates divided by the separation:
⃗ =V
|E| (15)
d
However, we need a way to determine the initial velocity v0 . The trick is to turn on a magnetic field
such that the cathode beam is no longer deflected. Using the Lorentz Force equation:

F⃗ = q(E
⃗ + ⃗v × B)
⃗ (16)
If we set θ = 0 then
⃗ = −⃗v × B
=⇒ E ⃗ (17)
which implies that
⃗ = |vx | × |Bz |
=⇒ |E| (18)
note that vx and Bz are perpendicular to each other.
E
vx = = v0 (19)
B
Armed with this, we can determined the charge to mass ratio of the electron:

qEl B 2
tan θ = (20)
m E2
q E tan θ ”e”
= 2
= (21)
m B l m
So the procedure is that we measure θ for a given E, then we measure B for θ = 0. This yields a
charge-to-mass ratio of:
”e”
= 1.76 × 1011 C/kg (22)
m
What J.J. Thompson found in his laboratory was that this was a universal ratio. It didn’t matter if
the cathode was aluminum, steel, or nickel; and it didn’t matter if the gas was argon, nitrogen, or

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helium. The value always came out to be the same. Thus, there was only one type of charge car-
rier for electricity—the electron. It should be noted that the charge of the electron is actually negative.

What else can we conclude? From the size of this ratio, either the charge of the electron is very
large, or the mass of the electron is extremely small (or some combination of both).

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1.9 Review: Charge of the Electron
J.J. Thompson only determined the ratio of the electron charge to its mass, rather than each separately.
It was Robert Millikan in 1911 who was able to measure the electron charge directly. He did this by
measuring the static electric charge on drops of oil, and finding that it was always a multiple of a
certain value. A schematic of the set up is shown below:

The oil drop is suspended when the acceleration a = 0

F⃗ = q E
⃗ = −m⃗g (23)

Millikan measured the mass of the oil drops by turning off the electric field and measuring the terminal
velocity. We will assume that the mass is known, as with the voltage and the plate separation distance
d. Through very precise measurements, Millikan found that the electric charge is a multiple of the
following value:
e = q = 1.602 × 10−19 (24)
Charge is quantized! From Thompson’s e/m measurement, we can deduce:

me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg (25)

The electron has a definite charge and mass which is the same for all electrons.

1.10 Magnetic Force and Circular Motion

Recall that the magnetic force is perpendicular to the direction of motion. This implies that the
trajectory in a uniform magnetic field is a circle in the plane transverse to the direction of the field
(a helix in 3 dimensions, generally).

Consider a positively charged particle with velocity ⃗v (taken to be toward the right) entering a region
of uniform magnetic field pointing into the plane of the page. The particle will be deflected by a force
that is perpendicular to the field and the initial velocity. In the example below, this will be in the
upward direction. But when recalculating the force at another point along the trajectory, we will find
that the particle is continually deflected with an equal magnitude force, and the net effect is a circular
orbit. Since the magnetic field does no work, the radius of this circle, r, will be a constant.

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 We can solve for the radius of this orbit:

F⃗ = q⃗v × B ⃗ (26)
F⃗ = ⃗
q|⃗v ||B|r̂ (27)
F⃗ = m⃗a (28)

v2
where the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is a = . From (26), we can write
r

v2 ⃗
= q|⃗v ||B|r̂ (29)
r
mv
r = (30)
qB
In other words, since momentum is defined as p = mv , we have
p
r= (31)
qB
This gives the radius of the orbit in terms of the particle momentum, charge, and the magnetic field
magnitude. This latter form of the equation is even correct with the relativistic definition of momen-
tum.

To see this, we use the relativistic definition of momentum is:

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p = γmu where γ = 2 and u is the particle velocity.
1− u
c2

The magnitude of the velocity in circular motion is constant, so the force can be written:
d⃗
p
F⃗ = (32)
dt
d(γm⃗u)
F⃗ = (33)
dt
d⃗u
= γm (34)
dt
=⇒ F⃗ = γm⃗a (35)

Setting this force equal to the magnetic force, and plugging in for centripetal acceleration:

v2
γm = qvB (36)
r
v
=⇒ m = qB (37)
r
=⇒ mv = = p = qBr (38)
p
=⇒ r = (39)
qB

1.11 Orbital Frequency

The frequency of orbit in uniform circular motion is given by
v
f= (40)
2πr
The relativistic momentum is p = γmu, so

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 p
f= (41)
2πγmr
Now plugging in that p = qBr , we get
r
qB u2
f= 1+ 2 (42)
2πm c
So we see that the frequency is constant provided u << c , but when we approach speeds near that
of light, the frequency slows down.

