Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T.

,Baghdad

MODULATION

Modulation is a process by which some parameter (amplitude,

frequency or phase) of a carrier signal is varied in accordance with a
message signal. The message signal is called a modulating signal.
A carrier signal, in analog modulation, usually a simple sine wave,
contains no information in itself. This gives us three possibilities:

• Amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude or strength of the

carrier is varied.

• Frequency modulation (FM), where the frequency of the carrier is

varied.

• Phase modulation (PM), where the phase of the carrier is varied.

It actually turns out that FM and PM are very close relatives.

Reasons of modulation:

♦ Match the signal to the channel characteristics and increase the

efficiency of information transmission.
♦ Shift the frequency band occupied by the message signal.
♦ Reduce the relative bandwidth.
♦Separate the signals in the frequency domain.
♦ Less sensitivity to channel distortion.

Demodulation:

It is the process of separating the original message (base-band) signal

from the noisy and distorted received modulated carrier signal .

42
 3. Amplitude Modulation

It is defined as the process of varying the amplitude of a sinusoidal

carrier wave in synchronism with , and in direct proportion , to the
amplitude of a modulating signal .

The unmodulated carrier signal is given as :

s(t)= A cos 2π fct
A sinusoidal modulated ( band-pass) carrier signal is represented by:
sc(t) = A(t) cos θ(t)

where A(t) is the envelope and θ (t) = ω ct + φ (t) = 2π fct + φ (t).

φ (t) is called the instantaneous phase deviation of sc(t) and fc is the
carrier frequency. For amplitude modulation, we can write

sc (t) = A(t) cos 2π fct

where A(t) is linearly related to the modulating signal m(t). A(t) is

called the instantaneous amplitude of sc(t) and amplitude modulation
is also referred to as linear modulation. Depending on the relationship
between m(t) and A(t), we have the following types of amplitude
modulation schemes:

- Normal amplitude modulation (AM) .

- Double-sideband (DSB) modulation .
- Single-sideband (SSB) modulation .
-Vestigial-sideband (VSB) modulation .

43
Normal Amplitude Modulation (AM) :

A normal amplitude-modulated signal is given by:

where A is a constant and m(t) is the modulating signal.

The modulation index m is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the

modulating signal to that of the unmodulated carrier. It is a value
between 0 and 1 which describes the “degree of modulation” of the
carrier. If m = 0 there is no modulation, while m = 1 is the maximum
modulation that can occur without distortion.
Figure 3.1 shows normal AM signals for various values of modulation
index. Clearly, the envelope of the modulated signals has the same
shape as m(t) when m < 1. When m > 1, the carrier signal is said to be
over- modulated and the envelope is distorted.

If m(t) = Em cosωmt , and ωm =2πfm .

A(t) = A+ Em cosωmt
sc(t) = A ( 1+ m cosωmt ) cos ωct
= A cos ωct + m A cosωmt cos ωct
= A cos ωct + 0.5 mA cos(ωc -ωm )t + 0.5 mA cos (ωc +ωm )t
and m = Em / A .
The total average power of normal AM signal is:
Pt = Pc + 0.25 m2 Pc + 0.25 m2 Pc
= Pc ( 1+ 0.5 m2 )
where Pc =(Arms)2/ R is the power of the unmodulated carrier wave &
Ps = 0.5 m2 Pc is the power of the upper and lower sidebands.
For 100℅ modulation , m= 1 , Pt = 1.5 Pc
44
Figure 3.1 Normal AM signals for various values of modulation index

45
Spectrum of Normal AM Signals :

For normal amplitude modulation,

sc (t) = [A + m(t)] cos 2πfct

= A cos 2πfct + m(t) cos 2πfc
The Fourier transform of sc(t) is :

Sc(f) = 0.5 A[δ(f-fc) +δ(f+fc)] + 0.5 [M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]

Normal amplitude modulation simply shifts the spectrum of m(t) to the carrier
frequency fc. The bandwidth of the modulated signal is 2 fm Hz, where fm is the
bandwidth of the modulating signal m(t).

Figure 3.2 Spectrum of normal AM signal.

The efficiency η of a normal AM signal is defined as :

where Ps is the power carried by the sidebands and Pt is the total

power of the normal AM signal.
46
Generation of Normal AM Signals :

A process of generating a normal AM signal is shown in Figure 3.3.

This type of modulation can be achieved by using a non-linear device,
such as a diode .This is shown in Figure 3.4 .

Figure 3.3 Generation of normal AM signal.

Figure 3.4 Amplitude modulator using a diode.

Let the input-output characteristic of a diode be approximated by a

power series :
vo (t) = a vi(t) + b vi2 (t)
where a & b are constants and
vi(t) = cos 2πfct + m(t)
47
Hence :
vo(t) = a[cos 2πfct + m(t)] + b[cos 2πfct + m(t)]2
= a m(t) + b cos2 2πfct + b m(t)2 +
a cos 2πfct + 2b m(t) cos 2πfct

If we pass the signal vo(t) through a band- pass filter centered at ± fc ,

we obtain
v'o(t) = [a + 2b m(t)] cos 2πfct
= 2b[A + m(t)] cos 2πfct
where A = a /2b . We generate a normal AM signal.
A normal amplitude-modulated signal can also be obtained by
multiplying m(t) by a periodic signal s(t). The modulator is called a
switching modulator. If we take a periodic rectangular waveform s(t)
of period Tc = 1/fc , amplitude Am , and pulse width τ , the
trigonometric Fourier series of s(t) is :

where co = Amτ and

The corresponding complex Fourier series is :

48
 Figure 3.5 (a) A periodic rectangular waveform, and (b) its line spectrum.
If the input signal is :
vi(t) = cos 2πfct + m(t),
the output of a switching modulator is :
vo(t) = vi(t) s(t)
= [cos 2πfct + m(t)] s(t)

49
vo(t) consists of a dc term, the component m(t), and an infinite number
of normal AM signals at carrier frequencies fc, 2fc, 3fc, ... If we pass
the signal vo(t) through a band-pass filter centered at ± fc, the filtered
signal is :

where A =( c0 + c2) / 2 c1 . That is, we obtain a normal AM signal.

