MODULE 3; Pre-colonial states in west Africa.

 Sudanic states.
 Origins and significance.
 Islam, the trans-Atlantic trade and states in west Africa.
 Decline of the Sudanic states and aftermath.

THE SUDANIC STATE:

The term "Sudanic states" refers to a group of powerful kingdoms and empires that existed in the
Sahel region of West Africa, particularly during the medieval period. These states were known
for their strategic location along the southern edge of the Sahara Desert and their influence over
trade routes, cultural exchanges, and political developments in the region. 1 Geographical Context
of the Sudanic states were located in the Sahel region, a transitional zone between the Sahara
Desert to the north and the savannas of West Africa to the south. This location facilitated trade
between North Africa, the Mediterranean, and sub-Saharan Africa. Most powerful kingdom
emerged in Sudanic state were kingdom of Ghana, Mali empire and Songhai empire.2

The term “Sudanic states” was used to refer to ancient West African states primarily because of
the region they were located in and the influence of Arabic travelers, geographers, and historians.
The area known as the western Sudan encompasses the broad expanse of savanna that stretches
between the vast Sahara Desert to the north and the tropical rainforests of the Guinea coast to the
south. Its name comes from bilad-al-sudan, or “Land of Blacks,” the term used by the Arabic
travelers, geographers, and historians who first wrote of the region’s history. In spite of
tantalizing archaeological remains, our understanding of the great medieval kingdoms of the
western Sudan remains dependent upon and limited by these early written sources.3

GHANA EMPIRE:

The Ghana Empire, also known as Wagadou, was a powerful West African state that flourished
from around the 4th to the 13th century CE. Located in the Sahel region, encompassing parts of
present-day Mauritania and Mali, Ghana played a pivotal role in the trans-Saharan trade and

1
Levtzion, Nehemia. 1980. The Saharan and Sudanic Africa in Islamic Times. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers
2
Ibid
3
Hunwick, John O. 1999. Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Ta'rikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other
contemporary documents. Leiden: Brill.
1
became renowned for its wealth, military strength, and sophisticated political organization.
Administration form of Ghana was supported by a council of advisors and officials who helped
king to govern the empire. The empire was divided into provinces, each ruled by a governor who
collected taxes and maintained order. The Ghana also commanded a powerful army, which
played a crucial role in protecting trade routes, expanding the empire's territory, and suppressing
rebellions.4

Origin of Ghana Empire

The exact origins of the Ghana Empire remain somewhat obscure, shrouded in a mix of oral
traditions and archaeological discoveries. However, it is generally accepted that the Soninke
people, a Mande-speaking group, established the kingdom around the 4th century CE. They
were skilled farmers and traders who eventually formed a powerful state in the Sahel region of
West Africa.5

It was passing into three periods which were;

First was the Early Period (4th - 8th centuries CE): This period witnessed the consolidation of
the Soninke people and the formation of the Ghana kingdom. By that time Ghana Empire was
ruled by Kaya Maja who was considered as the founder of the Ghana Empire according to
Soninke oral traditions.6

The second was the Middle Period (8th - 11th centuries CE): This was the golden age of the
Ghana Empire, marked by territorial expansion, economic prosperity due to trans-Saharan trade,
and the adoption of Islam by the ruling elite. During this period Ghana empire was under leader
Tunka Maninwho was A powerful ruler during the empire's golden age, known for his wealth
and military conquests.7

Last was the Late Period (11th - 13th centuries CE): During that period Ghana empire were
under leader who called Bassi. The last ruler of the Ghana Empire, who faced numerous

4
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
5
Masonen, Pekka. "The Ghana Empire: A Bibliographical Essay." The International Journal of African Historical
Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, 1988, pp. 507-536.
6
. Insoll, Timothy. "The Archaeology of the Ghana Empire." African Archaeological Review, vol. 17, no. 2, 2000,
pp. 117-138.
7
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
2
challenges and ultimately witnessed the empire's collapse. This period saw the gradual decline of
the empire due to internal conflicts, external pressures from neighboring states, and the
disruption of trade routes.8

The ruler of the Ghana Empire held the title of "Ghana," which also referred to the capital city
and the empire itself. The Ghana was considered a divine king with absolute power, overseeing
political, economic, and religious matters. The line of succession was matrilineal, meaning the
king's nephew, the son of his sister, inherited the throne. This ensured the continuation of the
royal bloodline and prevented power struggles within the king's immediate family.9

Although the names and specific details of individual rulers may vary depending on the source,
the overall structure and power of the Ghana leadership system remain consistent throughout
historical accounts.

Factors for the Rise of Ghana Empire:

The Ghana Empire, flourishing between the 4th and 13th centuries CE, wasn't built in a day. Its
rise to prominence in West Africa can be attributed to several key factors which include the
following;

Strategic geographic location: Ghana empire occupied a prime location at the crossroads of the
trans-Saharan trade routes, connecting North Africa with the gold and salt-rich regions of West
Africa. This allowed them to control and tax the flow of valuable goods, like gold, ivory, slaves,
salt, textiles, and copper, generating immense wealth and power. Example, the city of Koumbi
Saleh, the empire's capital, was a bustling commercial center where merchants from distant lands
converged to trade. The king levied taxes on all goods entering and leaving the city,
accumulating significant wealth for the empire.10

Strong and efficient leadership: The Ghana Empire boasted a well-organized and centralized
government with a powerful king at its helm. This ensured political stability, effective
administration, and the ability to mobilize resources for defense and expansion. Example, the
8
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
9
Connah, Graham. "The Ghana Empire: A West African Perspective." Journal of African History, vol. 19, no. 3,
1978, pp. 331-345.
10
Wilks, Ivor. "The Ghana Empire and the Trans-Saharan Gold Trade." Birmingham University African Studies
Series, vol. 2, 1977.
3
king maintained a large army equipped with iron weapons, allowing him to defend trade routes,
conquer neighboring territories, and maintain order within the empire.11

