MICHAEL OKPARA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE UMUDIKE

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A DIESEL ENGINE

OPERATED ON SOYBEAN BIODIESEL USING WASTE SNAIL SHELL AND
CLAY DOPED WITH IONIC LIQUID AS CATALYSTS

BY

JULIETH

MOUAU/MEE/18/

A PROJECT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(B.ENG) DEGREE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR: ENGR. DR. U. I. UGWU

February, 2024
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The global interest in renewable combustibles has been intensified nowadays, mainly due to the
environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels, reduction on petroleum reserves and
adaptation to recent legislation that poses the need of reduction in vehicles emissions [Lou et al,
2008]. Biodiesel has been produced from a variety of vegetable oils and its merits as an
alternative, renewable energy source to mineral diesel is well documented in the literature [Tang,
et al, 2008]. Biodiesel is mainly produced by transesterification of oils and fats with a
monohydric alcohol in the presence of homogeneous basic catalysts, like sodium and potassium
hydroxide, carbonates and alcoxides [Meher, et al, 2006].

One good source of biodiesel is soybean oil. However, before putting soybean oil into an engine,
there should be some compatibility of the physical and chemical properties with petroleum
diesel. The main physical property differences that do not allow the direct use of soybean oil are
the viscosity and the incompatible chemical property of the acid number of soybean oil. One way
to use it directly is by preheating the soybean oil above 100oC along with dilution of solvents and
micro emulsions to reduce the viscosity and allow for use in the compression ignition engine.
Yesilyurt, (2019 suggested that another way is to blend it with petroleum diesel in different
proportions, but this way can cause some running problems like clogging of fuel filters, coking
of the injector nozzle, sticking of the piston rings with cylinder walls, contamination and gelling
of lube oil, corrosion due to acidity, and increased engine wear [Kalam, et, 2011 and Profito,et
al, 2017]. The many benefits to using soybean oil in the production of biodiesel are that soybeans
are widely grown and that the left over soybean meal is important for animal feed.
 Fig 1.1 Soybean

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Work

The aim of this project is to study the potentials of soybean biodiesel as an alternative fuel for
Compression-Ignition (CI) engines. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives
were outlined:

i. To review literatures on bio-fuels and CI engines.

ii. To produce biodiesel from soybean oil using clay doped with ionic liquid and waste
snail shell as catalysts
iii. To analyze the techno-economic implications of the biodiesel production.
iv. To characterize the physiochemical properties of the soybean oil

v. To characterize the physiochemical properties of the biodiesel

vi. To characterize the physiochemical properties of a conventional petrol

diesel fuel.
vii. To form blending (B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100) of the biodiesel
produced with the conventional petrodiesel (D100) fuel and compare
them with the standard ASTM values.
 vii. To characterize the physiochemical properties of the fuel samples

developed.
viii. To study the effects of operating conditions and establish the process

conditions for optimum biodiesel yield.

ix. To characterize the acid catalyst produced using SEM, XRF and XRD techniques.
x. To determine the biodiesel and blends properties and compare them with

both the ASTM recommended values for biodiesel and the values for
fossil diesel counterpart.
xi. To analyze the performance of the diesel engine test-bed when operated

on the biodiesel and blends as well as the conventional fossil diesel, and
compare the results.
1.3 Statement of the Problem

The world–wide proven petroleum reserves of 1.35 Trillion barrels with 80 million barrels as
daily production rate is predicted to last for the next 40 years [Chrysikou et al, 2019 and
Demirbas, 2007]. According to the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria viewed in Bugaje et al,
(2012), the cost of conventional diesel production in Nigeria per week is N1.8b and the daily
national consumption is 12-13 million liters. In this trend, Bugaje, et al, (2012) opined that the
fossil fuel reserves in Nigeria (22-25 billion barrels) will be exhausted in the next 29 years.