Demodulation of Normal AM Signals:

The process of recovering the message signal from the modulated

signal is called demodulation or detection. Two basic methods are
available :

1.Envelope Detection :
In this method, an envelope detector is used to recover the message
signal. An envelope detector consists of a diode and a resistor-
capacitor combination. This is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Envelope detector.

50
During the positive half-cycle peaks of the modulated signal, the
diode is forward biased, and the capacitor charges up to the peak value
of the modulated signal. As the modulated signal falls from its
maximum, the diode turns off and the capacitor discharges through the
resistor. The process repeats in this way. For proper operation, the
discharge time constant RC must be chosen properly.

2.Synchronous (Coherent) Detection :

Here, a product detector is used to convert the band-pass signal to

base-band. This is shown in Figure3.7.

Figure 3.7 Synchronous detector.

At the receiving end, the band-pass signal is multiplied by a locally

generated carrier signal cos(2πfct + φ0 ),
where φ0 is an initial phase. The output of the multiplier is

51
If we suppress the first term by a low-pass filter, we get
y(t) = 0.5Acos φ0 + 0.5 m(t) cos φ0

It can be seen that we can recover the component m(t) if the initial
phase φ0 is constant and small.
Suppose that the local carrier signal is :

cos[2π (fc + Δ f)t],

The multiplier output becomes :

x(t) = [A + m(t)] cos 2πfct cos[2π(fc + Δf)t]

= 0.5[A + m(t)] [cos 2πΔf t + cos 2π(2fc +Δf)t]
= 0.5[A + m(t)] cos 2π(2fc +Δf)t +
0.5Acos 2πΔf t + 0.5m(t)cos 2πΔf t

If we suppress the first term by a low-pass filter, we get

y(t) = 0.5Acos 2πΔf t + 0.5m(t)cos 2πΔf t

We cannot recover the component m(t) unless the frequency drift Δf is

zero. Therefore, the local carrier must not only be of the same
frequency but must be synchronized in phase with the carrier signal. If
the carrier shifts in frequency or phase, the resultant signal is distorted
or attenuated. Synchronous detection is sometimes called coherent
detection.

52
 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad

Double-Sideband Modulation (DSB) :

A normal amplitude-modulated signal is given by :

sc(t) = [A + m(t)] cos 2πfct

For double-sideband (DSB) modulation, A = 0 and
sc(t) = m(t) cos 2πfct
The Fourier transform of sc(t) is

Sc(f) = 1/2 [M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]

Figure 3.8 shows the waveforms and spectra associated with a DSB signal.
Clearly, the envelope of the modulated signal does not have the same shape as
m(t). As with AM, DSB modulation shifts the spectrum of m(t) to the carrier
frequency fc. The bandwidth of the modulated signal is 2 fm Hz, where fm is
the bandwidth of the modulating signal m(t).

Figure 3.8 Waveforms and spectra associated with DSB signal.

53
Generation of DSB Signals :

The process of generating a DSB signal is shown in Figure 3.9 .

DSB modulation can be achieved by using non-linear devices, such as a diode.
This is shown in Figure 3.10 .

Figure 3.9 Generation of DSB signal.

Figure 3.10 A single-balanced modulator.

Let the input-output characteristic of a diode be approximated by a power

series :

vo(t) = a vi(t) + b vi2(t)

where a, b are constants. Consider the diode D1 in the upper portion of the
circuit shown in Figure 3.10 . The input voltage to the diode D1 is

vi,1(t) = vi(t) = cos 2πft + m(t)

54
let the output voltage of the diode be

vo,1(t) = vo(t), then , we have :

vo,1(t) = a[cos 2πfct + m(t)] + b[cos 2πfct + m(t)]2
= a m(t) + bcos2 2πfct + b m(t)2 +
acos 2πfct + 2b m(t) cos 2πfct
Now, consider the diode D2 in the lower portion of the circuit shown in
Figure(3.10). The input voltage to the diode D2 is :

vi,2(t) = vi(t) = cos 2πfct - m(t)

and let the output voltage of the diode be

vo,2(t) = vo(t), then we have

vo,2(t) = a[cos 2πfct - m(t)] + b[cos 2πfct - m(t)]2
= -a m(t) + bcos2 2πfct + b m(t)2 +
acos 2πfct - 2b m(t) cos 2πfct
Hence ,

vo(t) = vo,1(t) – vo,2(t) = 2a m(t) + 4b m(t) cos 2πfct

If we pass this signal through a bandpass filter centred at ± fc, we obtain

v'o(t) = 4b m(t) cos 2πfct

That is, we generate a DSB signal. It can be seen that the circuit is balanced
with respect to the carrier signal s(t); however, the modulating signal m(t) still
appears at the output of the second transformer T2. For this reason, the
modulator is called a single-balanced modulator.

55
From our earlier study of normal AM, multiplication of a signal by a periodic
signal involves switching the signal m(t) on and off periodically. This can be
accomplished by switching elements controlled by the carrier signal s(t).
Figure 3.11 shows a single balanced shunt-bridge diode modulator, where
diodes D1, D2 and D3, D4 are matched pairs.

Figure 3.11 A single-balanced shunt-bridge diode modulator.

During the positive half-cycle of s(t), terminal c is positive with respect to d,

so all the diodes conduct. Terminals a and b have the same potential and are
effectively shorted. vo(t) is zero. During the negative half-cycle of s(t), terminal
c is negative with respect to d, all the diodes are open.
vo(t) = vi(t). m(t) is effectively multiplied by a non-negative periodic signal.
Therefore, the component m(t) appears at the input to the bandpass filter. If we
pass the signal vo(t) through a bandpass filter centred at ± fc, we generate a
DSB signal.

