SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 109

economy and development. It, however, private sector. The Planning would seek
does not mean rejection of the need for to better the quality of life on all fronts
determination of goals of development by the end of Eleventh Five -Year Plan.
and providing necessary path and This, of course will need serious efforts
guidance for that. Alsoina democracy and renewed energies. Unfortunately,
State remains under tremendous
the experience so far has not been that
pressure of voters and therefore, cannot much encouraging.
completely neglect their demands and
aspirations. Hence, even in the new DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING — AN
economic environment, economic
planning continues to be an important ASSESSMENT
factor determining the strategies for From the above discussion it brings
public investment, besides providing out that Planning was adopted to
guidelines for channelising private transfer the poor, backward and under
sector investment in desired directions.
developed social order into a
In this context process of long-term prosperous independent developed
planning continues in India. However,
modern society based on the ideas of
from Eighth Plan onwards, there
is balanced growth, justice, equity and
change in the concept of economic equality. For that purpose, so far we
planning. Now onwards, it is stated had completed Nine Five Year Plans. All
that, “ the role of planning will largely
of them have consistently placed
be indicative.” In other words, plan will
emphasis on the attainment of the
not be used to direct investable
objectives of self-reliance, social justice,
Tesources according to the priorities industrialisation, modernisation and
fixed by the government, irrespective of economic growth. Further in the age
the signals given by market forces. The of globalisation and liberalisation
Preamble to the Plan Document on the
emphasis has shifted in favour of
Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002)
providing incentives and facilities to the
states that the objective of the plan is to
private sector and attracting foreign
focus on growth with social justice and
investment within the framework of
equity. The participation of public and achieving growth with social justice.
private sectors and all tiers of Once we review the results of last
government in this process is, therefore,
over 50 years of planned development
vital. The Approach paper to Tenth we can on the positive side say that
Plan (2002-2007) approved by National India has many achievements to its
Development Council in September
credit. The overall volume of industrial
2001 indicates that in future the role
production had increased more than
_ of government and the public sector
will four fold by the mid seventies. New
be confined to social sector while
branches of the mining and processing
infrastructure development and
industries, including metallurgy and
industrial development will be left to the
heavy engineering have been created in
110 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

the state and private sectors. Astagnant It is, therefore, important to

and dependent economy has been understand that a model of
modernised and made more self-reliant. development without taking into
There has been a steady increase in account the basic needs of millions of
agricultural output, particularly of our countrymen cannot be conducive
food-grains, making us virtually self- for survival of democracy. Mere
sufficient. There has been a good growth rate measured in conventional
measure of growth in the field of terms is not and must not be confused _
banking, insurance, commerce and with socio-economic development.
transport. Judging by the enrolment Development has to be understood as |
of students at the elementary and a social process reflecting the will ofa
secondary levels, one may conclude community to take a common action
that opportunities for education have and a means through which it cal
also expanded in a significant degree. progress. The intended objective of.
It is also important to note that the development planning should be the
average life expectancy in India rose improvement in the quality of life of all
from 32 years in the forties to above 60 the people and remove poverty:
years in nineties. India is the most ignorance, discrimination, disease
technically advanced country in the and unemployment. No effective
Third World. It had put satellites in can take place OF
development
the space, exploded nuclear devices planning can succeed without people's
and mined the sea-bed. Indian defence participation. People have to be not
has also made significant progress. A just the goals but also the means of
wide variety of technical, managerial development strategy. Therefore, there
and operative skills have been
is need to make the development
developed. In agriculture and rural
process human-centred, one that the
development a large number of new could initiate and develop at
people
programmes have been started. In terms of machinery
different levels.
Inspite of all these achievements,
one strategy for this is decentralisation
basic problems of India — namely Some steps towards this
of planning.
poverty, unemployment, distributive of the
have been taken by acceptance
justice and self-reliance remains through
idea of multi level planning
unsolved. The successive five-year and 2
Panchayati Raj Institutions
plans have failed to bring about a About
transformation of the District Development Agencies.
thorough in the nex
country. these we will discuss
economic structure of the the
chapter. But that itself is not
Infact the inequalities of wealth and is ar
answer. What is required
income distribution are increasing. A o
alternative model and strategy
large section of population still lives ti
development and political will
below the line of poverty in a state of
hunger and inhuman conditions of life. implement that.

anaea SNe SR eo ie iii 4 Aine RI ot

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 11

EXERCISES

What do you mean by Planning? What is its

importance for development?
Co a

Describe the socio-economic conditions of

India at the time of independence.
Describe the composition and functions of Planni
eo

ng Commission.
How many Five-Year Plans have been compl
eted so far?
Examine the New Economic Policy in India.
Give a brief assessment of planning and developmen
t in India.
Write short notes on the following:
(i) Mixed Economy;
(ii) Globalisation;
(iii) Goals of development for India.
CHAPTER 9

Multi Level Planning and

Role of District Development Agencies
}
'

ie the last chapter you have read that Level Planning was formulated but in |
the idea of planning in India was not practice it was different. Indian planning -
only for a comprehensive development was conceptualised at two levels only—
but it also was based on the principles National and State. In fact, as some)
critics point out, the Planning
of democracy, with considerable scope
Commission had even encroached
for participation of the people and their
representatives in its formulation and upon the autonomy of the States under
the federal system. Planning
evaluation. In view of this, it was
decided to involve various institutions Commission began to modify or even
in plan formulation, implementation, reject the State’s proposals for:
monitoring and evaluation. These development programmes for which
included the National Development central financial assistance was sought
Council (NDC), Planning Commission, and which could be granted only on the
State Planning Boards, District recommendations of the Planning
Commission. |
Planning Cells, Planning Cells in Central
and State Ministries and Parliament. The central planning system has
The idea thus was to have a multi level been unable to provide for equitable
planning. It was to formulate plans by distribution of the benefits of economit
The
District Planning Cells at District level, growth among regions and groups.
decision makers at the centre woul?
integrate them into state plans to be 0
formulated by State Planning Boards, not be able to understand the needs
in turn to be integrated into national heterogeneous regions and groups. Ii
plan to be formulated by Planning central planning and managemen
of power
Commission. there is over-concentration
authority and resources at the centre
Red tape and highly structured
CENTRALISATION are its inevitabl
procedures
Though in the initial years of planning characteristics. In a vast country lik
India, with considerable degree
the concept and methodology of Multi
 113
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
AND ROLE OF DISTRICT
MULTI LEVEL PLANNING
mentioned in
planning by the subject planning is
diversity between regions, the Concurrent List and
not in the
ncy can even
asole central planning age Union List. It means that the
be counter productive. aking planned
responsibility for undert
h systematic
development throug
DECENTRALISATION entation and
NEED For formulation, implem
a responsibility
ised that an evaluation of plans is
It has been widely recogn of both the Centre and
the States. Also
ul national
effective and meaningf ideas of decentralised planning,
le without the
development is not possib planning from below, people's
e to parties
giving adequate importanc in planning, multi level
nt. In other participation
who have stake in developme mentioned time
nt should be planning etc., have been
words national developme ear Plans. For
olving a large and again in the Five-Y
a national endeavour inv een the Union
ferent levels. the coordination betw
number of parties at dif Development
rnment are and States a National
Various levels of gove was established. The
inv olved in the Council
therefore, necessarily t Pr og ra mm e
ementation of Community Developmen
~ formulation and impl of Panchaya ti
known as and establishment
plans. This is what is re the most
Broadly Raj Institutions we
decentralised planning. ts at putting the
planning comprehensive attemp
speaking decentralisation in at idea of grass roots planni
ion.
ng into act |
of the people
means the involvement tempts failed.
mulation and In general, these at
various stages of plan for e failures of
ralisation, is an However, from time to tim
implementation. Decent and need for
the success of centralised planning
essential way for kept on being
ntry
in a cou decentralisation
development particularly
ead diversities, emphasised.
like India with wide spr in
imbalances and differences
planning has to DEVELOPMENT Councuit
necessities. Thus, the NaTIONAL
level, at the state
be done at the central Council
at levels below the
state that The National Development s to
sat ion
level and
n village. This is one of the key organi
is district, block and eve suitable symbolise the federaloach appr
requires establishment of a is a product
various levels. to planning in India. It
planning machinery at Commission's
of the Planning outline
draft
recommendations. In the
CENTRALISATION Plan, the
EXPERIMENTS IN DE of the First Five-Year
IPATION the need for
AND PEOPLE’S PARTIC Commission recommended tral and
the Cen
realisation of a body comprising
In India there has been a ble the plans
of people's State governments to ena
the importance and necessity to have a national cha
racter. According
ralisation.
participation and decent the National Development
Council, set
India itself
In fact, in the Constitution of
 114
DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLEN
up in August 1952, the function of
Council are: the effective instrument for developi
(i) to prescribe guidelin consensus and commitment
es for the to
formulation of the nat national policies.
ional plan; The Sarkan
(ii) to consider the nation Commission which was
al plan as appointed
formulated review Centre-State
by the Planning relations h
Commission; recommended that the
NDC should.
(iii) to assess resources made more effective, so
required for that it emerge
implementing as the supreme
the plan institution @
and to the political
Suggest ways and level for the Centre-
means for State Planning
raising them; relations. It hav
(iv) to consider also recommended
important question it i to give
of social and econom s constitutional status and
ic policy rename an¢
affecting development; reconstitute it as Nation
al Economit
(v) to review the working and Development Council.
of the plan |
from time to time and to
recommend such meas State PLanninc Boarps
ures as are
necessary for achievin
g the aims A number
and targets articula of subjects in involved
ted in the developmental activities
national plan. like agriculture,
The National Developm irrigation, power, cooperation,
ent Council Service, etc., are in the Sta ial soc
is chaired by Prime te list. As such
Minister and is both Planning at Sta
compri sed of all te level] and)
Union
binet Ca coordination between the
Ministers, Chief Ministers Central and
of States, Chief the State governments in
Executives of the Union the sphere of
Territories and development are essent
members of the Planni ial. In the
ng Commission. years while at the Cen initial.
The Council is required tra] level the
to meet at least Planning Commission was
twice a year. In its meet constituted
ings it generally, to formulate plans at the
reviews the approach Central leve
Papers to the Five- l,
Yea r Plans, Draft Five-Year no such institution was
Plans and created by the
Five-Year Plans. State. Almost all States ha
da planning
There are differences department as a part of
of opinion government,
with regard to role pla which was felt to be ina
yed by NDC in dequate. The
national planning. So Planning Commission itse
me feel that it lf pointed out
has functioned as this problem in 1962 and
a useful link suggested
among for the establishment
the Union Government, of State
Planning Commission Planning Boards.
and the State On
governments. It has the basis of the above
contributed in Suggestions some States
Provid ing a rational constituted
Perspective to State Planning Boards.
Planning. The other But these were
view
the is that not
NDC has not been able to given clearly defined functions.
act as an Therefore, they were not much
 115
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES
AND ROLE OF DISTRICT
MULTI LEVEL PLANNING
Planning
Reforms functions and role of State
successful. The Administrative Boards continue to be ambigu
ous and
7, in its
Commission, appointed in 196 a limited
to entrust limited. They have played only
recommendations suggested role. Planning process has
with the advisory
the State Planning Boards continued to be centrally
controlled
ic pla nning,
tasks of macro-level econom only with minor shifts
towards
determining
assessing state resources,
decentralisation.
district
priorities and facilitating
In 1972 Pla nning
planning. ES
Commission issued guideline
s for DistTRIcT PLANNING AGENCI
planning
strengthening the State Development planning has
to be
by inc lud ing a num ber of
machin ery ly, an~
s in it. Thu s, in 197 0s people oriented. According
technical expert understanding of the needs
of people
Boards
several States set up Planning at grass roots level and ful fil lment of
w to com ple men t and
with a vie essential
the alr ead y exi sti ng there needs are the most
supplement aspects of planning. Mahatma
Gandhi
ed that
planning machinery. It was hop strongly advocated decent ral isa tio n and
es with the help of the pla nning ss root
the Stat gra
in a bett er pos iti on empowerment of people at
poards, would be bles a
ili sin g res our ces and level. Decentralised Planning ena
not only for mob nee ds of all
ns on a mor e scie ntif ic better perception of the
apprising the pla making
enhancing areas, makes better decision
lines but they would also be possible, gives people a gre ate r voice in
r capa bili ties for bar gai nin g with the dev elo pment
thei
n. decisions concerning their
Planning Com mis sio ieve better
for m str uct ure of and welfare, serves to ach
There is no uni amongst
. These differ coordination and integration
Stat e Pla nni ng Boa rds Framer s of the
Sta te. As Sarkaria programmes.
Sta te to ide a in
from
rt obs erv ed that Constitution included this
in its repo s of Sta te
Commission
nni ng Boards had Part IV on Directive Principle
alt hou gh Stat e Pla ion enu merates
es exc ept one, Policy. The Constitut
peen cre ate d in all Stat ste ps to
inv olv ed in real that the State shall take
they have not bee n endow
The Sta te Planning organise village Panchayats and
pla nni ng wor k. and aut hor ity
ued to dis charge them with such powers
departments con tin the m to
nni ng Boards as may be necessary to enable
The Pla ent . In
function as units of self-governm
this responsibili ty.
due status
in general did not command the 1950s the Commun ity Dev elo pment
in the Stat e gov ernments. ish men t of
and aut hor ity Programme and the est abl
is con cer ned , grants the
Cen tre wer e
As far as
rel eas ed on the the Panchayati Raj Institutions
are towards
to States
of the Pla nning first and significant steps
recomm end ati ons root pla nning
ch gene rall y, does not putting the idea of grass
Commission whi these
n for Sta te int o action. However, both
show much concer reasons.
plan s. Thus , as a whol e attempts failed for various
formulate d
 116
DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENG
Pancuayati Raj Community Development Pro
gramme
The government of India and Panchayati Raj Instituti
in 31957. ons and
appointed Balwant later with their failure, Sign
Raj Mehta ificant
committee to study the pro suggestions have been made to
blems of evolve
development at the village the idea of District Planning
level. The and
Committee recommended establishment of District Dev
for the elopment
introduction of democrati Agencies. The Administrative
c institutions Reforms
to take care of all Commission in its report in
aspects of 1969 had
development work, According recommended that there Should
ly, a three be a
tier structure of Pancha District Planning Committee
yati Raj consisting
Institutions with elected Pan of the representatives
chayats at of the Zila
the village level, an executive Parishad, Municipal bodies
body called in the
the Panchayat Samiti at district, professional talent
the block in the
level and an district with appropriate associ
advisory body called ation of
Zila Parishad at the district the district officers. The Planning
level were
setup. Commission also issued guideline
s for
While the goal behind decentralised planning and
Panchayati for
Raj Institutions was establishment of District
very important, Planning
the spirit with which Agency involving government, loca
these were l self-
organised in various states government bodies and progre
lacked real ssive
enthusiasm. As a result farmers and entrepreneurs.
apart from A suitable
other failures the planning planning machinery at the dist
under the rict level,
Panchayati Raj Institutions however, remained missing. Ash
was not ok
much of a success. Mehta Committee in its report
They
ly were real in 1978
never given a chance to active pointed out that Panchayat
ly engage i Raj
in local planning. They fail Institutions have been rarely
ed because given an
of lack of experience, skil Opportunity to take up planning
] and help or
in planning; domination by the implementation work on a
sizeable
bureaucracy; inadequate scale. In its suggestions the
devolution of committee
financial powers proposed that the district sho
and complete uld be the
subordination to State gov first point of decentralisation
ernments. below the
State. The block, which is the
unit of
District PLanninc AND planning in most of the States
DIstrRIctT , was not
to be the basic Unit of dev
DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES olution by
merely an executive commit
tee of the
Zila Parishad.
SS