The production and consumption of fossil fuels release tremendous amounts of greenhouse gases
such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate
matters (PM), hydrocarbons (HC) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2) into the atmosphere which cause
disastrous global warming because of the seemingly irreparable depletion of the ozone layer.
Consequently, the polar ice blocks melt and sea levels rise world-wide causing flooding and
unprecedented inundation of entire cities. For instance, nitrous oxide, N 2O, a gas emission
associated with the exhaust of petro-engines has an alarming Global Warming Potential (GWP)
value of 310 with atmospheric lifetime of 120 years [Karabektas, 2009 and Ghobadian et al,
2012].
It is therefore pertinent to embark on the research and production of this alternative diesel early
enough to be able to cope with the expected huge daily demands when fossil diesel has become
extinct.
1.4 Significance/Justification of the Research
The outcome of this work will help to reduce Nigerian dependency on fossil fuels.
The use of fossil fuels produces a lot of toxic and obnoxious air pollutants in addition to
environmental degradation. The inhalation of these emissions leads to coronary attacks,
pulmonary problems, systematic damages and other respiratory related cases by disrupting the
functions of the endocrine system that regulates hormones, the immune and the nervous
systems. Hence the search for biodiesel fuel which promises a harmonious relationship with
sustainable development, energy conservation and environmental preservation is justifiable.

The engagement of Nigerian communities in the production and use of biodiesel shall also be a
great source of employment. Her economic growth shall be spurred favorably, obviously
displacing poverty to the joy and comfort of the people. In the US, the use of bio-fuels
supported 39,027 jobs across the country and earned more than $2.1 billion in household
income in 2011 alone, according to the latest Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) statistics
[Demirbas, and Demirbas, 2009]. The use of these new oils can do the same for Nigeria.

Again, farmers will choose to undertake commercial production of soybean. This will offer
them not just job opportunities but also increased income earnings.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This work centers on the steps involved in the production of biodiesel fuel from soybean oil and
the determination of its suitability as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. The major concern of
the research is the production of the biodiesel and analysis of its properties using appropriate
instruments as well as the experimental set-up to evaluate the performance of the biodiesel on a
compression-ignition engine. These performance criteria are also analyzed using fossil diesel as
feedstock to the same engine and the results are then compared. The reference compression-
ignition engine test-bed is a four-stroke, four cylinder diesel engine test-bed. The impacts of
both fuels on the engine and the environment are analyzed. In addition, the study discusses the
process conditions for optimum biodiesel yield and the techno-economic analysis of biodiesel
production from soybean oil.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat
(Gerpen, et al, 2022). Renewable energy can replace conventional fuels in four distinct areas:
electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

According to Gerpen, et al, (2022), about 16% of global final energy consumption presently
comes from renewable resources, with 10% of all the energy from traditional biomass, mainly
used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewable (small hydro, modern
biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly.
At the international level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing to more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are
projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Wind power, for
example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of
282.5gigawatts (GW) at the end of 2012. Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are
derived from biomass. The term covers solid biofuels, liquid biofuels, and gaseous biofuels
(Demirbas, 2007). Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as
biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Biodiesel is made
from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles
in its pure form, but it is usually used as a petro-diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates,
carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from
oils or fats using transesterification.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is
made mostly from sugar and starch crops. These include maize, sugar cane and, more recently,
sweet sorghum.
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are
also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its
pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil (Pinto et al, 2005).
2.2 Soybean Biodiesel
Extracting oil from soybeans requires pretreatment of the grains. Pretreatment includes
operations of cleaning and drying, dehulling and grinding. Use of mechanical presses, solvent
extraction, supercritical fluid extraction and microwave-and ultrasound assisted oil extraction are
the major processes practiced for oil extraction from soybeans [Pereira et al, 2007].
Mechanical extraction of oil method is one of the most common methods of oil extraction in the
world. It involves mechanical presses that will apply pressure to extract the oil from the seed.
This is the method used in this work. The first step is to extract oil from soybean. The second
step is to convert the soybean oil into biodiesel which is done by reacting the oil with an alcohol,
usually methanol in the presence of a catalyst, normally sodium hydroxide in large reactors
[Abreu et al, 2003].
2.3. Catalyst Preparation
2.3.1 Snail Shell Preparation
The waste snail shells will be collected from different restaurants. The collected shells will be
washed and dried in a hot air oven at 120 0C for 24 hours. The dried shells will be pulverized in a
mortar until they become powered The powdered snail shells will be calcined in an electric
furnace at different temperature 100, 200, 300, 400 500 and 600 0C for 6 hours [Leung et al,
2010].