A DSB signal can also be obtained by multiplying m(t) by any periodic signal
s(t). The modulator is called a switching modulator.
If we take a periodic square waveform s(t) of period Tc = 1/fc, amplitude ±Ac/2,
and pulse width of Tc, the trigonometric Fourier series of s(t) is :

56
where

The corresponding complex Fourier series is:

Figure 3.12 (a) A periodic square waveform, and (b) its line spectrum.

57
If the input signal is vi(t) = m(t), the product of vi(t) and s(t) is :

vo(t) consists of an infinite number of DSB signals at carrier frequencies fc, 2fc,
3fc, ... If we pass the signal vo(t) through a bandpass filter centred at ± fc, the
filtered signal is :

That is, we obtain a DSB signal. Figure 3.13 shows the waveforms and spectra
associated with a switching modulator.

Figure 3.13 Waveforms and spectra associated with a switching modulator.

58
It is possible to design a balanced modulator such that the input to the bandpass
filter does not contain the message signal m(t) or the carrier signal s(t). A
circuit balanced with respect to both input signals is called a double-balanced
modulator. Figure 3.14 shows a double-balanced modulator, known as a ring
modulator .

Figure 3.14 A double-balanced ring modulator.

During the positive half-cycle of s(t), diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and D2 and D4
are open. Terminal a is connected to c, terminal b is connected to d, and vo(t) is
proportional to m(t). During the negative half-cycle of s(t), diodes D1 and D3
are open, and diodes D2 and D4 are conducting. Terminal a is connected to d,
terminal b is connected to c, and vo(t) is proportional to -m(t).
m(t) is effectively multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier waveform. Therefore, the
components m(t) and s(t) do not appear at the input to the bandpass filter. If we
pass the signal vo(t) through a bandpass filter centred at ± fc, we generate a
DSB signal.

59
Demodulation of DSB Signals :

Since the envelope of the modulated signal does not have the same shape as
m(t), an envelope detector cannot be used to recover the message signal.
Demodulation of DSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous
detector. This is shown in Figure 3.15 .

Figure 3.15 Synchronous detector.

Let sc(t) be the input signal to the synchronous detector. At the receiving end,
the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated carrier signal cos 2πfct,
which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier signal. The output of the
multiplier is :
x(t) = m(t) cos 2πfct cos 2πfct
= 0.5 m(t) + 0.5m(t) cos 4πfct
If we suppress the last term by a low-pass filter, we get :
y(t) = 0.5m(t)
That is, we can recover the component m(t). If the carrier signal shifts in
frequency or phase, the resultant signal is distorted or attenuated.

For the demodulation of a DSB signal, we can use a squaring loop to generate a
local carrier signal. Figure 3.16 shows a carrier-recovery squaring loop for a
DSB signal .
However, the squaring loop has a disadvantage: there is a 180º phase
ambiguity. If the transmitted carrier signal is shifted by 180º, the demodulated
signal is -m(t). The demodulated signal is inverted. To remove the phase
ambiguity, we can send a known test signal or use differential coding and
decoding.

60
 Figure 3.16 Carrier-recovery squaring loop for DSB signal.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) :

We have seen that DSB signals require a transmission bandwidth equal to

twice the bandwidth of the message signal m(t). To increase the transmission
bandwidth efficiency, it is possible to send two DSB signals using carriers of
the same frequency but in phase quadrature. Both modulated signals occupy
the same frequency band. Yet they can be separated at the receiver by
synchronous detection using two local carriers in phase quadrature. The
technique is known as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) or
quadrature multiplexing and the arrangement is shown in Figure 3.17 .

Figure 3.17 A QAM transmitter and receiver.

A QAM signal is given by :

sc(t) = m1(t) cos 2πfct + m2(t) sin 2πfct

61
At the receiving end, the modulated signal is multiplied by two carriers in
phase quadrature.
The signals at the outputs of the multipliers are :

x1(t) = 2 sc(t) cos 2πfct

= m1(t) + m1(t) cos 4πfct + m2(t) sin 4πfct
and
x2(t) = 2 sc(t) sin 2πfct
= m2(t) – m2(t) sin 4πfct + m1(t) sin 4πfct
If we suppress the high-frequency components by low-pass filters, we get
y1(t) = m1(t)
and
y2(t) = m2(t)

That is, the desired outputs are obtained. Supposing that the local carrier signal
is cos (2πfct + φ0), then the multiplier output in the upper portion of the
circuit becomes :
x1(t) = 2 sc(t) cos (2πfct + φ0)
= m1 (t)cos φ0 + m1(t)cos (4πfct + φ0) -
m2 (t)sin φ0 + m2(t) sin (4πfct + φ0)
If we suppress the second and the last terms by a low-pass filter, we get
y1(t) = m1(t)cos φ0 + m2(t)sin φ0
The desired signal m1(t) and the unwanted signal m2(t) appear in the upper
portion of the circuit. Also, it can be shown that y2(t) contains the desired
signal m2(t) and the unwanted signal m1(t). Modulated signals having the same
carrier frequency now interfere with each other. This is called cochannel
interference and must be avoided .
Worse problems arise when the local carrier frequency is in error. Therefore,
the local carrier must not only be of the same frequency but must be
synchronised in phase with the carrier signal. A slight error in the frequency or

the phase of the local carrier signal will not only result in loss and distortion of
signals, but will also lead to interference.

62
Quadrature multiplexing is used in colour television to multiplex the signals
which carry the information about colours .