While planning in India has

generally, In 1978,
remained confined to a working group was
the Centre appointed
aa.

and State levels, uns to study block level]

atisfactory planning.
results of this have kep The committee found that
t the pressure planning machinery at the dist
for decentralisation. Along rict level
with was either non-existent or extremely
|
 AGENCIES GL;
ROLE OF DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL PLANNING AND
MULTI
of district
for of amenities; (iv) formulation
deficient. The committee suggested policies,
s. plans; (v) formulation of
strengthening of District Planning Cell and pri orities;
omm end ati ons , programmes
On the basis of these rec ation; and
agai n (vi) coordinated implement
the Planning Commission once of district
issued guidelines for (vii) monitoring and review
in 1982 il these
rict plan and programmes. To fulf
strengthening of planning at the dist gested for
scheme suggested for tasks the working group sug
level. The ng agencies
of technical personnel with broad-based district planni
inclusion from the
comprising of representatives
knowledge and skills required for Panchayat Samitis,
planning. To Zila Parishad,
scientific district from the
rict pla nni ng idea Municipalities, MLAs and MPs
transform the dist workers,
district, representatives of
from a concept to a reality the Planning
entrepreneurs and banks, etc.
Commission also set up a working of
On the recommendations
group on District Planning under the with the
Hanumanta Rao group and
chairmanship of C.H. Hanumanta ist anc e of the
in its motivation and ass
Rao. The working group Pla nning
report submitted in 1984 said: Planning Commission, District
number of
decentralisation (through district Cells have been created in a
a District
planning) enables a better perception States. The primary job of
a resource
of the needs of the local areas, makes Planning Cell is preparing
help of
paper for the district with the
better informed decision making level departments. In
district
possible, gives people a better voice in other
these cells have been
many cases
decisions concerning their development ating
and welfare, serves to achieve better entrusted with the task of formul
erally,
coordination and integration among district annual plans. But gen
rem ained
programmes, enables felt needs of the
District Planning Cells have
mere a formality then actually
people to be taken into account, way.
ensures effective participation of the functioning in a real meaningful
tion
The basic reason is contradic
people, serves to build up a measure of . In the
between planning and authority
self-reliance by mobilising resources of ers it
absence of any financial pow
the community in hand or money, rict level
becomes impossible for the dist
making development of local resources ries,
bodies to set targets, decide on prio
and growth potentials of local area for on
mobilise resources and decide
improved productivity and increasing the cas es
production feasible. allocations. Also in most of
been
District Planning bodies have not
The working group accordingly laid with adequate trained and
provided
down the functions of district planning planning personnel.
ion competent
agencies. These were (i) crystallisat e is
However, as has been said, ther
of local needs and objectives; (ii) taking tual
a realisation at least at concep
stock of the natural and human it is very important that
level that
development; (iii) listing and mapping
 118
DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
development and planning is initiated
at district level. An Physical and natural resour
encouraging ces; the
step integrated development of infrastr
towards this has finally bee
n taken by ucture
giving constitutional recogn and environmental conservation
ition to and the
district level planning by the extent and type of available fina
73rd and ncial and
non-financial resources.
74th Constitutional amendment
s. The district has been accepted as
advantage point for developme
CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT nt and
AND planning for several reasons. As
District PLANNING CoMMITTEE already
S mentioned a number of committee
s and
A major initiative in strengthenin studies have favoured this. The
g and major
Teasons, as given by several
rejuvenating local-self govern experts,
ments have been summed up as:
finally came in 1992 with the
adoption (i) A district is relatively closer
of 73rd and 74th amendment to the
s of local population than is any othe
the Constitution. Through r
these middle level regional spatial unit
amendments for the first time .
institutions below the Sta (ii) A district is large enough to serv
te level, e
Panchayats, as a viable planning unit.
Municipalities and
Corporations
(iii) Because of historical reason
have been given s
constitutional status. Certain it has a settled pattern
functions of
of these bodies have also been administration with a high deg
made ree
mandatory within this frame work of internal consistency
. The and
74th amendment well-established administrative
also makes provision
for the relationships.
constitution of a planning
committee at the district (iv) Most information relating to
level to revenue, land records, irrigation
consolidate plans prepared
by the works, development
Panchayats and the Municipal loans,
ities and housing, roads, electrification,
Prepare a development plan
for the social services, etc., is organised
district as a whole. The State legi
slature on a district to district basis.
has been empowered to make
Provisions (v) Most departments and agencies
with respect to the of
composition of the District Pla the State governments have thei
nning r
Committees (DPC). regional offices located at
the
district level.
The 7Ath amendment also (vi) Because of the well-entrenc
prescribes that while preparing hed
the draft development plan administrative System at
the
DPC district level, district planni
will keep in view matters of ng
common facilitates a clearer evaluation
interest between Panchayat of
s and the impact of the developme
Municipalities including spat nt
ial efforts and initiatives on the people
Planning, sharing of water and
other and the institutions of that area.
 AGENCIES 119
AND ROLE OF DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT
MULTI LEVEL PLANNING

(vii) People’s awareness of, ,the of grass root and diversified planning
particularly in a country like India with
administrative process in a imbalances and
so much diversities,
district is high because of their is
differences in needs and aspirations. It
long time association with the
district administration. the absence of appreciation of people’s
As a whole, development agencies aspirations and steps to fulfil them that
at the district level have an important create situations of regional and sectional
movements which ultimately become
role to play in the planning and
development process. The 73rd and serious issues for national integration
itself. National integration can best be
74th Amendments of the Constitution the people as
achieved by involving
have raised some hopes for the and
participants in decision making
empowerment of district and lower level
institutions but the results so far are implementation of developmental process
and not by imposing values and needs
not very encouraging. It is time for the
policy makers to realise the importance
from the above.

EXERCISES

t i n India?
Why is decentralisation importan
funct ions of National Development Council.
Describe the composition and
ER NS

Planning Agencies.
Explain the development of Distri
e of District Planning Committee brought
Describe the changes in the natur
o f the Constitution.
in by 73rd and 74th amendment
Write short notes on the following:
a

(i) State Planning Boards;

(ii) Panchayati Raj and Planning;
(iii) Need for Decentralisation.
CHAPTER 10

Development of Weaker Sections : Scheduled

Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes

OU have already read that after what was required was a strong
independence the Constitution of constitutional mechanism for protection
India, keeping in view the desires and of interests and rights of vulnerable
aspirations of the people, values or weaker section’s of society and
strengthened during national freedom at the same time special schemes
movement and the ideas prevailing in and programmes for their welfare.
the world, envisaged for State not only development and empowerment.
a democratic political order but also the
goals of Justice, Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity. These goals are clearly SCHEDULED CasTES
reflected in the Preamble of the
Scheduled Castes are people
Constitution, in parts on Fundamental belonging to those castes, races which
Rights and Directive Principles and
have been or may in future be specified
other specific Articles in the in a list in accordance with Article 341
Constitution. All these provisions of the Constitution. In traditional
suggest that India is a welfare state,
terms these are the people who
committed to were
the welfare and considered outcastes, categorised
development of its people in general and as
untouchables. This was a part of
of vulnerable sections in particular. The the
rigid caste system dividing the Indi
vulnerable sections in India include an
society into high and low on the basis
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
of birth without any logic or rationale.
and Other Backward Classes, Women,
The people of lower castes consider
Minorities, Disabled and Children. For ed
untouchable were assigned menial
the welfare of these people mere
jobs and occupations. They were
guaranteeing of right to equality or Oppressed and exploited by thos
universal adult franchise e
were not who belonged to
sufficient. the higher
The ideal of political castes. Economically and socially
democracy had to be backed by social
they remained extremely poor and
and economic democracy. Therefore, marginalised.
 121
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS

Scheduled Castes, tribes are people

During the course of history there
had been emerging voices against the belonging to tribes or tribal
caste system. Religious and social communities specified in the list of such
as per Article 342 of the
reformers have been raising voices tribes
against it and for its abolition. Religious Constitution. Scheduled Tribes are
movements like Budhism, Jainism, weaker sections not in terms of caste.
Sikhism and Bhakti movement in They are the people who have been living
general had rejected the social and in remote forest areas and hill tracks
ritual justification of this caste system as tribes without any access to modern
and oppression. The system, however, socio-economic inputs. It is difficult to
has remained. During British colonial define the tribal peoples of India in
period with the arrival of western liberal terms of any single set of formal criteria.
values and rise of socio-religious reform They are popularly believed to
movements the question of caste constitute the aboriginal element in
discrimination came to the forefront. Indian society. But most tribals share
Within lower caste people themselves certain common features like, nature
there emerged a consiousness and of rurality, illiteracy, economic
awareness about their plight and backwardness, and social deprivation.
demand for change. Dr B.R. Ambedkar Historically, one of the principal feature
and Mahatma Gandhi, in particular, of the tribal population has been its
though in different ways, had brought ecological, economic and social
up the issue of caste discrimination in isolation. For centuries, the tribal
a significant way. British colonial people have been confined to hills and
government, for various reasons had forests. This isolation has left definite
began formulating some policies impression on their social systems. It
including those of reservations, for has also given them, in spite of wide
these castes. The national movement cultural variations, a common destiny
made the issue of Scheduled Castes in the Indian society.
upliftment part of its agenda. As such Like Scheduled Castes, it was
at the time of independence, there was during British colonial rule that there
both a demand and commitment for emerged a tribal consciousness. Here,
SCs welfare and development. The the reason was little different. As
government, therefor e, took up the task mentioned above for centuries tribal
of SCs welfare right from the time of areas had remained unconnected with
enactment of the Constitution. the mainland and mainstream.
Therefo re, they were outside the
effective control of state and state laws.
SCHEDULED TRIBES
They had their own economy, tribal
Another social category economically, laws and customs. It was during
socially and politically marginalised is British rule that with the extension of
that of Scheduled Tribes. Legally like administration all over and laying of
 122
DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

railways, roads, etc. that tribal areas

as citizens with the objective of
came under direct administrative
promoting their educational and
control. Along with administrators, economic interests and removing social
traders, money lenders and disabilities.
entrepreneurs also reached tribal areas.
Article 17 of the Constitution
Tribals were deprived of their land and
abolishes untouchability and forbids its
autonomy. In many cases there started practice in any form. The untouchability
tribal revolts. There also emerged (offences) Act was passed in 1955. Its
among national movement leaders and scope was enlarged and its panel
British administration a concern for provisions were made more stringent by
protection and welfare of tribal people. amending it in 1976. It was renamed
as Protection of Civil Right Act. In 1989,
WELFARE OF SCHEDULED CasTES another Act called Scheduled Castes and
AND SCHEDULED TRIBES Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) was passed.
From the above it becomes clear While Article 17 of Fundamental
that the Scheduled Castes and Rights abolishes untouchability,
Scheduled Tribes have been the most
Articles 14, 15 and 16 establish
disadvantaged and neglected people in
principles of equality and social justice.
Indian society. As mentioned in the
Article 14 proclaims equality before law
beginning, the situation and needs were
and equal protection of law for all.
acknowledged by the framers of the
Article 15(1) prohibits discrimination on
Constitution themselves. Thus, on the
grounds of race, caste, sex, religion or
one hand Constitution of India itself
place of birth. Article 16(1) further
prescribed certain protective measures,
provides equality of opportunity to all.
safeguards and welfare measures for
These two articles apart from
these sections and on the other hand
proclaiming every one equal also gives
successive Five-Year Plans have also
power to the State for making special
regarded the welfare of SCs and STs as
provisions for SCs and STs.
a major objective of development policy.
Apart from the _ protective
In addition, both the Union and State
discrimination clauses in the
governments have taken up specific
Constitution, the Directive Principles of
steps and launched various schemes
the State Policy may be considered as
and programmes for their improvement.
mechanism for realising the goal of
Constitutional social justice and social transformation
Provisions
in the direction of just society. Articles
The Constitution prescribes protection 38 and 46 specifically aim at securing
and safeguards for Scheduled Castes social justice to the deprived sections
and Scheduled Tribes as also of other of the population. Apart from these
weaker sections either specially or by Articles, provisions have been made for
way of insisting on their general rights reservation of seats for SCs and STs in
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS 123