Thus, while the early particle accelerator, cyclotrons, used a constant frequency to maintain cir-
cular motion, higher energy machines must synchronize the orbital frequency according to Special
Relativity.

1.12 Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons

The previously derived equation is extremely useful for experimental particle physicists! It can be
used in two main ways. First, it can be used to bend charged particles into a circular orbit. This is
how physicists maintain circular beams of electrons and protons in a fixed tunnel. A series of magnets
in the shape of a ring, all with the same field, bend the particles so that they can be brought into
collision over and over again. The largest accelerator, the Large Hadron Collider, is 4.3 km in radius
and is illustrated below!

The other way to use the equation is to measure the radius of curvature of a charged particle in a
known magnetic field in order to determine its momentum. In other words, once the beam particles
have collided, we must measure the momentum or energy of the collision products in order to determine
what reaction took place. For example, the picture below shows the reconstructed trajectories of
charged particles emanating from a proton collision. The curvature is inversely proportional the
momentum.

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1.13 Hall Effect
Another example of the Lorentz Force is the magnetic effect on a current of electrons in a conductor.
In the example below, a uniform magnetic field is directed into the plane of the paper and the current
moves from top to bottom.

The electrons drifting upward in the shown conductor (electric current going down) will initially
⃗ magnetic interaction (left picture). This will cause them to drift toward
feel a force due to the ⃗v × B
one side of the conductor and build up charge. Very soon, this will set up an electric field that balances
the magnetic force (right picture). At equilibrium, the forces balance.

F⃗E + F⃗B = 0 (43)

=⇒ eE ⃗ = ⃗
e|⃗vd ||B| (44)

We can define a “Hall Voltage” as the electric potential difference between the left and right sides of
the shown conductor:
⃗
VH = |E|d (45)
When combined with the force balance equation we get:
VH
= vd B (46)
d
Now from Ohm’s Law, the current density is related to the electron drift velocity:

|⃗j| = nevd (47)

So
j
vd = where i =I= current and A= cross-sectional area (48)
ne
I
= (49)
neA
Id
=⇒ = B (50)
neA
Or in other words, we can determine the magnetic field from the measured Hall voltage and current
passing through the conductor:
neA
|B| = (51)
Id
Such a device used to measure magnetic fields is called a Hall Probe.

Note that recommended textbook follows a different approach in deriving the Hall voltage. Both
approaches yield same results.

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1.14 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

Consider a length of conducting wire carrying a current, I, in a uniform magnetic field B. ⃗ The
drift-velocity of the electrons is constant and is denoted by vd . The time it takes for an electron to
drift across a length of wire, L, is given by:
L
t= (52)
vd
The amount of charge passing through the end of wire in that time is given by:

q = It (53)
L
= I (54)
vd
This must equal the amount of free charge contained in a length of wire L at any instant.

The force on that amount of charge is:

F⃗ = q⃗vd × B
⃗ (55)
and this must be the force acting on a length of wire L carrying a current. We can write in terms of
the current:

F⃗ ⃗ sin θ
= |q⃗vd × B| (56)
L
= I vd B sin θ (57)
vd
= ILB sin θ (58)
(59)

⃗ as pointing in the direction of the current and having

Or alternatively, if we define a length vector L
a magnitude equal to the length, we can write for the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic
field:
F⃗ = I L
⃗ ×B⃗ (60)
The force depends on the directions and magnitudes of the current and the magnetic field. If we have
N loops of wire carrying the same current, we multiply the above equation by the number of wires N .

For an infinitesimal length of wire, d⃗s, we have: dF⃗ = Id⃗s × B

⃗

Solution

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1.15 Torque on a Current Loop
Consider a rectangular current loop inside a uniform magnetic field (i.e. the basis of an electric motor).
It has a spindle about which it is free to rotate.

There are 4 straight segments of current-carrying wire, each of which will feel a force due to the
magnetic field.

Wires 2 and 4 are not always perpendicular to the magnetic field, so

|F⃗4 | = |F⃗4 | = IbB sin 90◦ − θ = IbB cos θ (61)

=⇒ |F⃗2 | = −IbB cos θĵ (62)
=⇒ |F⃗4 | = IbB cos θĵ (63)
(64)

The forces balance, and there is no torque because the loop is not allowed to rotate about the hori-
zontal axis.