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) :

One of the basic problems in communication engineering is the design of a

system which allows many individual signals from users to be transmitted
simultaneously over a single communication channel. The most common
method is to translate individual signals from one frequency region to another
frequency region. Suppose that we have several different signals of the same
bandwidth. If we translate each one of the signals to a different frequency
region such that the translated signal spectra do not overlap each other, then all
these signals can now be transmitted along a single communication channel. At
the receiving end, the signals can be separated and recovered. We now have a
frequency multiplexed system. Such a multiplexing technique is called
frequency division multiplexing (FDM). Frequency translation can be
ccomplished by multiplying a low-frequency modulating signal with a high-
frequency sinusoidal carrier signal. Figure 3.18 shows the transmitter, the
receiver, and the spectrum of a 5-user FDM system with carrier frequencies
fc1 < fc2 < ... < fc5 .

63
Figure 3.18 FDM system.
64
 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad

Single-Sideband and Vestigial-Sideband Modulations :

We have seen that both normal AM and DSB signals require a transmission
bandwidth equal to twice the bandwidth of the message signal m(t). Since
either the upper sideband (USB) or the lower sideband (LSB) contains the
complete information of the message signal, we can conserve bandwidth by
transmitting only one sideband. The modulation is called single-sideband (SSB)
modulation.

Generation of SSB Signals :

There are two common methods to generate a single-sideband signal.

1- Filter Method :

In this method, a balanced modulator is used to generate a DSB signal, and the
desired sideband signal is then selected by a bandpass filter for transmission.
Figures 3.19 and 3.20 show the generation of a SSB signal using the filter
method, and the spectra associated with it.

The technique is suitable for message signals with very little frequency content
down to dc and hence does not require sharp filter cut-off characteristics.

Figure 3.19 Generation of SSB signal using filter method.

65
 Figure 3.20 Spectra associated with SSB signal using filter method.

2- Phasing Method :

A single-sideband signal is given by :

Figures 3.21 and 3.22 show the generation of a SSB signal using the phasing
method, and the spectra associated with it.
66
 Figure 3.21 Generating SSB signal using phasing method.

Figure 3.22 SSB spectra expressed in terms of M+(f) and M-(f).

67
Demodulation of SSB Signals :

Demodulation of SSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous

detector as used in the demodulation of normal AM and DSB signals. This is
shown in Figure 3.23 .

Figure 3.23 Synchronous detector.

At the receiving end, the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated

carrier signal cos 2πfct, which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier
signal. The output of the multiplier is :

If we suppress the last two terms using a low-pass filter, we get :

y(t) = 0.5 m(t)
That is, we can recover the component m(t). If the carrier signal has phase or
frequency errors, the recovered message is distorted.

68
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) Modulation :

Vestigial sideband modulation is a compromise between DSB and SSB

modulations. It relaxes the sharp cutoff requirement of a SSB signal by
retaining a trace of the other sideband in the transmitted signal. Typically, the
bandwidth of a VSB modulated signal is about 1.25 times that of the
corresponding SSB modulated signal. It is commonly used for transmission of
video signals in commercial television broadcasting. Figures 3.24 and 3.25
show the generation of a VSB signal, and the spectra associated with it.

Figure 3.24 VSB modulator.

Figure 3.25 Spectra associated with VSB signal.

69
By inspection of Figure 3.25 , the Fourier transform of a VSB modulated signal
sc(t) is :
Sc(f) = 1/2 [M(f-fc) + M(f+fc)]H(f)
where H(f) is the transfer function of the bandpass filter.

Demodulation of VSB Signals :

Demodulation of VSB signals can be accomplished by using a synchronous
detector. Let sc(t) be the input signal to the synchronous detector. At the
receiving end, the bandpass signal is multiplied by a locally generated carrier
signal cos 2π fct, which is in synchronism with the transmitted carrier signal.
The output of the multiplier is :
x(t) = sc(t) cos 2πfct
and the Fourier transform of x(t) is :

X(f) = 1/2 [Sc(f-fc) + Sc(f+fc)]

Substituting , we get
X(f) = 1/2{[ 1/2 [M(f-2fc) + M(f)]H(f-fc)] +
[ 1/2 [M(f) + M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)]}
We can suppress the frequency components at ± 2fc by a low-pass filter and we
get :
Y(f) = 1/4 M(f)[H(f-fc) + H(f+fc)]
For distortionless detection, we must have

H(f-fc) + H(f+fc) = K, |f| ≤ B

where K is a constant and B is the bandwidth of the message signal.

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 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad

The superheterodyne receiver :

Most modern radio and TV receivers (whether for AM or FM bands, other

frequency ranges, or other modulation methods) use the superheterodyne
(“superhet” for short) technique. This enables important signal processing
operations, such as demodulation, to be done at a more convenient lower
frequency, rather than at the original high frequency of the incoming signal, as
well as providing other advantages.
A block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver for AM is shown in Fig. 3.26.

Fig 14-6 Diagram of a superheterodyne receiver for AM.

The signal is mixed with a local oscillator (LO) signal and shifted down to an
intermediate frequency (IF) before demodulation.

• First, the received (modulated) signal is picked up by an antenna and passed

through a tuned amplifier –that is, one which also acts as a bandpass filter as
well as amplifying, to roughly restrict its frequency range.
This first part of the receiver is referred to as the radio frequency (RF) stage.
The filtering has the effect of attenuating strong signals at other frequencies
which might interfere with or overload the receiver’s amplifiers or mixer. To

71
select different stations, the tuning (that is, the centre frequency) of the
bandpass filter is varied.

• The next stage is the mixer, where the signal is shifted down in frequency. In
this stage, the signal from a separate oscillator (called the local oscillator, or
LO) is multiplied by the incoming signal to produce sum and difference
frequencies. The LO frequency is adjusted so that the difference frequency
is always exactly 455 kHz. This is termed the intermediate frequency (IF)
and is a standard frequency for AM receivers. (For AM, 470 kHz is also
sometimes used; for FM receivers the IF is at 10.7 MHz, while in TV
receivers it is around 30 MHz).
For example, if the incoming signal is at 1 MHz (1000 kHz), then an LO
frequency of 1455 kHz (= 1000 + 455) or 545 kHz (= 1000-455) will produce
an IF signal at 455 kHz; usually the higher LO frequency is used. As stations at
different frequencies are selected by tuning the RF stage, the frequency of the
LO is simultaneously varied, so as to keep the difference frequency at 455 kHz.