Lok Sabha and State Assemblies and implementation of those safeguards

governmental services and educational and other measures for the pro-
institutions. There is also a provision tection, welfare and socio-economic
for setting up of tribal advisory councils development of the SCs and STs; and
and separate departments in States and (vi) to discharge such other functions in
appointment of a special officer at the relation to the protection, welfare and
Centre to promote their welfare and development and advancement of the
safeguard their interests. SCs and STs as the President may
subject to the provisions of any law
National Commission made by Parliament, by rule, specify.
for SCs and STs The Act also provides that the
Commission, while investigating and
In 1990 by 65th Amendment of the monitoring any matter relating to
Constitution the special officer’s post safeguards provided for SCs and STs,
under Article 338 has been substituted shall have all powers of a civil court
by the National Commission for trying a suit. It is also provided that the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Union and every State government shall
Tribes. The SC and ST Commission consult the Commission on all major
shall consist of a Chairperson, a Vice- policy matters affecting SCs and STs.
Chairperson and five other members to
be appointed by the President. It shall Special Schemes and Programmes
be the duty of the Commission: (i) to for SCs and STs
investigate and monitor all matters
relating to the safeguards provided for In accordance with these Constitutional
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled provisions and directives the
Tribes under the Constitution or under government of India and all States have
other laws; (ii) to enquire into specific been formulating and implementing
complaints with respect to the various schemes and programmes for
deprivation of rights and safeguards of the upliftment of SCs and STs within
the SCs and STs; (iii) to participate and the process of Planning and outside.
advise on the planning process of socio- These programmes relate to education,
economic development of the SCs and skill formation, creating job
STs; and to evaluate the progress of their opportunities and development of the
development under the Union and any areas in which these people are
State; (iv) to present to the President concentrated.
annually, and at such other times as the In the field of education in most of
Commission may fix reports upon the the States, education up to higher level
working of these safeguards; (v) to make has been made free for SCs and STs.
in such reports/recommendations as to Seats have been reserved for them,
the measures that should be taken by generally, in accordance with
the Union or any State for the effective percentage of population, in various
124 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

educational institutions. A Book employment or self employment

Bank scheme has been launched to opportunities. In the Ninth Plan
provide textbooks required for the period (1997-2002) a separate plan
students pursuing medical and of action for the development
engineering degrees, agricultural, of Primitive Tribal Groups has
veterinary and polytechnic courses. been formulated. In 1987, the Tribal
A Girls Hostel Scheme was started in Cooperative Marketing Development
Third Five-Year Plan with the Federation of India was set
purpose of providing residential up with the prime objective of
facilities to tribal girls in pursuit of providing marketing assistance
education. A similar scheme was and remunerative prices to ST?
started for boys in 1989-90. Various communities for their minor forest
schemes of scholarships have also produce and surplus agricultural
been started including pre-metric, produce and to wean them away from
post-amtrac, and higher education. exploitative private traders.
In addition to these there are other
schemes also for helping improve Baba Saheb Dr Ambedkar
educational levels and standards of
Foundation
SCs and STs.
To help SCs and STs in Apart from schemes for education
employment, apart from making and employment there also has
reservations in jobs, specific schemes been launched programmes for
have been started for training and empowerment of SCs and STs. An
skill formation. One of these is the important step in this direction was
coaching and allied scheme started taken in March 1992 with the
in the Fourth Five-Year Plan for establishment of Baba Saheb
imparting training to SCs and STs in Dr Ambedkar Foundation. The
respect of various competitive Foundation has been entrusted with
examinations held by recruiting the responsibility to manage, administer
bodies such as Union Public Service and carry on the schemes and
Commission, State Public Service programmes identified during the
Commissions, Public Sector centenary celebrations of Dr B.R.
Undertakings, Banking service Ambedkar. Some of these are
recruitment boards and similar Dr Ambedkar National Award for social
agencies. There are State Scheduled understanding and uplift of weaker
Castes Development Corporations to sections; Dr Ambedkar International
uplift the SC/ST population living Award for social change, harmony,
below poverty line. In 1992-93 equity, justice and human dignity
vocational training centers were set for the exploited and the under
up in tribal areas to develop the skills privileged; and putting up Memorial for
of the tribal youth for gaining Dr Ambedkar.
 125
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS

Tribal Research Institutes destitution, oppression and bondage

of these sections in large areas
Some States have set up Tribal remain intact. Untouchability, though
Research Institutes, for research, banned under the law continues to be
education, collection of data, training, widely practiced. India’s bonded
seminars, workshops, professional labourers are almost exclusively drawn
inputs in the preparation of tribal sub- from SCs and STs. Only an elite class
plan, publication of tribal literature, amongst SCs has benefited from
codification of tribal customary laws, the government's policies and
etc. The tribal sub-plan strategy was welfare measures.
evolved during the Fifth Five - Year Plan. The reasons for this apathetic status
It is based on the twin objectives of: of SCs and STs are many. First of all
(i) protection of interests of tribals the problem is that provisions and plans
through legal and administrative for the welfare of the SCs and STs are
support; and (ii) promotion of strong at the constitutional and
development efforts through plan planning levels, but weak in the
schemes to raise their level of living. implementation. In many reports of the
There are now 194 integrated tribal Commissioner for Scheduled Castes
development projects. and Scheduled Tribes, the Planning
Commission and other bodies, it has
Status or SCHEDULED CASTES been pointed out that the staff and
AND SCHEDULED TRIBES administrative machinery provided by
the States is not adequate to carry out
From the above discussion of the policy of welfare, even if necessary
Constitutional and legal provisions and funds are voted by the Parliament,
of some of the plans, programmes and hence, the failure in implementation.
schemes started for the welfare, Another problem is of inadequate
development and empowerment of funds and corruption. To begin with,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled either adequate funds are not allocated |
Tribes, it becomes clear that these people for the plans and programmes or
have not only been made equal citizens allocated funds are not made available.
of India but have also been given special Many a times a significant proportion
privileges, preferences and concessions of funds do not reach the beneficiaries
to come out of their traditional lower and — a glaring example of the failure of
inhumane position. land reforms. This failure has kept SCs
At the same time if we look at in particular deprived of land and
the overall conditions of the Scheduled dependent on landlords and big
Castes and Scheduled Tribes, farmers. In case of tribal development
particularly in rural areas, we find that the bureaucrats, trained in the colonial
in spite of constitutional provisions and tradition to maintain law and order
various plans, the poverty, illiteracy, unaware of tribal social, cultural and
 126 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

linguistic traditions and values, and this blacklash is not crushed with that
unconcerned with their expectations heavy hand as it is required. Infact, in
end up as exploiters of tribals rather many cases there is connivance of police
than their protectors. and other authorities in such cases of
The problems of administrative oppression.
apathy and lack of funds is very much Thus, in spite of Article 17 of the
linked with problems in planning itself. Constitution, untouchability offences
The planning in general has been Act and Protection of Civil Rights Act
lopsided, piecemeal and middle class untouchability is practiced openly in
or even elite oriented rather than mass many places not only in villages but
oriented. At the political level decisions also in cities. All this is resulting in
are taken more keeping in view the alienation of those groups and
immediate concern for votes and note emergence of Tribal and dalit
the long-term visions. One result of this movements. These movements are
is while law has established using both constitutional and extra-
commissions, and enacted laws for constitutional methods to seek justice
preventing untouchability and other thereby posing new issues in India’s
offences against SCs and STs, these political process.
provisions lack teeth and an effective
machinery for imparting justice.
WELFARE OF OTHER BackwarD
Particularly in case of Scheduled
Tribes, planners have not appreciated Criasses (OBCs)
the tribal culture, language, religion, In India apart from Scheduled Castes
customs and land rights. They, and Scheduled Tribes, there are other
therefore, formulate plans with their weaker sections, who are economically,
own assumptions and as parts of socially and educationally backward.
national plans. They are known as Other Backward
A serious matter that has emerged Classes. Article 340 of the Constitution
during last decade or so with regard to empowers the government to appoint a
status of SCs and STs is upper caste Commission to investigate into the
backlash in some areas. Reacting to conditions of Other Backward Classes
emerging consciousness among these and make recommendations.
castes and their struggle for rights in It is necessary to make it clear
some rural areas upper castes have that the Constitution uses words
begun coercing them violently “Backward Class”. It means not just
including killing the activists and any backward person, but a group of
raping the women. In some cases this people having general characteristics
violence is being committed bv of backwardness. Constitution,
organised groups like Ranveer Sena in however, does not specify which
Bihar. In view of the nature and groups constitute backward classes.
orientation of bureaucracy and police, The Government had appointed two
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS 127

Backward Classes Commissions. These The Commission recommended

commissions have given the criteria to reservation of 27 per cent of jobs for
identify backward classes on the basis OBCs in central services, public sector
of communities or castes. undertakings, nationalised banks,
The first Backward Classes universities and affiliated colleges and
Commission was appointed in 1953 government aided firms in the private
under the Chairmanship of Kaka Saheb sector. Some quantum of reservations
Kalelkar. This Commission used four for OBC students was recommended
criteria for identifying the Backward in all scientific, technical and
classes: (i) low social position in the professional institutions of education
traditional caste hierarchy of Hindu run by the Central and State
society; (ii) lack of general educational
Governments. The Commission also
advancement among the majority of a
made recommendations for economic
caste/community; (iii) inadequate or
and occupational development of
lack of representation in government
the OBCs.
services; and (iv) inadequate
In August 1990, Government
representation in trade, commerce and
of India announced the accept-
industry. The Kalelkar Commission on
ance of Mandal Commission’s
these basis identified 2,399 castes and
communities as Backward Classes.
recommendations. Since then 27 per
cent reservation has been made
However, there were differences
in jobs by Central government
within the Commission. Therefore,
and various percentages by State
government did not accept the
recommendations of this Commission.
governments. In addition, other
The second Backward Classes schemes have also been formulated
Commission was appointed in 1978 and launched for the welfare of
under the Chairmanship of B.P. Mandal Backward Classes. Some of these are
and this was known as Mandal given below:
Commission. This Commission
formulated 11 indicators: four on caste National Backward Classes Finance
based social backwardness, three on and Development Corporation
educational backwardness and four on
economic backwardness. In the This body was set up by the
Commission’s opinion backwardness government of India in January 1992
was related to Caste. Accordingly, it with the objective of providing
identified 3,743 castes as backward on concessional loans to the members of
the basis of above mentioned indicators. backward classes living below the
Since then these castes have come to poverty line. The corporation has also
be known as Other Backward Castes launched a special scheme for eligible
(OBC’s) meaning thereby backward women beneficiaries of backward
castes other than Scheduled Castes. classes under the name of Swarnima.
128 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Schemes for OBCs advancement is so high that it