2.3.2 Clay mixed with Ionic Liquid

Kaolinite clay will be obtained from Ezimo in Udenu Local Government Area of Enugu State,
Nigeria.
Ionic liquid (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate) will be purchased from Lavans
Chemicals Ltd at Ogige market Nsukka, Enugu State.
The clay will be dried in an oven at 100oC for 2-3 hours to remove moisture.
The dried clay will then be mixed with the ionic liquid in the ratio of 1:1.
The mixture will be grinded into finer powder using mortar to serve as catalyst [Marchetti et al,
2008].
2.4 Compression – Ignition (CI) Engines
Compression-ignition (CI) engines are a class of reciprocating internal combustion (IC) engines
in which combustion is initiated spontaneously by virtue of the rise in temperature during the
compression process. They are also called diesel engines or oil engines. Diesel engines can be
operated by fossil diesel and biodiesel. The following are the performance criteria for CI
engines:
1. Indicated Power

Rogers and Mayhew, (1994) defined the indicated power (ip) as the rate of work done by the
working fluid on the piston. To determine the indicated power, it is imperative to know the
conditions inside the cylinder as well as the geometry of the cylinder. Mathematically, indicated
power for two stroke and four stroke cycles is given by equations 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
Ip = pbLANn (2.1)
PbLANn
Ip = 2 (2.2)
Where Pb = indicated mean effective pressure
L = Length of stroke (piston stroke), meter (m)
A = Cylinder cross-sectional area, m2
N = speed (number of working cycles per minute), rpm
n = number of cylinders for the engine
2. Brake Power (bp)
Some of the power developed in the piston as indicated power is taken by cylinder and bearing
function as well as the auxiliaries. The balance is what is available as brake power which
becomes the engine net output [Eastop and McConkey, 2003]. Mathematically, brake power is
given as:
bp = Tω (2.3)
Where: T = torque developed by the engine (Nm) and ω = angular velocity (rad/s)
The brake power, bp is given in kW on the hydraulic dynamometer whose specifications are
presented in table 5 as:
T∗N
bp =
9549 . 305 (2.4)
3. Brake Mean Effective Pressure, Bmep
This can be used in comparing performance of two engines. This is because it gives an idea of
the amount of work the engine can do per unit cylinder size. It gives the amount of the imep
which has been effective in producing output at the brake. If the Bmep is known, then bp can
be determined by using the same equation used in the case of ip.
2 bp
Bmep = LANn
(2.5)
Where: bp = Brake power (kW)

4 Volume Flow Rate of fuel, vf

The volume of the fuel consumed is obtained by determining the time taken by the fuel (diesel)
to flow between points in the calibrated scales of 50, 100 and 200ccs. The time it takes to flow
between the 50cc and 100cc is marked and the volume fuel flow rate is calculated as follows:
volume (cm3 )
∗ 10−6 m3 /cm 3
vf = time(s) (m3/s) (2.6)
5 Mass Flow Rate of Fuel, mf
This is the mass of fuel consumed per second. It is given as:
mf = ρf*vf (2.7)
Where: ρf = density of fuel (kg/m3)
vf = volume flow rate of fuel (m3/s)

6 Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηBT)

Brake thermal efficiency of an engine is very important because it determines how efficiently
the fuel is being used in the engine. This efficiency shows the portion of the energy consumed
by the engine that is converted into useful work. It is calculated as follows:
Energy Equivalent of the Brake Power per sec ond
Brake thermal efficiency = Energy Supplied by Fuel per sec ond
(2.8)
bp
Mathematically , ηBT =
mfQ net , v
(2.9)
Where η BT = brake thermal efficiency (%)
bp = brake power (kW)

mf = mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)

Qnet.v = lower calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)

7 Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC

 The specific fuel consumption is defined as the rate of fuel consumption per unit brake power.
It gives the fuel required to deliver one kilowatt for one hour at the load considered. Its unit is
kg/kWh
fuel used in kg/h
Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC = Brake power in kW (2.10)
mf
(kg /kWh)
» SFC = bp (2.11)
The importance of the specific fuel consumption is that it is the tool used to compare the amount
of fuel required per hour to deliver one kilowatt (or one watt) at a particular load with the amount
of fuel required per hour to deliver the same amount of power at another load.
2.5 Empirical Studies

Researchers from various parts of the world have carried out various experiments on a diesel
engine with various biodiesels and its blends with diesel to evaluate the performance and
emission characteristics. Dilip et al (2012) conducted experiments on a CI engine with the
biodiesel blends of cotton seed and neem biodiesels separately and suggested that the blend B20
is the optimum blend which can produce better performance for diesel engines. Avinash et al
(2013) investigated the effect of the Karanja biodiesel blends on the DI diesel engine and
concluded that the Karnja biodiesel can be used as a partial substitute of diesel up to 20% (B20)
without any major modifications in the existing engine. Anbumani et al (2010) evaluated the
performance of a single cylinder diesel engine with neem biodiesel blends and established that
the neem biodiesel blend B20 can be used as fuel to run CI engine.
CHAPTER THREE
 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Procedure for the Preparation of Biodiesel