• This signal is then passed through an IF amplifier which is more precisely

tuned to restrict the range of frequencies. Using a standard frequency for the
IF means that no matter what the frequency of the original incoming (RF)
signal, it is always processed in pretty much an identical fashion. Note that
at this stage the signal still looks like an ordinary AM signal –that is, it has a
carrier (but now at 455 kHz) and two sidebands.

• The amplified IF signal is then passed to the demodulator (detector), which

recovers the original audio information from the carrier.

• An additional dc voltage derived from the detector is also used to provide a

feedback voltage for automatic gain control, which operates by varying the
gain of the IF and/or RF amplifiers, thus keeping the average signal level to
the demodulator approximately constant.

• Finally, an audio amplifier raises the power of the recovered signal to a

sufficient level to drive a loudspeaker.

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Example 3.1:
The AM broadcast band occupies approximately 500 to 1600 kHz. An AM
receiver uses an IF frequency of 455 kHz. It is tuned to a station, and its LO
frequency is set to 1365 kHz. On what frequency is the station broadcasting?

Answer:
The IF must be at the sum or difference of the RF and LO frequencies.
Hence, the station frequency must be at either
1365 + 455 = 1820 kHz, or
1365 - 455 = 910 kHz,
in order to give an IF of 455 kHz. Since 1820 kHz is not in the AM band, the
station frequency must be 910 kHz.

Example 3.2:
An AM receiver uses an IF frequency of 455 kHz. A radio station at 1200 kHz
modulates its carrier with a maximum audio frequency of 9 kHz.
(a) What are the highest and lowest frequency components that are actually
broadcast by the station?
(b) What are the highest and lowest frequencies that must be passed without
much loss by the receiver’s IF amplifier to recover the original audio
signal with full bandwidth?

Answer:
(a) The highest and lowest frequencies broadcast will correspond to the
“outside edges” of the two AM sidebands. These will be at :
1200 - 9 = 1191 kHz and
1200 + 9 = 1209 kHz.
(b) The original carrier frequency will be shifted down to the IF frequency of
455 kHz by the mixer. Hence the highest and lowest corresponding
frequencies which must be passed by the IF amplifier are:
455 - 9 = 446 kHz and
455 + 9 = 464 kHz.

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 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad

4. Angle Modulation
Angle modulation encompasses phase modulation (PM) and frequency
modulation (FM). The phase angle of a sinusoidal carrier signal is varied
according to the modulating signal. In angle modulation, the spectral
components of the modulated signal are not related in a simple fashion to the
spectrum of the modulating signal. Superposition does not apply and the
bandwidth of the modulated signal is usually much greater than the modulating
signal bandwidth.
Definitions
A bandpass signal is represented by
sc(t) = A(t) cos θ(t)
where A(t) is the envelope and θ (t) = ω ct + φ (t) = 2πfct + φ (t).
For angle modulation, we can write :
sc(t) = A cos [2πfct + φ(t)]
where A is a constant and φ(t) is a function of the modulating signal.
φ(t) is called the instantaneous phase deviation of sc(t).
The instantaneous angular frequency of sc(t) is defined as :
ωi(t) = dθ (t ) / dt
In terms of frequency, the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) is :

1 dθ (t )
fi =
2π dt
1 dφ (t )
= fc +
2π dt
1 dφ (t )
is known as the instantaneous frequency deviation.
2π dt
The peak (maximum) frequency deviation is :

1 dφ (t )
Δf = max = max f i (t ) − f c
2π dt
74
Phase Modulation :

For PM, the instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the modulating

signal mp(t):
φ(t) = kp mp(t)
where kp is a constant. Thus, a phase-modulated signal is represented by
sc(t) = A cos [2πfct + kp mp(t)]
Then ,the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) can be written as :

1 dm p (t )
f i (t ) = f c + kp
2π dt
The peak (maximum) phase deviation is :

Δφ = max φ (t )
= k p max m p (t )

The phase modulation index is given by :

βp = Δφ

Frequency Modulation :

For FM, the instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the

modulating signal mf(t) :

d φ (t )
= k f m f (t )
dt
where kf is a constant, and
t
φ (t ) = k f ∫ m f (τ )dτ + φ (−∞)
−∞

φ(- ∞) is usually set to 0. Thus, a frequency-modulated signal is represented by:

75
 ⎡ t
⎤
sc (t ) = A cos ⎢2πf ct + k f ∫ m f (τ )dτ ⎥
⎣ −∞ ⎦
The instantaneous frequency of sc(t) can be written as :
1
f i (t ) = f c + k f m f (t )
2π
Figure 4.1 shows the modulating signal mf(t), the instantaneous frequency fi(t),
and the FM signal when a sawtooth signal is used as a modulating signal.

Figure 4.1 Frequency modulation: (a) Modulating signal, (b) instantaneous

frequency, and (c) FM signal.

76
The frequency deviation from the carrier frequency is:

1 dφ (t ) 1
f d (t ) = f i (t ) − f c = = k f m f (t )
2π dt 2π
and the peak frequency deviation is :

1 dφ (t )
Δf = max
2π dt
1
= k f max m f (t )
2π
Generation of Angle-Modulated Signal :

It can be seen from the previous equations that PM and FM differ only by a
possible integration or differentiation of the modulating signal.
Then we obtain :

k p dm p (t )
m f (t ) =
kf dt
and

t
kf
m p (t ) =
kp ∫m
−∞
f (τ )dτ

If we differentiate the modulating signal mp(t) and frequency-modulate using

the differentiated signal, we get a PM signal. On the other hand, if we integrate
the modulating signal mf(t) and phase-modulate using the integrated signal, we
get an FM signal.
Therefore, we can generate a PM signal using a frequency modulator or we can
generate an FM signal using a PM modulator. This is shown in Figure 4.2.
77
 Figure 4.2 Generation of (a) PM using a frequency modulator, and (b) FM
using a phase modulator.