From 1998-99 following schemes have necessarily means social advancement
been launched for the welfare of OBCs: or those who have occupied certain
(i) Pre-examination coaching: to posts of high social status should be
coach candidates belonging to excluded from getting the reservation
OBCs whose parent’s/ guardians benefits meant forOBCs. Once they are
annual income is less than Rs one advanced socially which also means
lac; economically and educationally they m
(ii) Hostels for OBC Boys and Girls; longer belong to the Backward Classes.
(iii) _Pre-metric Scholarships; However, the judgement also suggested
(iv) Post-metric Scholarships;
that those who have attained sufficient
(v) Assistance to voluntary
capacity to compete with others should
organisations: The scheme be taken out of the OBCs. This has
involves the voluntary sector to
been described as rule of exclusion
improve educational and socio- based on “creamy layer” concept. The
implication of this judgement is,
economic conditions of the OBCs
(i) Caste though a necessary condition
to get them gainfully employed.
is no longer a sufficient condition
From the above, it becomes clear
(ii) Economic test should be applied
that apart from Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes the government has
along with the already existing
identification criterion.
also made adequate provisions for the
From the above discussion, il
welfare of Other Backward Castes.
becomes clear that in accordance with
Some, observers, however feel that a
the commitments made during
number of castes which are national movement and declarations
economically well off are getting benefits pronounced in the Preamble of the
in the name of OBCs for political
Constitution of India to secure to all
reasons, whereas people who are
citizens of India Justice, Liberty and
economically backward but technically Equality. There had been provisions if
do not belong to these castes the Constitution and policies in the
remain neglected. According to these planning process and otherwise for the
observers Constitution suggests that welfare of those sections of society who
backwardness is to be identified by have been denied justice and equality
class and not by caste or tribe. They, for thousands of year simply on the
therefore, suggest use of economic basis of birth. This has to be done
criteria for backwardness. because socio-economic justice implies
The Supreme Court in its rejection of the unjust social structure
judgement on 16 November, 1992 and status-quo. There are no two
while accepted the criterion of caste as opinions about the fact that caste
relevant for reservation felt that within system in India denotes a hierarchical
Backward castes those whose economic stratification of society based on
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS 129

division and gradation of people by India continues to be besieged with

birth. Therefore, it implies social beliefs of superiority and inferiority of
inequality. For the lower caste people caste. In rural areas at many places
their lower position has got reinforced Scheduled Castes have to live outside
into a low class position by the the village. They continue to be engaged
deepening unemployment and poverty. in traditional menial jobs. They suffer
It was not sufficient merely to oppression and violence in the hands
mention in the Constitution that all of upper-caste landlords, not allowed
citizens of India are equal and free. to vote in election and own land.
There was need to create conditions and Reasons for this are many which
environment by which the exploited include lack of political will, faulty
people could come out of centuries planning, administrative apathy, lack
old oppressive system. For this of resources and widespread
were adopted various schemes and corruption. At the same time because
Programmes for the welfare and of introduction of democracy and
development of Scheduled Castes, universal franchise the so-called lower
Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward caste and tribal people are becoming
Castes. At present the welfare of SCs aware of their plight and rights. They
and STs is given special attention are asserting for justice and change in
by both the Central and State the position. This on the one hand is
governments. Special programmes for forcing the State to take effective steps
their welfare have been undertaken in for their welfare and on the other hand
the successive Five-Year Plans and the is causing a backlash from certain
size of investment in these special upper castes who do not want any
programmes has been increasing from change in status quo.
Plan to Plan. A number of persons It is important for us to understand
belonging to Scheduled Castes, that there is no religious, scientific or
Scheduled Tribes and _ Other other rationality behind hierarchy of
Backward Castes now are in various caste system. The rigidity of caste
levels of government jobs, educational system is not only against the principles
institutions, Parliament, State Assemblies and ideals of justice, equality and
and local-self government bodies. They freedom but also a big hindrance in the
do have access to social institutions. path of nation’s development. We have
At the same time a large number of to come out of our mindsets, appreciate
persons belonging to these categories the values and norms of a democratic,
in different parts of the country welfare state and society and work for
continue to suffer discrimination, social a harmonious, equality based just
exclusion, and oppression. They still system. In this State alone cannot do
live in a pathetic situation of poverty, much. What is required is both support
illiteracy and social marginalisation. and pressure from enlightened and
Mindset of a large section of persons in educated sections of society.
130 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

EXERCISES

1. Describe the provisions made in Indian Constitution for the welfare of

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
2. Mention the functions of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes.
3. Examine the various schemes launched by the government for the welfare of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
4. What steps have been taken by the government for the welfare of Other
Backward Classes?
Describe the significance of Mandal Commission Report.
D ne

Write short notes on the following:

(i) Baba Saheb Dr Ambedkar Foundation;
(ii) Creamy Layer.
Cuarter 1 1

Development of Weaker Sections : Women

THE GENDER JUSTICE Women’s WELFARE IN INDIA

NE significant section of society Women in India for centuries have
that has been denied justice in received unequal treatment in almost
India, in fact in a large number of all spheres of life. Indian society is a
countries world over, is that of women. patriarchal society. During the course
For centuries they have been relegated of history there also had been protests
to sidelines of social, economic and against this position of women.
political life. Women have been given a Particularly during Bhakti movement
subordinate status promoting in medieval period saints and religious
oppressive and unequal human reformers had taken up the question of
relations at all levels of society. It is emancipation of women. But they did
being stressed that the problems of not have much impact.
women, who constitute half of the During British colonial period with
world’s population, are the problems of the arrival of liberal ideas and in some
society as a whole, and that changes in cases as a reaction to British rule there
the present economic, political and sprang up many reformist movements
social situation of women must become in India. Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,
an integral part of efforts to transform Prarthna Samaj and many other
the structures and attitudes that hinder movements took up the cause of
the genuine satisfaction of their needs. injustice against women. As is well
Thus, any process of development and known, the early reformist Raja Ram
social justice that does not take into Mohan Roy denounced child marriage,
account the necessity of improving the and sati and worked for the
status of women and finding more emancipation of women in general. The
effective methods and strategies that nineteenth century also saw for the first
will enable them to have the same time the enactment of social legislation
opportunities as men to participate by the government which included
actively in the development of society abolition of Sati (1829), Widow
and country can not be considered Remarriage Act (1856), Civil Marriage
genuine. India is no exception to this. Act (1872), etc. Another significant
132 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

feature of the nineteenth century is the to these intentions. Article 14 confers

attempts towards girls education. equality before law and equal protection
In nationalist movement also, the of law for all. This obviously means law
Indian women’s immense hidden can not be discriminatory against
potential found a forum for its release. women.
Gandhiji called on women to give up Article 15 not only prohibits any
purdah and participate in politics. In discrimination on grounds of religion,
1917 a women’s delegation met the race, caste, sex or place of birth but also
Secretary of State for India to demand empowers the State to make any special
franchise for women. In 1927 was provision for women and children. It
launched All India Women’s Conference means in favour of women and children
for the welfare and development of other sections can be discriminated
women. against, if it is so required. Similarly,
While as a result of social reforms Article 16 guarantees equality of
and nationalist movement there opportunity in matters relating to
emerged awareness about women’s public employment.
plight and consciousness for their Article 19 guarantees to all citizens
upliftment, in general there was not including women, freedoms of speech
much change in the social attitude and expression, assemble, form
towards women, particularly in rural associations or unions, move freely
areas. Also in spite of some significant throughout the territory of India, to
social legislature, property, inheritance reside and settle anywhere and to
and such laws remained against practice any profession or carry on any
women. In general, at the time of occupation.
independence they were outside the The Fundamental Rights thus,
main stream of socio-economic process make women like men and other
and in actually did not have a rightful sections of society equal and free in all
place in society. walks of life. In addition provisions of
Fundamental Rights give powers to the
Women’s WELFARE IN state to make special provisions for
INDEPENDENT INDIA women and children. Special provisions
further, are given in the form of directives
From the above, it becomes clear to the State in the Directive Principles
that justice for women was one of the of State policy. These are:
issues of development even before (i) Men and women equally have the
independence. Accordingly, it became right to an adequate means of
one of the focuses of developmental livelihood (Article 39);
planning in independent India. (ii) There is equal pay for equal work for
In the Constitution of India itself both men and women (Article 39);
Articles in Fundamental Rights and (iii) The health and strength of workers
Directive Principles gave concrete shape men and women and the tender
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS : WOMEN 133

age of children are not abused and Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act
that citizens are not forced by 1971, the Equal Remuneration Act
economic necessity to enter 1976, the Child Marriage Restraint
vocations unsuited to their age or (Amendment) Act 1978, and the
strength (Article 39); Criminal Law (Second Amendment
(iv) Make provisions for just and Act) 1985, the Dowry Prohibition
humane conditions of work and (Amendment) Act 1984.
maternity relief. In addition to enactment of laws
Apart from these negative and positive by the Legislature, the Judiciary also
obligations on the state, the Constitution has been interpreting some existing
also (after the 42nd Amendment 1976) laws in more favourable ways for
imposes a fundamental duty on all women. In a landmark judgement in
citizens, “to renounce practices derogatory November 1995 the Supreme Court
to the dignity of women’ (Article 51A). As gave the widow and daughter of a
mentioned earlier the Constitution of India deceased equal right to property left —
has also granted universal franchise. by him. Judiciary’s decision in cases
Thus, women has equality both in right like Shah Bano and others have also
to vote and contest elections. been important in terms of judicial
activism to reform the Muslim
WELFare aNnD DEVELOPMENT personal laws.
PoLicies
Welfare Schemes
Efforts for welfare and development for
Apart from enactment of laws efforts
women have been initiated at two levels. have also been made to formulate and
One is enactment of laws and second is implement programmes and plans
formulation of welfare schemes and for providing access to women
projects. in education, skill development,
employment, fulfillment of special
The Laws
necessities, gender sensitisation, etc.
Enactment of laws means using law as Women’s welfare and development has
an instrument for change and also been a part of Five-Year Plans.
development. In this context in last 50 The Government of India in 1953
years or so many laws have been established a Central Social Welfare
enacted with a view to remove Board with a nationwide programme
disparities and provide conditions for of grants in aid, for promoting
welfare. Some of the important laws welfare and development services
that have been passed by the for women, children and under
Parliament are: Special Marriage Act privileged groups. The Board has its
1954, the Hindu Marriage act 1955, the State counterparts.
Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act A separate department of women
1956, Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, and child development was setup at the
134 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

centre in 1985 to give a distinct identity participation in decision-making and

and provide a nodal point on matters their empowerment. In October 1998,
relating to women’s development. The the Rural Women’s Development
National Policy on Education — 1986 and Empowerment Project was
was a landmark in the field of policy on also sanctioned.
women’s education. The consequent
programme of Action for the National NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN
Policy on Education stated that the main
features of the implementation strategy To safeguard the rights and legal
would be: entitlements of women the Parliament
(i) to gear the entire education in 1990 enacted a law to establish the
' system to play a positive National Commission for Women. The
interventionist role in the Commission came into existence on 31
empowerment of women; January, 1992. The functions assigned
to National Commission for Women are
(ii) to encourage educational
institutions to take up active wide and varied covering almost all facts
programmes to enhance women’s of issues relating to safeguarding
status and further women’s women’s rights and promotion. Its
development in all sectors; mandated. activities include review of
legislation, interventions in specific
(iii) to widen women’s access to
vocational, technical, and individual complaints of atrocities
professional education at all levels, and remedial action to safeguard the
breaking gender stereotypes; interest of women where appropriate
to create a dynamic management and feasible.
(iv)
structure that will be able to As a whole it can be said that in
respond to the challenge posed by post-independence period there have
this mandate. been conscious efforts to change the
In 1987 the programme of support position of women from inequality to
that of equality. At present, legally and
to Training-cum-Employment for
women was launched to strengthen and constitutionally, women in India are
improve the skills for employment given a status of equality with men.
opportunities for women below poverty Women are free to choose any form of
line in traditional sectors of agriculture, education and training to equip
animal husbandry, handlooms, themselves for a career. They can
handicrafts, cottage and village undertake any specialist and higher
industries and sericulture where learning. But when we see the social
women are employed on a large scale. reality what is found is that on the one
Another programme entitled the ‘Indira hand only a small section of urban
Mahila Yojana’ was started in 1995 with educated women have been benefited
the aim of organising women at the from the claimed legislative and
grassroot level to facilitate their developmental actions and on the other
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS : WOMEN 135

hand gender bias in society not only In matters of property, in spite of

continues but in some ways has taken recent laws and judicial decisions giving
a worse form in the shape of violence women’s equal share in the family
and crimes against women. The property, often justice is denied to
question of status of women in Indian women by their families. In many
society remains serious and instances, the women concerned
deserves attention. are illiterate and, therefore, are duped
into signing away their legal
EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT property rights.
The other major sectors of visible Obviously, the above status of
differences between male and female women is not due to consti-
status are education and: employment. tutional provisions or lack of laws or
The female literacy rate in 2001 was programmes. Reasons are various.
54.16 per cent as against 75.85 per First is the deep rooted patriarchal
cent literate males. On the eve of system, which makes male not only
independence literacy rate of women the head of the family but socially
was 7.9 per cent in comparison to gives all decision making powers to
54.16 per cent in 2001. Despite this him. Within this patriarchal system
the number of illiterate women has the process of socialisation both of
increased over the decades due to male and female children makes them
population growth, non-enrolment of grow with the future acceptance of
girls and dropout from the formal their roles. In an average Indian
system of education. Illiteracy and family preference is shown to male
lack of education among women limit children.
their achievements in the field of Along with these social factors,
employment, training and utilisation our planning has also neglected
of health facilities. the development of women in
a comprehenSive. manner. The
SociaL INDICATORS programmes have been piecemeal and
- The Indian Constitution guarantees
in isolation. More important is that while
programmes have been formulated
legal and social equality to women.
to adequate funds have not been released.
Various laws have been enacted
Thus, in the male dominated family
make gender equality a reality.
If a close scrutiny of the existing structure and caste and kinship based
laws is made, it becomes clear that still society, lopsided development and
many laws, particularly with right to planning designed and implemented by
social issues, are in favour of men. What status quo oriented bureaucracy has
is more important is that in practice not allowed the desired changes in status
social behaviour towards women is full of women in terms of equality and
of biases. opportunities.
136 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

