CHM101 (GENERAL CHEMISTRY I) [2 CREDIT UNIT]

LECTURE NOTE TWO

FOR
100 LEVEL STUDENTS

WRITTEN BY
Mr. MUHAMMAD SULEIMAN DARMA

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
FEDERAL UNIIVERSIT DUTSIN-MA

KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA.

NOVEMBER, 2023

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 1
 DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA, KATSINA.
CHM101 (GENERAL CHEMISTRY I)
LECTURE NOTE TWO
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to
effectively understand the concept of:

1. Modern electronic theory of atoms.

2. Electronic configuration,
3. Valence forces
4. Chemical bonding

1. Modern Electronic Theory of Atoms:

The concept that atoms play a fundamental role in chemistry began with the
discovery of John Dalton, an English scientist, in 1808 who was first to postulate
the modern atomic theory. He stated that:

1. Atom is the smallest indivisible particles of an element

2. All matter is composed of atoms.
3. Atoms of the same element are the same; atoms of different elements are
different.
4. Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.

The John Dalton atomic theory considered the atom as an indivisible particle
o\from which all matter is composed

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 2
 Figure 1 Structure of atom predicted by the John Dalton in 1808

The John Dalton atomic theory form the basis of chemistry. However, this theory
suffers numerous limitations by other scientists. Thus, this atomic theories have
been modified.

In the year 1904, J.J. Thomson experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that,
atoms contain tiny negatively charged particles. Thomson proposed the theory
called the Plum pudding model of atom which states that: All atoms consist of
tiny negatively charged particles embedded with a sphere of positively charged

Figure 2 Thomson Atomic model

In the 1911, Rutherford discovered the existence of central charges in an atom

which later named as nucleus. He proposed that; Atom is made up of a central
charge surrounded by a cloud of orbiting electrons

Figure 3 Rutherford's Atomic structure

However, in the year 1913, Neils Bohr proposed that, the electrons travel around
the nucleus of an atom in distinct circular orbits or shells. Just like the planets

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 3
revolving round the sun. Thus, the Bohr’s model is also referred to as the planetary
model of an atom.

Figure 4 Bohr's Atomic model

In the early 1926 Erwin Schrodinger developed the current atomic model which
proposed that: Electrons occupy region of spaces called orbitals around the
nucleus based on their energies

Figure 5 Modern atomic structure

However, Due to the number of researches and experiments in the structure of an

atom, it was proved that; the Dalton atomic theory was more of classical
predictions rather than scientific; and therefore, The today’s Chemistry is based
on the modern atomic theory, which states that

1. All matter is composed of atoms.

2. Atoms themselves are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
3. Each element has atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons
in its nucleus.
4. Atoms of the same element (Known as isotopes) may contain different
numbers of neutrons.

2. Electronic configuration

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 4
The electron configuration of an atom is the arrangement of electrons distributed
over the sub-energy levels (sub-shells). Commonly, the electron configuration is
used to describe the orbitals of an atom in its ground state, and excited state, it can
also be used to represent an atom that has ionized into a cation or anion.
Many of the physical and chemical properties of elements and their positions
in periodic table can be correlated to their unique electron configurations.
As stated, the electron configuration of each element is unique to its position
on the periodic table. The Period is determined by the energy levels, the groups of
the element is determine by the number of electron in the highest energy levels so
also the family of the elements.
The family of elements are represented by specific blocks on the periodic
table such that; the s-block is the region of the alkali metals (Groups 1 & 2), the
d-block are the transition metals (Groups 3 to 12), the p-block are the main
group elements from Groups 13 to 18, and the f-block are the lanthanides and
actinides series.
Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals
1. Aufbau’s Principle states that: The electrons in an atom fill the principal
energy levels in order of increasing energy. The order of levels can be generated
from the table below:

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 5
In order to use the above table, student must follow the diagonal lines, starting
from 1s to 7f depending on the number of electrons in the atom. Hence we get
something like:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 6f 7d and 7f
Note that: The table must stop at 7f because only 7 periods of elements exist in
the periodic table.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle states that: No two electrons can have all the
four quantum numbers the same.
A single orbital can have the same energy level and sub-shell but can only contains
two electrons, which must have opposing spins; one spin up the other would spin
down.
3. Hund's Rule states that: When assigning electrons in orbitals, electrons fills
all the degenerate orbitals singly before pairing with another electron take place.
Writing Electron Configurations
The rules above allow one to write the electron configurations for all the elements
in the periodic table. However, three methods are used to write the electronic
configurations:
1. spdf notation
2. orbital diagrams
3. noble gas notation
Each method has its own purpose and each has its own drawbacks.
Example 2.1
Using the spdf notation
Write the electronic configuration of Nitrogen and Scandium and use it to
determine their groups, periods in the periodic table and hence predict the orbitals
electronic configuration
Solution

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 6
a) For Nitrogen the atomic number (Z) = 7
Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p3
Electrons arrangement: The first energy level contains 2 electrons while the second
energy level contains 5. Thus we have 2 : 5
We can clearly see that the Nitrogen element belongs to period 2 gropup 5 in the
periodic table
b) For Scandium atom, Z=21
Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
Electrons arrangement= 2 : 8 : 9 : 2
Thus, Scandium (Sc) is belong to period 4. The balance electron occurs in 3d1
means that Sc is the first member of d-block elements (the transition metals)
Example 2.2
Using orbitals diagram
Write the orbitals electronic configuration of Nitrogen (7N) and Aluminium (13Al)
elements
Solution
For Nitrogen The atomic number Z=7, the orbitals electronic configuration is:

For Aluminium The atomic number Z=13, the orbitals electronic configuration is:

Note that; In using the orbitals notation one must strictly adhere to the rules above
and this method is important as it reveal to us the number of electrons contained
in each of the degenerate orbitals. Thus, the orbital electronic configuration above
can also be presented as 7 N :1s 2 2s 2 2 p1x 2 p1y 2 p1z and 13 Al :1s 2 2s 2 2 p6 3s 2 3 p1x respectively

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 7
Example 2.3
Using noble gas notation: The noble gases have the most stable electron
configurations, and are known for being relatively inert. All noble gases have their
subshells filled and can be used as a shorthand way of writing electron
configurations for subsequent atoms. This method of writing configurations is
called the noble gas notation, this looks slightly different from spdf notation, as the
reference noble gas must be indicated.
For example, consider the electronic configurations of Vanadium atom 23V and a
noble gas Argon (18Ar) atom
23 V :1s 2 2s 2 2 p6 3s 2 3 p6 4s 2 3d 3 and 18 Ar :1s 2 2s 2 2 p6 3s 2 3 p6

If we look carefully we see that, the E.C. of the noble gas Ar can be obtained
completely from that of Vanadium, thus we can replace it with the symbol of the
noble gas and complete the remaining orbitals. Hence the noble gas electronic
configuration of Vanadium is written as
23 V :  Ar  4s 2 3d 3

So also the Noble gas electronic configuration of yttrium (z= 39) is given as
39 Y :  Kr  5s 2 4d 1

Exercises 2.1
1. In your own words describe how to write an electron configuration and why it is
an important skill in the study of chemistry.
2. Describe the major concepts (Hunds, Pauli...etc.) and explain why each is a key
part of the when describing electron configurations
3. Why is it possible to abbreviate electron configurations with a noble gas in the
noble gas notation?
4. Identify the following elements, their groups and periods
a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
b) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d7
Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 8
c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4
5) Use orbital notation to rewrite the (a) and (c) and Noble gas notation for (b) and
(d) in 4 above.

3. Valance forces

 Except for the noble gases [He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn] no element in a free
state possess the stable complete outermost shell.
 The noble gases do not react under ordinary conditions, this is due to their
complete outermost shells, thus resultant valance forces in their atoms are
zero.
 Elements with incomplete outer shells possess valance forces thus, tend to
combine with other elements, thereby forming a chemical bond.
 All elements are found in combined states except few metals such as gold
(Au) and silver (Ag) that can be found in a free state in nature.
 Atoms of all elements in their standard state are electrically neutral, because
they have an equal number of (+) protons and (-) electrons.
 Atoms of all elements other than Noble gases interact in different ways in
order to achieve the noble gases configurations (i.e completely filled outer
energy levels) by losing electrons, gaining electrons or sharing electrons with
one another.
 The gain or loss of electrons produces charged atoms, called ions.