Spectrum of an Angle-Modulated Signal :

For angle modulation,

sc(t) = A cos [2πfct + φ(t)]
and we can write :
sc(t) = Re {Aej[2πf t+φ(t)] } = Re {Aej2πf tejφ(t)}
c c

jφ(t)
Expanding e in a power series yields :

⎧ j 2πf c t ⎡ φ 2 (t ) φ n (t ) ⎤⎫
sc (t ) = Re⎨ Ae ⎢1 + jφ (t ) − − ... + jn + ...⎥ ⎬
⎩ ⎣ 2! n! ⎦⎭

⎡ φ 2 (t ) φ 3 (t ) ⎤
= A⎢cos 2πf ct − φ (t ) sin 2πf ct − cos 2πf ct + sin 2πf ct + ...⎥
⎣ 2! 3! ⎦
It can be seen that the spectrum of an angle-modulated signal consists of an
unmodulated carrier plus spectra of φ (t), φ 2(t), ..., and is not related to the
spectrum of the modulating signal in a simple fashion.

78
Narrowband Angle Modulation :

If max |φ(t)| << 1, we can neglect all higher-power terms of φ(t) in the last
equation and we have a narrowband angle-modulated signal :

sc(t) ≈ A[cos 2πfct - φ(t)sin 2πfct]

For PM,
sc(t) ≈ A[cos 2πfct - kp mp(t)sin 2πfct] …………..…(4-1)

For FM,
⎧⎪ ⎡ t ⎤ ⎫⎪
sc (t ) ≈ A⎨cos 2πf ct − ⎢k f ∫ m f (τ ) dτ ⎥ sin 2πf ct ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣ −∞ ⎦ ⎪⎭ ….(4-2)
Narrowband Frequency Modulation :

Because of the difficulty of analyzing general angle-modulated signals, we

shall only consider a sinusoidal modulating signal. Let the modulating signal of
a narrowband FM signal be :

mf(t) = am cos 2π fmt

we have,

k f am
φ (t ) = sin 2πf mt
2πf m

= β f sin 2πf mt

where , βf = kf am /(2πfm).
βf is called the frequency modulation index and βf is only defined for a
sinusoidal modulating signal.

Differentiating φ(t) and substituting dφ (t )/dt into Δf , we have :

79
 Δf
βf =
B
where B = fm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal. Then, we have :
sc(t) = A cos (2πfct + βf sin 2πfmt)
= A[cos 2πfct cos (βf sin 2πfmt)- sin 2πfct sin (βf sin 2πfmt)]

For βf << π/2,

cos (βf sin 2πfmt) ≈ 1, sin (βf sin 2πfmt) ≈ βf sin 2πfmt, and

sc(t) ≈ A[cos 2πfct - βf sin 2πfct sin 2πfmt]

≈ Acos 2πfct -0.5βf A[cos 2π(fc-fm)t- cos 2π(fc+fm)t]

≈ Re[ej2πfct(A -0.5 βfAe-j2πfmt+0.5βfAej2πfmt)]

The bandwidth of the narrowband FM signal is 2fm Hz.

In the AM case with sinusoidal modulating signal :

m(t) = am cos 2πfmt,

sc(t) = [A + am cos 2πfmt] cos 2πfct

sc(t) = A cos 2πfct + 0.5am[cos 2π(fc-fm)t + cos 2π(fc+fm)t]
sc(t) = A cos 2πfct +0.5mA[cos 2π(fc-fm)t + cos 2π(fc+fm)t]
sc(t) = Re[ej2πfct(A + 0.5mA e-j2πfmt+ 0.5mA ej2πfmt)]
where the modulation index :
am
m=
A
.

80
Figure 4.3 shows the vector representation of a narrowband FM signal and an
AM signal.

Figure 4.3 Vector representation of (a) narrowband FM, and (b) AM.

It can be seen that the resultant of the two sideband vectors in the FM case is
always in phase quadrature with the unmodulated carrier, whereas the resultant
of the two sideband vectors in the AM case is always in phase with the
unmodulated carrier. The distinction and similarity between narrowband FM
(or phase modulation) leads us to a commonly used method of generating
narrowband angle-modulated signals.

81
Generation of Narrowband PM and Narrowband FM :

The generation of narrowband PM and narrowband FM signals is easily

accomplished in view of equations (4-1) & (4-2) . This is shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Generation of (a) narrowband PM, and (b) narrowband FM.

Figure 3.3 Generation of normal AM signal.

82
 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad

Wideband Frequency Modulation (WFM) :

Consider the angle-modulated signal :
sc(t) = A cos (2π fct + β sin 2π fmt)
with sinusoidal modulating signal
m(t) = am cos 2π fmt.
It can be shown that sc(t) can also be written as :
∞
sc (t ) = A ∑ J n ( β ) cos 2π ( f c + nf m )t
n = −∞
where :
π
1
∫
j ( β sin x − nx )
J n (β ) = e dx
2π −π
The integral is known as the Bessel function of the first kind of the n-th order
and cannot be evaluated in closed form. Figure 4.5 shows some Bessel
functions for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 8. Clearly, the value of Jn(β) becomes small for
large values of n.

Figure 4.5 Bessel functions.