MovEMENTS TOWARDS EMPOWERMENT of women from the _ political

decision making bodies and govern-
From the above it becomes clear that mental structures have _ been
change of attitude towards women reinforcing factors in gender-based
within the family and social system discrimination. No serious attempt has
completely dominated by men cannot been made either by the governments
be brought about by making laws or in power or any political party to
policies alone. There is a need to bring address the problem of women's
women themselves in decision making participation in decision making
and implementing process. Exclusion bodies. A
Women’s Representation in Parliament 1952-1999 i 4
Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha

is

a | (eee a

a The composition of Rajya Sabha changes every two years. The figures of Rajya Sabha have
been picked up only for those years which allow comparison with Lok Sabha. The average for
Rajya Sabha is based on these years only. ;
Source: CSDS Data Unit, Delhi
 : WOMEN 137
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS

The women’s movement, therefore, (iv) strengthening legal systems

have been struggling for reservation for aimed at elimination of all forms
women in elective bodies. They of discrimination against women.
achieved partial success with 73rd and According to National Policy, all
74th Constitutional Amendments Central and State Ministries will draw
providing 33 per cent reservation of up time bound action-plans for
seats for women in Panchayati Raj translating the policy into a set of
Institution and Municipalities and concrete actions through a
Municipal Corporations. Struggle for participatory process of consultation
such a reserva tion in Parliam ent and with Centre/State departments of
State Assemblies is on while almost all Women and Child Development and
political parties in public support this National/State Commission for Women.
demand, but when the bill to The National Policy document
implement this comes in the Parliament, also talks of strengthening of
in one way or the other, it is not institutional mechanisms, resource
allowed to be passed. management, legalisation, gender
sensitisation, partnership with the
voluntary sector organisations and
NaTIONAL Po.ticy FoR THE
international cooperation, to achieve the
EMPOWERMENT OF WomEN 2001 desired goals.
The government of India in 2001 issued Needless to say the National Policy
a National Policy for the Empowerment for the Empowerment of women 2001
of women. The major objectives of this for the first time presents a
policy include: holistic approach and presents a
(i) Creating an environment through comprehensive notion of women’s
positive economic and social development and empowerment. It is
policies for full development of now to be seen whether it remains a
women to enable them to realise document of intentions or something
their full potential. really comes out of this.
(ii) The de-jure and de-facto Since India became independent.
enjoyment of all human rights and many policies and measures had been
fundamental freedom by women adopted to improve the conditions of
on equal basis with men in all women. Despite all this, the situation
spheres — political, economic, of women has not improved much.
social, cultural and civil. Women, in general, have not been in
(iii) Equal access to women to health position to. avail benefits from these ~
care, quality education at all levels, measures. However, many agencies like »
career and vocational guidance, the Central Social Welfare Board and
employment, equal remuneration, other departments have been set up to
occupational health and safety, look after the welfare of women. There
social security and public office, etc. have been innumerable schemes
138 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

initiated to bring about economic self- women as well as of men in all fields:
reliance through employment, income the under nationalisation of the
generation, education, skill training potential of approximately half the
and other developmental programmes. population is a serious obstacle to
To back them up, the State has also social and economic development. Itis
passed many laws. In fact, India ranks time for both men and women to come
as the country with the maximum out of myths, imposed traditions and
amount of social legislation for women. false notions of superiority of sex
Let us not forget that the full and and join hands for a more happy and
complete development of any country harmonious personal family and
requires the maximum participation of social life.

EXERCISES

1. Mention the provisions in the chapter on Fundamental Rights and Directive

Principles of State Policy with regard to welfare of Women in India.
2. Enumerate any three laws enacted by the Parliament since independence for
the welfare of women.
3. Mention the main objectives of National Policy for the Empowerment
of women,
2001.
4. Examine the demand for reservations of seats in Parliament and State
Legislatures as a mechanism for empowerment of women.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i) National Commission for women;
(ii) Education and employment status of women;
(iii) Women’s social status.
 Unit IV

CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES TO

INDIAN DEMOCRACY
he Oo eve anna Re
W Res PAL ON *

Ar om haeA eo
CHAPTER 12

Inequality
Social and Economic

OU have read that the framers of rank or of education and access

the Constitution of India adopted to knowledge should not be so
.ademocratic political order not only as considerable as to result in permanent
a desirable political system based on subordination of some groups of people
the ideals of peoples’ participation, but to others. Thus, the idea and principle
it was also a mechanism to achieve the of democracy cannot be divorced from
ideals of equality, liberty and social the principle of equality. If democracy
justice. Democratic political order, it is is peoples’ participation then the formal
said, ensures, at least in principle, participation in electoral process is only
equal participation of all individuals one indicator of the equal opportunity
irrespective of caste, creed, sex and to participate. The effective participation
social origin in socio-economic and cannot be ensured without creating a
political life of the nation. The Preamble condition of effectivity. And this
‘of the Constitution, and chapters on effectivity can be advanced through
Fundamental Rights and Directive ensuring substantive equality. Mere
Principles make it clear that framers of political equality in terms of equality of
the Constitution wanted Indian opportunity would face disjunction in
Constitution to be an instrument of case of social and economic inequality.
socio-economic justice. The basis of Hence, the ideal of political democracy
socio-economic justice is equality — has to be backed by social and
political, social and economic. economic democracy. In India we
Seen from the perspective of adopted democracy to achieve, along
working of democracy also equality is with political equality, social and
considered as one of the pre-conditions economic equality. Also, in the long run
for its successful functioning. we needed social and economic equality
Democracy implies that there should aS a necessary condition for the
be a substantial degree of equality successful working of democracy.
among people. Equality here means However, even after 55 years of
that inequality of wealth, of social independence we have enormous
142 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

inequalities in our society and these are

Sociat INEQUALITY
posing a serious challenge to our
democratic system. Social Inequality in India has largely
been prevalent on caste basis. The
INEQUALITY Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and other Backward Castes (broadly
Socio-economic inequality in India is a known as backward classes) represent
heritage of long history. India is the the social groups which have suffered
world’s classic unequal society from down the ages due to caste prejudices,
time immemorial. Inequality in India’s economic inequality, educational
past was the result of a rigid caste backwardness.
system that had ordained professions
by the accident of birth in.a given family Scheduled Castes
and Jati. The deprived and The term Scheduled Caste signifies
marginalised were told that their those groups of people who were out ol
destitution, low status and misery are the caste system or the varna hierarchy
ordained by destiny (karma) and that in the past. They comprise the bulk of
they have to work within their assigned erstwhile untouchables or untouchable
status determined by their birth. castes. The Scheduled Caste is 8
Another type of inequality i.e. politico-legal term. It was first coined
poverty, has been the consequence of by the Simon Commission and then
colonial past. It is not only India as a used in government of India Act 1935.
-whole that became poor, but within that When India became independent this
there emerged unequal classes and term was adopted by the Constitution
differences in the levels of incomes. for the purpose of providing these
Certain sections had monopoly over castes some special privileges and
land and means of production, and constitutional safeguards.
larger masses were dependent on them According to the practice of
for employment and survival. Another determination of caste by birth and
aspect of income inequality is the large assigning social status to them the
and persisting disparity between the people belonging to Scheduled Castes
rural and urban incomes and were the lowest in the caste hierarchy.
inequalities between different regions They were kept out from parti-
and states, called regional inequalities cipation in public life by being
and imbalances. We are discussing branded as untouchables. Of course
below the nature and extent of social Scheduled Castes do not constitute a
and economic inequalities and their homogeneous group. Even among
impact on political process. In another themselves there is further stratification
chapter we will read in detail about and ranking. But together they are
regional inequalities and their segregated on the criteria of
consequences. ! untouchability. They have always been
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 143

outcastes. Only after independence, treatment or affirmative action through

their rights have been recognised and policy of reservations as a method
they have been declared equal citizens removing age-old disparities and
by the Constitution of India. As already indignities. The idea of reservation was
discussed in Chapter 10 various efforts accepted through provisions of
are being undertaken to improve their fundamental right itself. Article 15 (4)
status and position in the society. makes provision for the advancement
However, the results so far are not much of any “socially and educationally
encouraging. Hence, social inequality backward classes of citizens” and Article
on caste basis persists. 16 (4) provides for reservations in
appointments or posts in favour of any
LEGAL EQuALITY backward class of citizens which in the
opinion of the State is not adequately
You have already read that the Preamble represented in its services. Articles
of the Constitution of India establishes 15 and 16 empower the State to
equality, justice, and liberty as the make reservations for Scheduled
cardinal principles in regulating the Castes in educational institutions
society and state in India. It was not and employment. The Constitution
mentioned as a mere pious wish. The specifically mention that the seats shall
non-discrimination principle of be reserved for Scheduled Castes and
citizenship rights included in the Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and
category of fundamental rights ensures State Assemblies. Accordingly out of
equality before law and equal protection 543 Lok Sabha seats 79 seats are
of law, equality of opportunity and reserved for the Scheduled Castes and -
liberty. The Constitution ensure out of 3,997 seats in State Assemblies
equality of opportunity to all irrespective 541 seats have been reserved for them.
of caste, gender, religion, and one’s The reservation policy thus is provided
social status. It provides opportunity in (i) government appointments; (ii) in
to equal access in the public domain. admission to educational institutions;
The Constitution (Article 17) mentions and (iii) in the Lok Sabha and Legislative
unambiguously the abolition of Assemblies of the States.
untouchability and makes its practice You have already read in an
a criminal offence. Through the chapter earlier chapter various policies, plans
on Directive Principles, the Constitution and program mes formulated and
(Article 46) directs the State that it must implemented for the welfare and
endeavour to promote the educational . upliftment of Scheduled Castes. Thus,
and economic interests of the Scheduled it can be said that the issue of social
Castes and Scheduled Tribes among the inequality on the basis of caste system
weaker sections of the society. was boldly tackled by the makers of the
Above all, the Constitution has Indian Constitution. Thereafter, during
made the provision for preferential the last 55 years the central and the
144 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

state governments have enacted come from this group, which indicate
various legislations in favour of the a kind of occupational continuity.
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes Some work in most dehumanised
and other economically and and degraded conditions. According
educationally backward classes. to government records over 800,000
Specific schemes, and programmes persons are employed as manual
have been launched for their welfare. scavengers. Even if a middle class has
As a result of all these, there have come emerged among the SCs due to the
some changes in the status of measure of reservation policy, they
Scheduled Castes. Some of them have do not enjoy the same amount of
found ways of moving upward both at honour and prestige associated with
socio-cultural as well as political level. their achieved status as enjoyed by
But as a whole the real benefits of the members of higher castes.
Constitutional provisions and welfare As far literacy rate is concerned,
schemes have not reached to the most in respect of SC/ST, they are far
needy and deprived persons. behind the general population. The
Though the Constitution has enrolment ratio and dropout rate
abolished untouchability, it still in schools among SC students have
continues in various parts of the been quite negative as compared
country. The masses of SCs continue to the general students. Dropout
to toil, mainly as the service class for rate of SC girl children is up to
their survival. They are by and large 75 per cent.
landless labourers. They are mostly Added to all this is the fact of
engaged in menial jobs with little atrocities against Scheduled Castes.
control over resources such as The police records suggest that while
land, forest and water. The land the decennial general crime rate has
reforms, the legal measures to attempt come down, the atrocities or the
redistribution of land resources, have incidence of violence against SCs has
not been implemented. increased. One of the reasons for
The emergence of a minuscule increasing violence against them is
minority among Scheduled Castes the rising awakening among them
on account of socio-economic about their rights and intolerance of
transformation and reservation policy the same by certain sections of upper
is symbolic of empowerment. The castes. While Scheduled Castes are
representation of SCs and STs in the slowly trying to recover from such
Central Government Services speaks disabilities, their social mobility is
of facts. As seen in Table 12.1, it is hampered because of structural
quite clear that they are mainly problems and mindsets. May be, it
employed in Group C and Group D will take some time to come out of
services. More than fifty per cent of this social thinking. This is also true
the Safai Karamcharis (sweepers) of the Scheduled Tribes as well.
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 145

Table 12.1: Representation of SCs/STs in Central Government Services

(as on 1 January, 1998)
Sa a
rr

| 39,03,457 | & pi762)) WRaoeees) 614

at

wer ant ay very}

—

peaA Aha wh ae ; ; ,
a esl aso, i ie ; é . ii
:

Note: Information in respect of five Central Ministries/Departments is not included.

Source: India 2001: A Reference Annual, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 2001.

Table 12.2: Percentage of Literacy for Different Groups of Population

During 1971-91

bs a “ eS. ee sere R o a

Notes: 1. NSP stands for non-scheduled population and general includes all the population.