Ions: are atoms or group of atoms that carries an electrical charge. For example,
Potassium ion ( K  ) the oxygen ion, ( O 2 ) etc. The charge carried by an ion
determines how many oppositely charged ions are combined with it in a
compound.

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 9
  Cations are positively charged ions (for example, K+) while
 Anions are negatively charged ions (for example, O 2 ).

4. Chemical bonding:
Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of chemistry that explains
other concepts such as molecules and reactions. Without it, scientists wouldn't be
able to explain why atoms are attracted to each other or how products are formed
after a chemical reaction has taken place. In chemical bonding, only valence
electrons, that is the electrons located in the orbitals of the outermost energy level
(valence shell) of an element, are involved.

Lewis diagrams:

Lewis diagrams are graphical representations of elements and their valence

electrons. Valance electrons are the electrons that form the outermost shell of an
atom. In a Lewis diagram of an element, the symbol of the element is written in the
center and the valence electrons are drawn around it as dots. Generally the Roman
numeral of the group corresponds with the number of valance electrons of the
element. Example the Lewis electron diagram for Helium and Carbon are
..

  
He C 
. Cl :  O 

.. 

Octet rule:
The octet rule states that: all atoms of elements share or donate electrons in
order to achieve the stable electronic configuration of the noble gases.

The noble gases having the 8 valence electrons are chemically inert; they are
already stable and tend to not need the transfer of electrons when bonding with
another atom in order to be stable. Thus, alkali metals have a valance electron shell

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 10
of one electron. Since they want to complete the octet rule they often simply lose
one electron. This makes them quite reactive because they can easily donate this
electron to other elements. This explains the highly reactive properties of the
Group IA elements. On the other hands, the halogens of group seven have 7 valence
electrons therefore need one electron to complete the noble gas configuration. This
makes them highly reactive nonmetals.
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is the process of not sharing electrons between two atoms. It occurs
between a nonmetal and a metal. Ionic bonding is also known as the process in
which electrons are "transferred" to one another because the two atoms have
different levels of electron affinity. In the picture below, a sodium (Na) ion and a
chlorine (Cl) ion are being combined through ionic bonding. Na+ has less
electronegativity due to a large atomic radius and essentially does not want the
electron it has. This will easily allow the more electronegative chlorine atom to gain
the electron to complete its 3rd energy level. Throughout this process, the transfer
of the electron releases energy to the atmosphere.
Example 2.4: Consider the formation of potassium bromine

Example 2.5: Formation of magnesium chloride

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 11
Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding is the process of sharing of electrons between two atoms. The
bonds are typically between a nonmetal and a nonmetal. Since their
electronegativities are all within the high range, the electrons are attracted and
pulled by both atom's nuceli. In the case of two identical atoms that are bonded to
each other (also known as a nonpolar bond, explained later below), they both emit
the same force of pull on the electrons, thus there is equal attraction between the
two atoms (i.e. oxygen gas, or O2, have an equal distribution of electron affinity.
This makes covalent bonds harder to break.

Example 2.6: Formation of water molecules

Example 2.7: Formation of Carbon (IV) oxide

Example 2.8: Formation of Nitrogen molecule

Comparisons between ionic and covalent molecules

1. Because of the many simultaneous attractions between cations and anions that
occur, ionic crystal lattices are very strong. The covalent compounds mainly exist
as gases, liquids or soft solids due to absent of strong attraction of ions.

2. The process of melting an ionic compound requires the addition of large

amounts of energy in order to break all of the ionic bonds in the crystal. For

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 12
example, sodium chloride has a melting temperature of about 800oC. As a
comparison, the molecular compound water melts at 0 °C.

Exercise 2.2:

Use the concept of Chemical bonding to illustrate the formation of the following
compounds; and hence identify the type of bonds exist in each

1. Al2O3
2. NH3
3. Na2SO4
4. MgBr2
5. H2O

Mr. M. S. Darma. Copyright © 2023. Dept. of Chemistry FUDMA. All Right Reserved Page 13