83
It can be shown that :

⎧ J − n ( β ),.......n..even
J n (β ) = ⎨
⎩− J − n ( β ),.....n..odd
Therefore, we can write :

sc(t) = A{J0(β)cos 2πfct -

J1(β)[cos 2π(fc – fm)t - cos 2π(fc + fm)t ] +
J2(β)[cos 2π(fc - 2fm)t + cos 2π(fc + 2fm)t ] -
J3(β)[cos 2π(fc - 3fm)t - cos 2π(fc + 3fm)t ] + ...}….(4-3)
Figure 4.6 shows the amplitude spectra of FM signals with a sinusoidal
modulating signal and fixed fm.

Figure 4.6 Amplitude spectra of FM signals with sinusoidal

modulating signal and fixed fm.

84
Observations:

1. The spectrum consists of a carrier component at fc plus sideband components

at fc ± nfm (n = 1, 2, ...).
2. The number of sideband terms depends on the modulation index β .
3. The magnitude of the carrier signal decreases rapidly as β increases.
4. The amplitudes of the spectral lines depend on the value of Jn(β) .
5. The bandwidth of the modulated signal with a sinusoidal modulating signal
increases as β increases, and the bandwidth of the modulated signal is larger
than 2Δf.

Figure 4.7 shows the amplitude spectra of FM signals with a sinusoidal

modulating signal and a fixed peak frequency deviation Δf . Clearly, we get
more and more spectral lines crowding into a fixed frequency interval as fm
decreases.

Figure 4.7 Amplitude spectra of FM signals with sinusoidal

modulating signal and fixed peak frequency deviation Δf.

85
Bandwidth of Angle-Modulation Signals :
From equation (4-3), we observe that the spectrum consists of a carrier
component at fc plus an infinite number of sideband components at
fc ± nfm (n = 1, 2, ...).
In fact, 98% of the normalized total signal power is contained in the
bandwidth :

BT = 2(β + 1) B
where β is either the phase modulation index or the frequency modulation
index and B is the bandwidth of the modulating signal. The bandwidth of the
angle-modulated signal with sinusoidal modulating signal depends on β and B.
This is called Carson’s rule. It gives a rule-of-thumb expression and an
easy way to evaluate the transmission bandwidth of angle-modulated signals.
When β << 1, the signal is a narrowband angle-modulated signal and its
bandwidth is approximately equal to 2B.

Generation of Wideband FM :
1-Indirect Method :

In this method, a narrowband frequency-modulated signal is first generated

using an integrator and a phase modulator. A frequency multiplier is then used
to increase the peak frequency deviation from Δf to nΔf. Use of frequency
multiplication normally increases the carrier frequency from fc to n fc. A mixer
or double-sideband modulator is required to shift the spectrum down to the
desired range for further frequency multiplication or transmission. This is
shown in Figure 4.8 .

Figure 4.8 Indirect method of generating WFM.

86
2-Direct Method :

Here the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the modulating
signal. A common method used for generating direct FM is to vary the
inductance L or capacitance C of a voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO). This is shown in Figure 4.9 .

Figure 4.9 Direct method of generating WFM.

The oscillator uses a high-Q resonant circuit. Variations in the inductance or

capacitance of the oscillator will change its oscillating frequency. Assuming
that the capacitance of the tuned circuit varies linearly with the modulating
signal m(t), we have :

C = k m(t) + C0
C = ΔC + C0
Where ,
ΔC = k m(t)
k is a constant and C0 is the capacitance of the VCO when the input signal to
the oscillator is zero. The instantaneous frequency is given by :
1
fi =
2π LC
1
fi =
ΔC
2π LC0 1 +
C0

87
 1
−
⎡ ΔC ⎤ 2
f i = f c ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ 2C 0⎦

where the zero-input-signal resonance frequency is :

1
fc =
2π LC0

For ΔC << C0, we can write :

⎡ ΔC ⎤
f i ≈ f c ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ 2C 0⎦

⎡ km(t ) ⎤
f i ≈ f c ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ 2C 0 ⎦

f i ≈ f c − Δf

where ,
km(t ) ΔC
Δf = fc = fc
2C0 2C0

Although the change in capacitance may be small, the frequency deviation Δf

may be quite large if the resonance frequency fc is large. We can alternatively
vary the inductance to achieve the same effect.

Advantage - Large frequency deviations are possible and thus less frequency
multiplication is needed.

Disadvantage - The carrier frequency tends to drift and additional circuitry is

required for frequency stabilization.
To stabilize the carrier frequency, a phase-locked loop can be used. This is
shown in Figure 4.10 .

88
Figure 4.10 Direct method of generating WFM
with frequency stabilization.

89
 Dr. A.Y. Fattah, Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department ,U.O.T. ,Baghdad
Angle Demodulation

Review of Angle Modulation :

Angle modulation encompasses phase modulation (PM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
We have seen that an angle-modulated signal can be represented by :
sc(t) = A cos θ(t)
sc(t) = A cos [2πfct+ φ(t)]
where A is a constant,
θ (t) = 2πfct + φ (t),
and fc is the carrier frequency. φ(t) is a function of the modulating signal m(t)
and is given by :
⎧k p m(t )...................... for..PM
⎪
φ (t ) = ⎨ t
⎪k f ∫ m(λ )dλ............. for..FM
⎩ −∞
and
⎧ dm(t )
dφ (t ) ⎪k p .................. for..PM
=⎨ dt
dt ⎪k f m(t )..................... for..FM
⎩
The instantaneous angular frequency of sc(t) is defined as :
dθ (t )
ωi (t ) =
dt
In terms of frequency, the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) is :
1 dθ (t )
f i (t ) =
2π dt
1 dφ (t )
f i (t ) = f c +
2π dt
⎧ 1 dm(t )
f +
⎪⎪ c 2π p dt ......... for..PM
k
f i (t ) = ⎨
⎪ f + 1 k m(t )........... for..FM
⎪⎩ c 2π f
1 dφ (t )
is known as the instantaneous frequency deviation.
2π dt
90
Angle Demodulation :

Demodulation of an angle-modulated signal requires a circuit that produces an

output proportional to the instantaneous frequency fi(t) or the instantaneous
1 dφ (t )
frequency deviation
2π dt of the input signal to the demodulator.