Fig 3.1 Flowchart for biodiesel production from soybean

3.2 Materials

The following materials are needed for the production of biodiesel from soybean oil:

•1 liter of soybean oil

• 200 ml of methyl alcohol also known as methanol

• 3.5 grams of the catalyst

• 200 ml capacity graduated cylinder

• Large mason jar (big enough to hold at least 2 liters)

• Small mason jar (big enough to hold at least 1 liter)

• 1 liter of distilled water with 1 liter capacity measuring cup

• pH indicator (10 ml of phenolphthalein solution)

• Heating element such as a stove, Thermometer and Digital Scale

• Chemical gloves and 200 ml capacity glass jar with tight-fitting lid for mixing of chemicals

• 1500 ml and 20 ml capacity beakers

• Stopcock container and a funnel

3.3 Preparation of 1 liter of biodiesel

The following procedure will be observed in preparing one liter of biodiesel from soybean oil:

• 1 liter of filtered soybean oil will be poured into a large mason jar

• 100 ml of methanol will be poured into a small mason jar

• 3.5 grams (as determined by titration) of the catalyst will be put onto a petri-dish on a scale

• The catalyst will be carefully poured into the methanol filled jar.

• The mixture will be kept stirring and shaking until the catalyst was completely dissolved in the
methanol.

• The mixture will be carefully poured on top of the soybean oil in the large mason jar.

• The lid on the large mason jar will be secured while the solution was agitated vigorously for 10
minutes.

• The solution in the large mason jar will be heated between 50oC and 60oC.

• The mixture was stirred for about 15 minutes while the temperature was kept constant.

• Within about 8 hours, the glycerin will fall to the bottom of the large mason jar.

• The top layer is methyl esters or biodiesel.

• Complete separation of biodiesel & glycerin usually occurs within 24 hours and using a
stopcock, the glycerin will be drained off and the valve shut after the glycerin is completely
drained.

3.4 Techno-economic Analysis of soybean biodiesel production – we will determine the cost
effectiveness of this project.

3.5 Fuel Properties Analysis (Biodiesel Characterization)

3.5.1 Density/Specific Gravity
Density refers to mass per unit volume of a substance. The relative density of fuel otherwise
known as its specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the fuel to the density of water at the
same temperature.
3.5.2 Kinematic Viscosity

This refers to the internal frictional force within the molecules of fluids. The resistance to flow
exhibited by fuel blends is expressed in various units of viscosity. It is a major factor of
consequence in exhibiting fuel suitability for the mass transfer and metering requirements of
engine operation.

3.5.3 Heat of Combustion (Calorific Value of Biodiesel)

This is the thermal energy librated per unit quantity of fuel when the fuel is burnt completely in a
calorimeter (under specified conditions) and the products of combustion are cooled back to the
initial temperature of the combustible mixture. The water produced is assumed to remain as a
vapor and the heat is not recovered.
3.5.4 Flash Point (Closed Cup)

Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a standard atmospheric condition at which
application of a test flame causes the vapor specimen to ignite under specific conditions of test.
Flash point of the sample was measured using Pensky Marten’s apparatus.
Hence, the higher the flash point of fuel, for instance, the safer it is during handling,
transportation and storage.
3.5.5 Cloud and Pour Points
Two important parameters for low - temperature applications of fuel are cloud point (CP) and
pour point (PP). The cloud point is the temperature at which wax first becomes visible when the
fuel is cooled.
3.5.6 Acid Value or Acid Number

The acid value is defined as the milligrams of potassium hydroxide necessary to neutralize the
free acids in 1 gram of the sample of a substance.
The ASTM standard for pure biodiesel sets the maximum acid value (acid number) at 0.8 mg
KOH/g.
3.5.7 Cetane Number

Cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel based on ignition delay in an
engine. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the ignition delay and the better the ignition
quality would be. An adequate cetane number is required for good engine performance.
3.6 Performance Analysis of Biodiesel in a Diesel Engine
3.6.1 The Test Bed

Fig 3.1 Diesel Engine Test Bed at the Mechanical Engineering Department Laboratory,
University of Nigeria Nsukka
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