2.When the percentage of literacy for the years 1971 and 1981 has been calculated by
dividing the literates by the total population, inclusive of the children in the age-group of
0-4, in 1991, the same has been calculated in exclusion of the children in the age-group
of 0-6.
Source: B.S. Bhargava and Avinash Samal “Protective Discrimination and Development of Scheduled
Castes: An Alternative Model for Good Governance” Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.
XLIV, No.3, Annual Issue, 1998.
146 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Scheduled Tribes Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

Karnataka, Kerala and Union Terr
The word Tribe has been used to refer tories of Andaman and Nicobar islands
to groups belonging to forests and hill and Lakshadweep. Majority of the tribes
areas and distinct from so-called depend on land and forest to makea
mainstream population. It was first living. Their social life is also interwoven
used by the British along with prefixes around the land they live on. But pe
like jungle and hill, aboriginal, capita land available to tribal people has
indigenous, etc., to describe the people been decreasing. During the British
who seemed to have little contact with rule, with the opening up of means @
the main culture. The common features transport and communication, there
were described that the tribes (i) live came infiltration by non-tribals inte
away from the civilised world in the tribal areas. Their land has als0
inaccessible parts lying in the forest increasingly been taken over by tht
hills; (ii) they belong to either one of the government for mining and
three stocks — Negrito, Australoid or industries.
Mongoloids; (iii) they speak the same As a whole, at the time a
tribal dialect; (iv) they profess primitive independence, the situation of tribal
religion known as ‘Animism’ in which people was both backward and
the worship of ghosts and spirits is the different. Their standard of living
most important element; and (v) they judged by any norms, educational
follow primitive occupations such as standards and physical quality of life
gleaning, hunting and gathering of was low. At the same time they have
forest products; and they are different culture, religion, values and
largely meat eaters. traditions. Though, they were not part
For ages, the Tribes had little more of prevailing traditional caste system
than a casual contact with the so-called but in many parts of the country they
civilised or advanced cultures and came to be considered with contemp!
societies. It was during British as low caste people. With regard to theif
consolidations that a contact was development and welfare the problem
established with areas of their was three fold. To raise the standard dl
habitation. They are not a homo- life, to integrate them in the Indian
geneous group. They are spread over social-political system and at the samt
the various regions of India. Areas in time to protect their identity. You have
which they are _ particularly already read that framers o
concentrated include areas of Ladakh, the Constitution provided special
Himachal Pradesh, Northern and provisions for the welfare of Scheduled
Southern Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, North Tribes. Similar to those for Scheduled
East States, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Castes, including reservations in
Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Gujarat, jobs, educational institutions and
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, legislatures.
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC _ 147

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Poverty : MEANING

Tribes along with certain other
backward castes are socially inequal In most general terms poverty is the
because of discrimination and denial of opportunities, to lead a long,
mistreatment by upper castes or healthy, creative life and to enjoy
advanced sections of population. A large a decent standard of living. In fact,
section of ST population suffers from poverty is a socio-economic pheno-
economic inequality due to widespread menon which defies any precise
poverty among them. Poverty, however, definition. Its concept and content
covers many others also. varies from country to country
depending upon what a particular
Economic INEQUALITY: POVERTY society accepts as a reasonable good
living standard for its people. In view of
You have already read that as a result this poverty can be considered in
of British colonial exploitation at the absolute and relative terms:
time of independence, India had Absolute Poverty refers to the
become one of the poorest countries of inability of a person or a household to
the world. Not only India was a poor provide even the basic necessities of life.
country, but within this the distribution It refers to conditions of acute physical
of income and wealth tended to be too wants, starvation, malnutrition, want of
unequal. It is not that there is no poverty clothing, want of shelter, total lack of
in other countries. Even in Britain and medical care etc. Absolute poverty is
USA there is poverty. What was also called subsistence poverty, since
important in India at the time of it is based on the assessment of
independence was that there were minimum subsistency requirement,
unprecedented inequalities. Therefore, which is a condition to remain just alive.
poverty became a big social and Relative Poverty is a concept to
political problem. India _ after measure availability or lack of
independence has made some efforts opportunities according to standards
both to raise the level of income of people of life at a given time and place. It refers
and also to remove vast inequalities. to the fact that different societies have
There also have been significant different standards; hence, it is not
achievements in bringing people out of possible to have a_ universal
poverty. However, still a large measurement of poverty. For example,
population lives in pathetic conditions in USA a family not having two cars
of poverty. When we talk of poverty, it might be considered poor whereas in
is important for us to know what India family with a single car is
exactly we mean by poverty, what is the considered rich.
extent of poverty in our society and Whatever the type of poverty, itis a
what are its consequences? fact that it generates inequalities in
148 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

social and economic powers, which in Accordingly, the absolute number of

turn affects political power. It is poor was 31.7 crore of which 26 crore
therefore, necessary that for success of were residing in rural areas and 5.7
democracy economic inequalities crore in urban areas.
should be minimum. In India we have The poverty line was later revised
problems both of absolute and relative upwards in terms of monetary
poverty. But more serious is that of expenditure taking into note the rising
absolute poverty. cost of living. Thus, in 1984-85, with
the criteria of 2,400 and 2,100 calories
POVERTY IN INDIA of food for rural and urban areas,
poverty line was drawn at per capita
It is a fact that a vast population in monthly expenditure of Rs 107 for rural
India has been living below subsistence and Rs 122 for urban areas. On this
level but the extent of poverty came to basis 39.9 per cent of the rural
be known only in 1960s when scholars population and 27.7 per cent of urban
started measuring and studying the population was estimated to be below
problem in a serious way. To measure the poverty line. The proportion of total
poverty, the concept of poverty line has population below the poverty line in
been used. This is based on the amount 1984-85 was 36.9 per cent. In
of income required for a person to 1993-94, 34.3 per cent of population
purchase a barest minimum desirable or 32.0 crore people lived below poverty
nutritional standards of caloric intake. line. This was based on required per
It is suggested that in Indian conditions capita monthly income of Rs.205.84 in
in rural areas a person needs an rural and Rs 281.35 for urban areas.
average of 2,400 calories per day and According to government of India
in urban areas an intake of 2,100 Economic Survey 2001, and Tenth
calories per day. According to a study Five - Year Plan Document 26.1 per cent
made by Dandekar and Rath to buy of population lived below poverty line.
this much food in 1960 a person This figure is contested by several
required Rs 15 per month per person independent economists. The Human
in rural areas and Rs 22.50 in urban Development Report for 2000 has
areas. According to this criteria about placed India at 128th among 174
38 per cent of the rural population and poor nations with 34.6 per cent of its
nearly 50 per cent of urban population population as poor.
lived below the poverty line. The Sixth Although, there are different
Five-Year Plan (1980-85), whose estimates of poverty by governmental
foremost objective was removal of and other bodies, it is generally
poverty, indicated that 50.7 per cent of accepted that there are substantial
rural population and about 40 per cent number of people living in poverty. It is
of the urban population was living also a fact that percentage of people
below the poverty in 1979-80. living below poverty line has been
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 149

declining but in absolute numbers, it ameliorative, to provide temporary wage

remains the same because of increase employment for the poor and the
in population. Hence, about 30 crore landless in seasons when employment
of India’s population lives below opportunities are reduced and in areas
poverty line. The situation is worse in which are dry and drought prone where
areas of Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, jobs are less available even in the best
West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, of times.
Sikkim, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Unfortunately, most of the schemes
Meghalaya, Tripura and Arunachal to alleviate poverty-stricken people have
Pradesh where households falling not reached their intended targets. The
below the poverty line goes beyond reasons for this are administrative
40 per cent. apathy, wide spread corruption,
inability of socially and economically
Poverty ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES powerful sections to exert pressure on
political and administrative machinery,
The national leaders who took over lack of political will to implement most
power at independence were aware of important policies of land reform and
the pervasiveness and depth of poverty family planning, and incapacity
in India, along with associated amongst poor themselves to organise
Problems of unemployment and and fight for their rights. Apart from
underemployment and inequalities in inequalities among people, there also are
resources and income. But in the initial inequalities between states and regions.
years the problem of poverty was not We will discuss them in another chapter.
attacked directly. It is from Sixth Five- Thus, in India we still have a large
Year Plan that a number of programmes population living below poverty line.
have been promoted as means of This is in spite of the fact that
Carrying or lifting people over the considerable development has been
poverty line. Accordingly, apart from achieved in agriculture, industry as well
relying on the overall higher rate of as service sector. The benefits of
growth of the economy, some specific development have been appropriated
measures to alleviate poverty also have by socially and economically powerful,
been formulated. upper middle and middle classes and
These programmes fall into two upper castes. The maldistribution of
broad types. One was designed to lift assets leaves about one-third of the
beneficiaries above the poverty line by population without effective means of
providing them “with productive assets” satisfying their basic needs. A major
or skills or both so that they can portion of these economically poor are
employ themselves usefully to earn Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
greater incomes. The second type of Tribes. In other words, in India social
programmes were designed to be and economic inequalities are linked.
150 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

INEQUALITIES AND POLITICS voting act is not isolated from the socio-
economic setting. Since, they are in
Dr B.R. Ambedkar in his final address majority, properly organised and
in the Constituent Assembly on 25 mobilised they can radically alter the
November, 1949, observed:
election results. Therefore, the vested
“On the social plane, we have in India a
society based on the principles of graded interests have to manipulate the
inequality which means elevation of some elections to negate their democrati¢
and degradation of other. On the economic outcome. The crude ways for that
plane we have a society in which there are are to increase the role of money
some who have immense wealth as against and muscle power, to whip up
many who live in abject poverty. On the 26th
communalism and casteism and use
January 1950, we are going to enter into a
life of contradictions. In politics we will have violence in elections. The ruling classes,
equality and in social and economic life we in their own interests encourage
will have inequality. In politics we will be religiosity, fundamentalism and
recognising the principle of one man one vote obscurantism. If social and economic
and one vote one value. In our social and
inequalities are not reduced, social
economic life, we shall by reason of our social
and economic structure, continue to deny
tensions and political violence are likely
the principle of one man one value. How long to increase.
shall we continue to live this -life of India inherited a society full of
contradiction? How long shall we continue inequalities, both social and economic.
to deny equality in our social and economic Caste has’ been a great factor in
life? If we continue to deny it for long, we
creating and maintaining both social
will do so by putting our political democracy
in peril. We must remove this contradiction and economic inequality. Nature of
at the earliest possible moment or else those property, relations and mechanisms of
who suffer from inequality will blow up the production introduced and developed
structure of political democracy”. by British colonial administration
These words of Dr Ambedkar, it increased these inequalities as also
seems, our planners and policy makers produced new types of inequalities.
did not take seriously. Result is, ever Independent India adopted 4
increasing social tensions and democratic system to change this.
aberrations in democracy. It is the vast There was a Constitution with plenty
ocean of poverty stricken humanity, of promises. A process of planned
especially in the rural areas that development was initiated.
constitutes the electorate. Poor, It seems that although consti-
illiterate, with a sense of belonging only tutional provisions and legal texts exist
to the caste or community and with no to abolish untouchability and to
access to proper communication, this protect the members of the Scheduled
enormous human wave is driven to the Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and
polling station. They can affect the although social and educational
course of change. During various policies have been adopted to improve
elections they have proved that their the situation of SCs and STs and to
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 15]

protect them from abuses, widespread their voting power for their
discrimination against them and the amelioration. The unresponsiveness of
relative impunity of those who abuse the economic system to the basic needs
them continues. Similarly, in spite of of the poor makes them desperate and
Ninth Five-Year Plans having been drives them to blind opposition of the
completed and various schemes to system. They are attracted by
alleviate poverty been launched and . fundamentalist, communalist and
implemented, about one third of terrorist groups. Both Social and
population lives below poverty line, that Economic inequality thus are a great
is having not enough to eat two times a threat to the survival of democracy,
day. There are many others who do not stability of the system and unity and
have access to required hygiene, health integrity of the country. These need to
care, education, housing and clothing, be tackled on priority basis and in all
etc. In addition, gaps between rich and seriousness. Development should not
poor are increasing. At the same time be seen as mere increase in national
introduction of democracy, and income or production. It has to be seen
elections and flow of information world in the fulfillment of at least minimum
over has brought awareness among the needs ofall and creating a jus
deprived and the poor. They tend to use social order.