Frequency Discrimination :

Frequency discrimination is a frequency-to-amplitude conversion process.

Consider an angle-modulated signal :

sc(t) = A cos θ(t) .................................(4-4)

where ,
θ(t) = 2πfct + φ(t) ..............................................(4−5)

⎧k p m(t )...................... for..PM

⎪
φ (t ) = ⎨ t
⎪k f ∫ m(λ )dλ............. for..FM
………………..(4-6)
⎩ −∞

and

⎧ dm(t )
dφ (t ) ⎪k p .................. for..PM
=⎨ dt …………….……(4-7)
dt ⎪k f m(t )..................... for..FM
⎩
If we differentiate equation (4-4), we get :
dθ (t )
s ' (t ) = − A sin θ (t )
dt
⎡ dφ (t ) ⎤
= − A sin θ (t ) ⎢2πf c +
⎣ dt ⎥⎦
⎡ dφ (t ) ⎤
= − A⎢2πf c + ⎥ sin[2πf ct + φ (t )]
⎣ dt ⎦
91
The signal is both amplitude- and angle-modulated. If we pass the signal to an
envelope detector, we get :

⎡ dφ (t ) ⎤
y (t ) = A⎢2πf c +
⎣ dt ⎥⎦

⎧ ⎡ dm(t ) ⎤
A
⎪ ⎢ c
2π f + k p ⎥...... for..PM
y (t ) = ⎨ ⎣ dt ⎦
⎩ [ c f ]
⎪ A 2πf + k m(t ) ........... for..FM

Knowing the values of A, fc, kp and kf, we can compute the desired signal m(t)
from y(t). Figure 4.11 shows the circuit for frequency demodulation. The
differentiator followed by an envelope detector is called a frequency
discriminator. For demodulation of PM signals, we simply integrate the output
of a frequency discriminator. This yields a signal which is proportional to m(t).
Figure 4.12 shows the circuit for phase demodulation.

Figure 4.11 Frequency demodulation using a frequency discriminator.

Figure 4.12 Phase demodulation using a frequency

discriminator and an integrator.
92
In practice, channel noise and other factors may cause A to vary. If A varies,
y(t) will vary with A. Hence, it is essential to maintain the amplitude of the
input signal to the frequency discriminator. A hard limiter is usually used to
eliminate any amplitude variations. A hard limiter is a device which limits the
output signal to (say) +1 or -1 volt.
Figure 4.13 shows the input-output characteristic of a hard limiter.

Figure 4.13 Input-output characteristic of a hard-limiter.

Zero-Crossing Detection :
We have seen that a hard limiter is usually used to eliminate any amplitude
fluctuation. The message signal must therefore be contained in the points
where the angle-modulated signal crosses the zero voltage level. This produces
a means of demodulating an angle-modulated signal. Consider the angle-
modulated signal as shown in Figure 4.14 .

Figure 4.14 Zero-crossing determination.

93
Let t1 and t2 be two adjacent zero-crossing points, where t2 > t1. Integrating
θ(t), we have :
t2 t2

∫ dθ (t ) = ∫ 2πf (t )dt
t1 t1
i

⎧t2 ⎡ dm(t ) ⎤
⎪∫ ⎢ c 2πf + k p ⎥ dt........ for..PM
⎪ t1 ⎣ dt ⎦
θ (t 2 ) − θ (t1 ) = ⎨t
⎪
[ ]
2

⎪∫ 2πf c + k f m(t ) dt............. for..FM

⎩ t1
but also ,
θ(t2) - θ(t1) = π

For fc >> B (the bandwidth of the message signal), dm(t)/dt for PM signals
and m(t) for FM signals change much more slowly than fc . dm(t)/dt and m(t)
may be assumed constant in the interval t2 – t1.
We can write :
⎧⎡ dm(t ) ⎤
⎪⎢ c
2πf + k p ⎥ (t2 − t1 )........ for..PM
π = ⎨⎣ dt ⎦
[ c f 2 1 ]
⎪ 2πf + k m(t ) (t − t )............. for..FM
⎩

π = 2πfi (t)[t2 – t1]

1
f i (t ) =
2(t2 − t1 )

94
where ,
⎧ 1 dm(t )
f + k
⎪⎪ c 2π p dt ............ for..PM
f i (t ) = ⎨
⎪ f + 1 k m(t ).............. for..FM
⎪⎩ c 2π f
Knowing the values of fc, kp and kf, the desired signal m(t) may be found by
measuring the spacing between zero crossings in the interval t2 – t1. A detector
utilizing this technique is called a zero-crossing detector. For demodulation of
PM signals, we simply integrate the output of a zero-crossing detector. Again,
this yields a signal which is proportional to m(t).
In practice, we consider counting n number of zero-crossings in a time interval
T, where :
1 1
<< T <<
fc B

and B is the bandwidth of the message signal. This is shown in Figure 4.15.
Then, the number of zero crossings in a time interval T is :

T
n=
2(t2 − t1 )
n
= f i (t )
T

Figure 4.15 Counting intervals.

95
Armstrong-type indirect FM transmitter:

The transmitter shown above operates at an unmodulated carrier frequency of 91.2MHz

with a maximum-frequency deviation of 75 kHz .
The transmitter is crystal-controlled , starting at the controlled carrier frequency of
200kHz .
There is a total frequency multiplication of 64 x 48 = 3072, so that the maximum
modulation index at the multiplier input can be fixed at 0.5 radian.
An injected frequency of 10.9 MHz is used to shift the carrier frequency down from 12.8
to 1.9 MHz between multiplier sections.

96