Wires 1 and 3 are always perpendicular to the magnetic field, so

|F⃗1 | = |F⃗3 | = IaB (65)

=⇒ |F⃗1 | = IaB k̂ (66)
=⇒ |F⃗3 | = −IaB k̂ (67)

The forces thus balance, although the torque about the vertical axis will not.

In total, all forces balance, but the two vertical sides 1 and 3 will create a torque. The lever arm
length is r = b/2. Viewed from the top, the situation looks like:

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 The torque is:

⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ (68)
 
b
|⃗τ1 | = IaB sin θ (69)
2
 
b
|⃗τ3 | = IaB sin θ (70)
2
τ = ⃗τ1 + ⃗τ3 = IaB sin θ (71)

They both add in the same direction. The product A = ab, the area of the loop.

|τ | = IaB sin θ (72)

We can define an area vector as having its magnitude equal to the loop area, and a direction perpen-
dicular to the loop (and in a sense given by the right-hand rule and the current direction). Thus, a
vector form of the torque is:
⃗×B
⃗τ = I A ⃗ (73)
⃗×B
If there are N windings of the wire around the loop, the formula becomes ⃗τ = N I A ⃗

If we further define the magnetic dipole moment of the loop to be µ

⃗ = IA , then

⃗τ = µ ⃗
⃗ ×B (74)

This formula holds for any current loop shape.

To determine the direction of µ use the right-hand rule (fingers in direction of current, then thumb
points in direction of µ) :

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 The effect of the torque on the current loop is to try to line up the magnetic dipole moment vector
with the magnetic field:

Once the two vectors are aligned, there will be no torque. However, if we reverse the field direction,
the will want to flip the orientation of the loop. If we keep doing this, we form the basis of an electric
motor.

Examples

1. Find the maximum torque on a 100-turn square loop of a wire of 10.0 cm on a side that carries
15.0 A of current in a 2.00-T field.

Strategy
Torque on the loop can be found using τ = N IAB sin θ. Maximum torque occurs when
θ = 90◦ and sin θ = 1.

Solution
For sin θ = 1, the maximum torque is τmax = N IAB.

τmax = (100) (15.0 A) (0.100 m2 ) (2.00 T)

Entering known values yields
= 30.0 N · m.
2. Find the current through a loop needed to create a maximum torque of 9 Nm. The loop has 50
square turns that are 15.0 cm on a side and is in a uniform 0.8 T magnetic field.

Solution
• τ = Maximum torque of the loop = 9 Nm
• N = Number of turns in the loop = 50
• a = side of the loop = 15 cm = 0.15 m
• A = Area of the loop A = a × a = 0.15 × 0.15 = 0.0225m2
• B = magnitude of magnetic field = 0.800 T
• I = magnitude of current in the loop
• Maximum torque of the loop is given as

τ = N IAB sin θ
τ
I =
N AB sin θ
9
=
(50)(0.0225)(0.8) sin(90◦ )
= 10 A

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 A different approach can be found: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDyUxmtMM9o

Links
https://physexams.com/lesson/magnetic-field-Problems-solutions-ap-physics 64 Practise all the prob-
lems given here.
https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap physics 2-help/magnetic-fields
https://facultyweb.kennesaw.edu/djoffe/courses/docs/2212/Spring%202016%20-%202212%20Practice%
20Problem%20Set%203%20-%20Solutions.pdf
https://web.njit.edu/∼tyson/P122-ECE Lecture8 Extra.pdf Examples
https://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/mag/node11.html
https://www.montana.edu/aolson/eele354/presentation-files/Lecture 8 Magnets%20and%20Magnetism%
20print.pdf
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/physics/electricity-and-magnetism/electromagnetic-forces-and-fields
https://physexams.com/lesson/Magnetic-force-on-a-wire-carrying-current 22
https://www.veronaschools.org/cms/lib02/NJ01001379/Centricity/Domain/138/cppste1602.pdf
https://askfilo.com/physics-question-answers/a-326-g-object-is-attached-to-a-spring-and-executes-simple-harmonic-moti
https://sceweb.uhcl.edu/blanford/Y&F15 040.pdf

Important links
https://www.andrews.edu/∼rwright/physics/worksheets/Physics%2010-03%20Magnetic%20Force%20on%
20Current-Carrying%20Wire.pdf
https://foothill.edu/psme/marasco/2Bbook/STAX Marasco C5(22).pdf
https://aovgun.weebly.com/uploads/9/8/7/3/98730038/phys102 magnetic field.pdf
https://web.njit.edu/∼tyson/P122-ECE Lecture8 Extra.pdf

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