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by the terms Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?
2. Explain the Constitutional provisions provided to ensure equality to Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
3. Describe the extent of Poverty in India. What programmes have been undertaken
to alleviate poverty?
4. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Poverty line;
(ii) Preferential treatment;
(iii) Democracy and Equality;
(iv) Inequalities and Polities.
CHAPTER 1 3

Education and Illiteracy

MPORTANCE of education, both for was made for educating the masses.
success of democracy and Limited educational facilities were
development of society and country, created to produce English language
has been stressed by experts and knowing subordinates for colonial
scholars for centuries. Education administration. Hence, at the time of
exercises a decisive influence on social independence number of literates in
and economic development. It not only India was small, it was about 6 crore
enhances the productive capacity of the that is only about 18 per cent of the
individual but also plays a crucial role total population. More than 30 crore
in ensuring a fair and equitable persons were illiterate. Within literates
distribution of wealth generated most belonged to upper castes, middle
in the country. It also helps in classes and from cities. Almost entire
producing an enlightened citizenry, population of Scheduled Castes and
vital for the success of democratic Scheduled Tribes and most women and
polity. It is also a potent force for rural people belonged to the category
national reconstruction and cultural of illiterates. Male literacy rate was
rejuvenation of the country. Human 27.16 per cent and female literacy was
Development Reports of recent years 8.86 per cent. Thus, at the time of
have clearly pointed out that education independence, India inherited a system
is an investment for development. If of education which was not only
human development is about quantitatively small but also
expanding people’s choices to lead the characterised by the persistence of intra
lives they value, then education surely and inter-regional as well as structural
has to be an integral part of it. India imbalances.
has a long tradition of organised After the attainment of inde-
education. Historians suggest that pendence the national government in
there is no other country where the love India did embark on a programme of
of learning had so early an origin or has providing elementary education to its
exercised so lasting and powerful an teeming millions. As a result the literacy
influence. But, as is well known that rate in 2001 census has reached
during colonial rule hardly any effort 65.38 per cent. The male literacy rate
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY 153

is about 76 per cent and that of females also literate, because, as the document
is about 54 per cent. While in on Challenges of Education-1985,
comparison to 1947 this seems to bea mentioned, “ if adequate measures are
big achievement, but in terms of not taken for the spread of education,
promises, needs and expectations the chasm of economic disabilities,
much more is required. In 2001, out regional imbalances and social injustice
of 83.88 crore of people in the over will widen further resulting in building
seven year age group 26.84 crore were up disintegrative tendencies.”
illiterate and 3.8 crore children were out In spite of pivotal importance of
of schools. This is the highest number education for social and economic
of illiterates in any single country in the development and poor state of literacy
world. Of course reason for this is India at the time of independence, in the initial
being second highest populated years of planning the required
country. Yet it is a matter of concern. seriousness was not shown towards
While the world is talking of 10-12 years elementary education and spread of
of education for all, India continues to literacy. While elimination of illiteracy
struggle with five years of primary was expressed as one of the major
schooling. To understand that we can concerns of the government, resources
have a look at the efforts made for were allocated more for higher education
attaining universal literacy and than to primary education. Hence, in
problems we face. the early years not much progress could
be made in the direction of achieving
Towarps LITERACY higher rates of literacy. As can be seen
from Table 13.1, literacy rate increased
The importance and necessity of to 28.30 per cent in 1961, 34.45 per
education for democracy, development cent in 1971 and 43.57 per cent in
and human dignity was appreciated by 1981. In other words even after more
the framers of the Constitution than 30 years of independence literacy
themselves. Hence, through Article 45 rate was not 50 per cent. Kothari
in chapter on the Directive Principles Commission on Education (1964-66)
they embarked upon the State that it which studied the problems of education
shall endeavor to provide, within a in India traced the causes for failure to
period of one decade from the achieve universalisation of education to
commencement of the Constitution, for lack of adequate resources, tremendous
free and compulsory education for all increase in population, resistance to
until they complete the age of fourteen education of girls, general poverty of
years. So it was expected that by 1960 the people and illiteracy and apathy
all children between the age of six and of parents.
fourteen years will be in schools. The Many education experts do not
question was not merely of bringing agree with these causes in totality.
children to school but making adults According to them various studies have
 t
¥‘

.
154 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES |
shown that an overwhelming majority The proportion of expenditure on
of parents, even among deprived higher education rose very
|
sections, attach
their children’s education.
great importance
It has also
to substantially in the Second Five-Year
Plan of the late 1950s and remained
|
been found that economic dependence high throughout the 1970s and 1980s, |
on child labour is not the main reason The reasons for this imbalance |
for poor families inability to send their between primary and higher education
children to school. They find the faults are attributed to the development plans
in lack of resources and wrong as in most other cases, favourable
priorities. It is pointed out that in the towards urban areas, middle and
first 25 years of independence the upper middle classes and upper castes —
number of universities grew more than because of the pressure these groups -
Table 13.1: All India Lite racy Rates (in per cent)
eT ae
ayo

_ Source: JBG Tilak and MV Vergese, Financing of Education in India (Paris, UNESCO, 1991).

four times, then doubled itself in the had been able to exert on the ~
next 25 years. As Table 13.2 shows, government. J.P. Naik, Member
the annual growth rate of enrolment in Secretary of the Education Commission
higher education outpaced the rate at in India wrote in 1965, “the largest
which elementary education was beneficiaries of our system of education
growing. This was true of institutional are boys, the people of urban areas, and
expansion too, especially in the 1960s. the middle and the upper classes:
/
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY 155

fe 1951-61
ah
eG 71 ,

| eae
ay AS

~ 1981-89

Source: JBG Tilak and MV Vergese, Financing of Education in India (Paris, UNESCO, 1991).

Educational development, particularly was due to Growth in population

at the secondary and higher stages, is though in percentage terms there was
benefiting the ‘haves’ more than the decrease). If this trend was to continue,
‘have-nots’.
79
by A.D.2000 India would have had 50
crore illiterates. In the middle of 1980s
New PERSPECTIVE: NATIONAL there came a realisation of this sorry
state of affairs. By this time it was also
Poticy on Epucation— 1986
becoming clear that world was moving
From the above it becomes clear that very fast in science and technology
while the framers of the Constitution developments. The country was facing
and planners appreciated the need for both internal and external challenges
a literate population and universal of development. And it was clear that
education for all children, at least in the the education is the most effective
age-group of 6-14, the achievements in instrument to meet these challenges. In
first thirty years of independence were view of these in 1985 a review of the
not satisfactory. In absolute numbers prevailing education system was made.
as against a total of 30.1 crore illiterates Based on this review presented in the
in 1951, India had 42.5 crore illiterates document “Challenge of Education —
in 1981 — an increase of 12.4 crore a Policy Perspective” in 1986, the
during 30 years (increase in number National Policy on Education was
156 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

formulated and got approved by laid down that educational

Parliament. This came to be popularly transformation, reduction of disparities,
known as New Education Policy. There universalisation of elementary
was also brought out a Programme of education, adult education and
Action. The National Policy on scientific and technological research
Education — 1986 was revised in 1992 would be accepted as national
and also a new Programme of Action responsibilities for which the provision
brought in. National Policy on of adequate resource support will be the
Education (NPE) — 1986 and the concern not only of the State
Programme of Action (POA) — 1992 governments, but of all the agencies
envisage that free and compulsory which are collectively responsible for
education of satisfactory quality should national development.
be provided to all children up to the age To attain the goals and ideals of
of 14 years before the commencement universal elementary education and
of the twenty-first century. As per the those set in the New Education Policy,
commitment of the government, about various measures had been taken and
six per cent of the Gross Domestic programmes and schemes launched.
Product (GDP) would be earmarked for Important of these are as given below.
Education sector by the year 2000 AD
and 50 per cent of the outlay will be ALLOCATION OF FuNDS
spent on Primary Education. The NPE
reiterated that “The new thrust in To fulfil the commitment of augmenting
elementary education will emphasise resources for education, the allocation
two aspects: (i) Universal enrolment and of funds for education, has over the
retention of children up to 14 years of years increased significantly. Plan
age: and (ii) a substantial improvement outlay on education increased from 153
in the quality of education.” The NPE crore in the First Five-Year Plan to
suggested that it shall be ensured that Rs 19,600 crore in Eighth Five-Year
all children who attain the age of about Plan and to Rs 20,381.64 crore in Ninth
11 years by 1990 will have had five Five-Year Plan. The expenditure on
years of schooling, or its equivalent Education as a percentage of GDP also
through the non-formal stream. rose from 0.7 per cent in 1951-52 to
Likewise, by 1995 all children will be 3.6 per cent in 1997-98. The outlay
provided free and compulsory on elementary education was 64.6
education up to 14 years of age. The per cent of the total central sector plan
NPE also took note of socio-cultural outlay in 1999-2000. There is as such
inequalities in a significant way and a significant increase in expenditure on
listed specific steps not only for equality education, though it still is below the
of access to education but also for targeted 6 per cent of GDP. The March
equalisation with regard to the status 2002 budget allotted 3.8 per cent of
of disadvantaged sections of society. It GDP to education.
 157
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY

and retention while simultaneously

UNIVERSALISING ELEMENTARY
impacting on the nutrition status
EDUCATION of students in primary classes.
Five-Year Plan The programme envisages provision
As a result of the Eighth
more than 95 per cent of country’s rural of cooked meals/processed food
population have primary schools within for children studying in Classes I-V
one km and about 85 per cent have in all government, local body and
upper primary schools within three km. government aided primary schools.
As a result (i) enrolment of children of The Operation Blackboard Scheme
6-14 years of age in primary and upper was launched in 1987-88 with a view
has gone up steadily to bringing about substantial
primary schools
to 87 and 50 per cent respectively; improvement in primary schools. The
(ii) significant improvements have taken scheme has three components: (i)
place in enrolment of girls and SCs/STs; provision of at least two all-weather
and (iii) number of primary and upper rooms; (ii) provision of at least two
primary schools have gone up from teachers, one of them preferably
2.23 lac in 1950-51 to 7.75 lac woman; (iii) provision of essential
teaching and learning material
in 1996-97.
including blackboards, maps, charts,
In addition to increase in allocation
of funds and opening of schools, there a small library, toys, etc.
have been launched schemes like
District Primary Education Programme Non-FORMAL EDUCATION
(DPEP) initiative; National Programme
of Nutritional Support to Primary Studies and reports have shown that a
number of children, even if willing.
Education (Mid-Day Meal Scheme);
National cannot go to schools for various
Operation Blackboard,
n etc. The District reasons and compulsions. The reasons
Literacy Missio
Education Programme may be non-availability of schools near
Primary
was launched in 1994 as a major
residence, children engaged in work,
initiative to achieve the objective of assisting in performing domestic chores
like fetching water, fuel, fodder oF
universalisation of primary education.
It aims at providing access to primary
attending to siblings, children dropped
out from schools at one stage. girls
education for all children, reducing
unable to attend schools due to
primary dropout rates to less than 10
cent, increasing learning social conditions, etc. For providing
per
elementary education to such children
achievement of primary school students
by 25 per cent, and reducing the gender
the government of India, Department of
and social gap to less than five per cent.
Education has started from 1979-80
Scheme was programme of non-formal education.
The Mid-Day Meal
Itis aimed Under this scheme Non-Formal
started on 15 August 1995.
enrolment, attendance Education Centers are run by voluntary
at improving
158 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

agencies. Evening Schools are opened, During the last ten years 574
children are engaged in studying by districts out of 597 districts in the
other means also. country have already been covered by
the literacy campaigns. The creditable
ADULT EDUCATION performance of the National Literacy
The National Policy of Education also Mission received international
envisages that illiteracy should be recognition when it was awarded the
eradicated at all levels particularly in UNESCO Noma Literacy Prize for 1999.
the 15-35 age group. The Programme The National Literacy Mission was
of Action stipulated that about 8 crore revitalised with the approval of the
adult illiterates in the age group 15-35 Union government on 30 September,
would be taught. Later the programme 1999. The Mission’s goal is to attain
aimed to impart functional literacy to total literacy by 2005. The Mission
10 crore adult illiterates by 1997. To seeks to achieve this by imparting
achieve these targets, the major functional literacy to non-literates in the
strategies include reorganisation and 15-35 age group. The focus of the
strengthening of the existing schemes campaign now is on the four major
of adult education, launching of mass Hindi speaking and literacy backward
programmes of functional literacy, States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
organisation of various programmes of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Some
continuing education, strengthening States like Kerala and Mizoram have
technical resource system, etc. for made significant progress in achieving
eradication of illiteracy. literacy rates. According to 2001
census it is 90.92 per cent in Kerala
NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION and 88.49 per cent in Mizoram whereas
in Bihar it is 47.53 per cent and
Realising that the eradication of Jharkhand 54.33 per cent. As already
illiteracy from a vast country like India mentioned, percentage of the literacy in
is beset with several social and the country as a whole is 65.38. A
economic hurdles, a National Literacy special programme for women was
Mission was set up on 5 May 1988, to launched in 1989. It is called Mahila
impart a new sense of urgency and Samakhya (education for women’s
seriousness to adult education. After Quality). The programme aims at
the success of the area specific, time creating an environment for women to
bound, voluntary based campaign seek knowledge and information with
approach first in Kottayam city and a view to bringing about a change in
then in Ernakulum district in Kerala in their perception about themselves and
1990, the National Literacy Mission had that of the society. It is being
accepted the literacy campaigns as the implemented in about 6,877 villages in
dominant strategy for eradication of 51 districts of eight States namely Uttar
illiteracy. Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY 159

Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Madhya 1990, India along with 155 other
Pradesh and Kerala. countries committed itself to universal
primary education and halve the adult
illiteracy rate by 2000. But in 2001 we
ACHIEVEMENTS
had about 26 crore illiterates that is
The above mentioned schemes and more than 30 per cent of above 7 years
programmes have brought some of age are as yet illiterate. Added to this
improvements in the literacy situation is also a fact that majority are those who
of India. Particularly during the decade are enrolled in schools are not getting
1991-2001 performance has been quality education. For success
significant. As already mentioned the of democracy and development
literacy rate has risen to 65.38 per cent. universalisation of elementary
75.85 for males and 54.16 for females. education not only means universal
The female literacy rate has increased facilities, universal enrolment and
by about 10 percentage points during universal retention, but also universal
1981-91 but by almost 15 percentage quality of teaching and learning.
points during 1991-2001. The most Education is one of the most
outstanding increases in female literacy important prerequisites not only for
rates during 1991-2001 have been successful working of a democratic
recorded in Backward States: system but also to achieve the goals of
Chhatisgarh from 27.5 per cent to 52.4 personal, social, political and cultural
per cent, Rajasthan from 20.4 to 44.3 development. In any welfare state,
per cent, Madhya Pradesh from 29.4 provision of elementary education to all
to 50.3 per cent, and Orissa from 34.7 is a must.
to51 percent. It can therefore be said This goal of universal elementary
that the literacy campaigns have education means universal provision of
definitely achieved success in large facilities, universal enrolment and
scale through community and social universal retention. Universal provision
mobilisation, increasing school of facilities, however, may not
enrolment, enhancing awareness on necessarily ensure universal enrolment
issues of social and gender equity. At and universal enrolment may not
the same time it is true that as yet we guarantee universal retention. What is
are quite behind the targets we therefore important is policies and
have fixed. programmes to take care of all these
The Constitution envisaged free and aspects. Framers of the Constitution
compulsory education for children embarked upon the government to
between 6-14 age-group by 1961. work to attain these goals in the nearest
This goal has been getting postponed possible time. India’s literacy rate has
again and again. Even NEP postponed increased from 18.33 per cent at the
it to 1995. At the World Conference on time of independence to 65.38 per cent
Education for all held in Thailand in in 2001. This is not a mean
160 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

achievement. But it cannot be political activities. Literacy is not merely

overlooked that in spite of all mastering the art of reading and
commitments we have entered twenty- writing. It gives people self-confidence
first century with about 26 crore people and strength. It empowers people with
illiterate. World’s largest population (in skills for productive work and above all
terms of numbers) lives in India. a capacity to make decisions which is
Illiteracy is also linked with poverty and one of the most important requirement
social backwardness. That means a for a meaningful participatory
large section of people belonging to democracy. Therefore, it is important
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes that all out efforts are made to achieve
and of course poor are illiterate. universalisation of education without
Illiteracy keeps these people not only any further loss of time. For that it is
economically backward but also required that adequate allocation of
socially and politically unaware. resources, assurance that these
Accordingly, these people remain resources reach their destination,
available for exploitation by caste, participation of community, a dedicated
community and such traditional administration, and above all social
sentiments in elections and other socio- awareness be assured.

EXERCISES

1. Explain the importance of education for democracy. What was the status of
literacy in India at the time of independence ?
2. What do you understand by Universalisation of Elementary Education? Mention
any five programmes started in India in this regard.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(i) New Education Policy;
(ii) Non-Formal Education;
(iii) National Literacy Mission;
(iv) Adult Education.
Carter 1 4 Pe SCENE

Regional Imbalances: Regionalism,

Linguism and Separatism

NDIA is a vast plural country, full of to it because of commonality of religion,

diversities of religions, castes, language, usages and customs, socio-
languages, tribes, cultures, etc. A economic and political stages of
number of cultural and linguistic development, common historical
groups are concentrated in certain traditions, a common way of living, etc.
territorial segments, to which they are Any one or more of these, and above all
attached, emotionally and historically. widely prevalent sentiments of
As has been said that during colonial togetherness, strengthen the bond. This
rule the administration was interested territory can coincide with the
in economic exploitation of the country boundaries of a State, parts of State or
and not in its development; it even with more than one State. A sense
encouraged various divisions based on of discrimination or competition on
religion, region, caste and language and economic, political or cultural grounds,
did not pursue any plan or strategy for desire for justice or favour gives rise to
a balanced development of the country. regionalism. Depending on reasons,
These resulted in regional imbalances, and related nature, regionalism can be
and group identities. Subsequently, the manifested in many ways like demand
independent India saw the rise of for autonomy or powers for State,
regionalism, linguism, separatism, etc. creation of new State, protection of
In this chapter we will read about the language or culture of the region or
background, causes and nature of separation from the country.
these phenomena and possible ways
out to check them. All these are related REGIONAL DISPARITIES
and interconnected.
By regional disparities or imbalances
is meant wide differences in per capita
THE REGION
income, literacy rates, availability of
A region is a territory, the inhabitants health and education services, levels of
of which have an emotional attachment industrialisation, etc. between different
162 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

regions. As already mentioned, these Bombay, Calcutta and Madras and

regions may be either states or regions some princely states’ capitals. This also
within a State. In this regard in India led to the emergence of some consumer
there are enormous imbalances on industries in these enclaves and hence
various accounts. The exploitative to the development of a merchant
nature of British colonial rule either capitalist class. This gave these regions
created or accentuated regional a head start over others where the vast
disparities. The planning in tracts of agriculture had lost their
independent India has also not been traditional handicrafts and other small
able to remove these. scale non-agricultural activities in the
face of competition from the high
CoLoNIAL LEGACY technology associated with the modem
processes of industrialisation.
As is well known, the British colonial Another factor in the uneven
administration was primarily interested regional development was the growth
in selling their products in Indian of the education system. The British
markets and taking away raw materials imperialists had linked India to Europe
from here. In some cases they were also via trade relations and the coastal] areas
interested in establishing some especially around the ports of Bombay,
industries to invest their surplus capital Calcutta and Madras. To man the
and use cheap labour. Keeping these establishments in these areas modem
needs in view, they introduced education was introduced. An
Zamindari system in some regions to educated professional class, mainly
get maximum land revenue. In some lower paid government and commercial
regions they favoured peasant clerks, grew up in these areas. These
proprietary system and improvement of regions also threw up an elite group of
agriculture to create markets for their lawyers and other professionals who
products. As such, in agriculture there were involved on both sides of the
came up significant variations both in independence movement.
production relations and level of On the eve of independence inter-
production in different states and regions. state and inter-district disparities were
The pattern of urbanisation was quite sharp and widening. There
based on the strategy of exporting were differences in the levels of
primary products and importing per capita income and consumption,
finished goods. This laid the foundation literacy, medical and _ health
for the emergence of port towns as the facilities, natural resources, population
major centers of urban-industrial growth, infrastructure development,
activities. Therefore, the growth of trade employment opportunities etc,
and commerce in colonial India meant The independent India, thus, was
the creation of jobs and educational burdened with the task of removing
opportunities at coastal centers like these disparities.
REGIONAL IMBALANCES : REGIONALISM, LINGUISM AND SEPARATISM 163

REGIONAL POLICY IN not get adequate attention of the policy

makers. Some of the already developed
INDEPENDENT INDIA
regions enjoyed the privilege to develop
The need for the removal of regional further at the cost of the backward
disparities was well recognised by the regions which continued to stagnate.
leaders of the independent India. The The Third Five-Year Plan devoted
Constitution of India, had made it some attention to the problem of
mandatory for the government at the regional disparities. Some efforts were
Centre to appoint a Finance made to identify the backward regions.
Commission once at least in every five Fourth plan onward, planners have
years. It was to examine the problems increasingly emphasised this objective.
arising out of the gaps between the Deliberate policy measures are being
needs for expenditure and the taken to improve the levels of living of
availability of revenue and other such the people in regions identified as
matters. Accordingly, the balanced backward. However, in practice, in spite
regional development had become the of the increasing awareness of these
declared goal of the Central government aspects, very little has been achieved.
and of its two principal agencies — the While industrially backward
Planning Commission and the Finance regions have been identified by India’s
Commission. One of the objectives of Planning Commission, no such attempt
planning was to restore the balance has yet been made as regards regions
between various areas and regions. which can be deemed to be backward
However, these institutions were to from the point of view of overall
work within overall socio-economic economic development. Actually, the
infrastructure of the country and the main focus of regional policy during the
developing political process. As has Indian plans has been on the dispersal
already been mentioned that because of industry among the different regions
of the strategic position of the ruling of India.
class and adopted model of But, in spite of various attempts for
development right from the beginning, industrialisation, agriculture continues
the development has been drifting away to be the most important economic
from the desired goals. Moreover, to activity from the point of view of output
begin with planning was primarily and employment in most of the States
restricted to the national level. Hardly in India. And within the agricultural
any attention was paid to the problem sector, because of emphasis on
of regional disparities and the few immediate increase in production,
measures that were taken, were adopted inter-state disparities in per capita
to deal with specific problems faced by agricultural production have been on
certain areas having natural calamities. the increase. It is well known that in
Thus, the problem of regional agricultural development policy, the
development in a national context did green revolution and its impact has
164 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES -

been confined to relatively small areas. this, on the one hand there have
Thus, the disparities in socio-economic developed interests, particularly in
conditions of the people have been rural areas of developed States, andon
increasing both within and between the other sectoral conflicts. Both these
different regions of the country. are encouraging regionalism in
developed States. For example, in areas
REGIONAL IMBALANCES where Green Revolution was
AND REGIONALISM introduced and has been successful, the
new rich farmers class has become
Existence and continuation of regional economically and politically important.
inequalities both among States and They are now interested in perpetuating
within States create the feeling the concessions and facilities which
of neglect, deprivation and of were given to them. In spite of
discrimination. In a country which is agriculture having become quite
multi ethnic and multi religious, with profitable they want subsidies to
groups concentrated in states or continue and income not to be
regions, these disparities also become taxed. These rich farmers in such
cause of social conflicts leading to States provide major social basis
political and administrative problems. of regional parties.
In any case regional imbalances are a Another aspect of imbalanced
major cause of regionalism in India in development is that because of
many ways. The movements for creation development only in limited areas, the
of separate States in Jharkhand area work force from other States and areas,
of Bihar and West Bengal, Uttaranchal keep on flocking to the developed areas
and Chattisgarh in Uttar Pradesh and in search of job and employment.
Madhya Pradesh were because of Continuous large scale arrival of
underdevelopment of these regions in industrial labour from South India and
those States and a feeling of deprivation other parts to Bombay, from Bihar and
‘and exploitation among people. Finally, Orissa to Calcutta and agricultural
these areas were constituted as separate labour from eastern UP and Bihar to
States in 2001. Similar movements are Punjab, for example, are creating two
going on in Telengana region of types of tensions. First, it affects the
Andhra Pradesh, Vidarbha region of cultural harmony of those areas by
Maharashtra, Darjeeling region of West creating apprehensions among the
Bengal and in some other regions. linguistic and cultural groups about
Apart from sense of deprivation in their position. Second, it generates jl]
the neglected States or regions there feeling in the local work force, who
also are grievances due to sectoral either are unable to get jobs or in view
imbalances in States like lack of of migratory labour’s willingness to
industrial development along with work at lower rates become unable te
agricultural development. Because of bargain effectively with the local
REGIONAL IMBALANCES : REGIONALISM, LINGUISM AND SEPARATISM 165

employees. This gives birth to the LINGUISM

sectional organisations and sons of
the soil agitations. Language is the most important
Similarly expansion of education, means of human interaction and an
particularly higher education, but not instrument by which a whole
industrialisation and other job- community is organised. In a
creating institutions is increasing the multi lingual country like India there
army of educated unemployed youths are two problems associated with
in the backward regions. These language. First, a common language
frustrated young men are allured by seems to be the essential ingredient
the movements against the inflow of of national life. Second, language
people from other countries and being the most faithful reflection of
States. One of the basic reasons culture of an ethnic group, linguistic
behind Assam agitation is this. groups are concerned about
Similar developments are simmering protection and promotion of their
up in parts of Bihar and Orissa. languages. The central problem, thus,
Besides, these unemployed youths is how to evolve a common national
are also attracted by the caste, life in the diverse languages and
communal and other sectional cultures.
agitations fighting for the protection In the colonial era English was the
of rights on sectarian lines. Conflicts common language. It was the sole
on caste lines, particularly for medium of intercommunication
reservation of jobs in Bihar and among the elitist sections of the
Gujarat, growth of caste and sub-caste different linguistic communities. It
associations in towns and cities and was used in the administration,
continuous increase in communal adjudication and education both at
conflicts, in spite of modernisation the central and provincial levels. This
and expansion of education are, to an of course meant that masses were
extent, due to this reason. kept out from administrative, political
These regional imbalances are and economic opportunities what-
hindrances to national economy and soever were available. Therefore, while
a national politics to a great extent. It the British language policy served the
creates different levels and patterns of needs of the colonial rulers, it could
politics and gives rise to inter-state, not serve the purpose of an
inter-region and center-state independent nation with democratic
disputes. In certain cases, it coincides institutions. Apart from the
with communal and cultural sentimental issue of injuring the
differences, thereby accentuating national pride, the use of English
such conflicts. One of the most widened the gap between the
important aspects of regionalism in educated elite and the people, the
this context is Linguism. ruler and the ruled. As a result, the