Military prowess: Ghana Empire's army was well-equipped with iron and advanced weapons and
armor, giving them a significant advantage over their neighbors who relied on less sophisticated
weaponry. Also, the Ghanaian army utilized clever military tactics, including the use of cavalry
and archers, to secure victories and expand their territory. Example, the conquest of the gold-
producing regions of Bambuk and Bure gave Ghana control over a vital resource, further
boosting its wealth and power.12

Abundant resources: Existence of various resources like Gold and Salt made Ghana control the
trade of gold from the south and salt from the Sahara Desert, two highly sought-after
commodities. This trade monopoly brought immense wealth and allowed them to purchase goods
and services from other regions. Also, availability of iron ore within the empire enabled the
production of superior weapons and tools, giving them a technological advantage. Example: The
abundance of gold allowed the kings of Ghana to maintain a luxurious lifestyle, build impressive
palaces and mosques, and patronize the arts and sciences.13

Religious tolerance and cultural exchange: The Ghana Empire practiced religious tolerance,
allowing Muslims and followers of traditional African religions to coexist peacefully. This
fostered trade and cultural exchange, contributing to the empire's prosperity. Example: The city
of Koumbi Saleh had separate quarters for Muslim merchants and scholars, demonstrating the
empire's respect for different faiths.14

Significance of the Ghana Empire:

The Ghana Empire, although fading from memory centuries ago, holds immense significance in
African and world history. Its influence resonated throughout West Africa, laying the

11
Conrad, David C. "The Ghana Empire: The Mande Impact on West African History." African Studies Review,
vol. 24, no. 2, 1981, pp. 1-10.
12
Wilks, Ivor. "Ghana's Ancient Empire." Oxford University Press, 1963.
13
Insoll, Timothy. "The Archaeology of the Ghana Empire." African Archaeological Review, vol. 17, no. 2, 2000,
pp. 117-138.
14
Wilks, Ivor. "The Ghana Empire and the Trans-Saharan Gold Trade." Birmingham University African Studies
Series, vol. 2, 1977.
4
groundwork for future empires and leaving lasting impacts on trade, culture, and political
systems.

Economic powerhouse: Ghana was the most empire that had an economic succession and power
due to the existence of some factors like Trans-Saharan trade in which Ghana's strategic location
allowed it to dominate the lucrative trans-Saharan trade. It became a crucial hub for exchanging
gold, salt, ivory, slaves, and other goods between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. This
control over trade routes brought immense wealth and prosperity to the empire, fueling its
growth and influence. Also, Gold monopoly where by Ghana Empire held a near-monopoly on
gold nuggets, further strengthening its economic power and ensuring its control over the region's
trade.15

Political and social influence: During the existence of Ghana empire there were various good
political system which led to Model for future empires: The Ghana Empire established a
sophisticated system of governance that served as a model for later West African empires, like
Mali and Songhai. Its centralized administration, provincial system, and strong military laid the
foundation for future state-building in the region. Also, in Cultural Diffusion where by, as a
center of trade, Ghana fostered cultural exchange between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa.
Islamic influences permeated the empire, coexisting with existing traditional beliefs and
practices, contributing to the region's rich cultural diversity. By that time Ghana empire also
contributed to the Urbanization that were contributed by the wealth generated through trade and
hence led to the development of urban centers within the empire, example, Koumbi Saleh (the
capital city). These cities became hubs of commerce, culture, and political administration. 16

Legacy and historical importance: These were through Oral Traditions where by the stories and
legends of the Ghana Empire have been passed down through generations via oral traditions,
keeping its memory alive and shaping the cultural identity of many West African communities.
Also, through Archaeological Discoveries in which Archaeological excavations continue to
unveil the secrets of the Ghana Empire, providing valuable insights into its history, culture, and
daily life. In case of Inspiration for Pan-Africanism, Ghana Empire serves as a powerful symbol

15
Conrad, David C. "The Ghana Empire: The Mande Impact on West African History." African Studies Review,
vol. 24, no. 2, 1981, pp. 1-10.
16
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005.
5
of African achievement and self-governance, inspiring Pan-Africanist movements and
contributing to a sense of shared history and identity among Africans.17

Factors for Decline of the Ghana Empire:

Decline, fall and collapse of Ghana empire in 13 th century contributed by several factors as
highlighted bellow:

Ecological degradation and climate change: This led to the Desertification where by the gradual
southward expansion of the Sahara Desert put pressure on agricultural land, leading to declining
food production and resource scarcity. Also, this factor contributed to the occurrence of
droughts, and Periods of severe drought further exacerbated food shortages and weakened the
empire's economic base. Example, the region around Koumbi Saleh, the capital, experienced
increasing aridity, making it difficult to sustain the large population and leading to its eventual
abandonment.18

Overgrazing and deforestation. It was one of the factors led to the fall of Ghana empire where by
through that some factors like Livestock pressure that was caused by empire's growing
population and reliance on livestock led to overgrazing, which further degraded the land and
reduced its productivity. Also, Deforestation in which the need for fuel and building materials
resulted in deforestation, contributing to soil erosion and ecological imbalance. Example, the
depletion of forests around the Niger River impacted agriculture and reduced the availability of
resources crucial for the empire's prosperity.19

Internal rebellions and political instability: Under this there were minor factors like Succession
disputes where by conflicts over succession weakened the central authority and led to political
instability within the empire. Also, Provincial Uprisings where by dissatisfied provinces and

17
Conrad, David C. "The Ghana Empire: The Mande Impact on West African History." African Studies Review,
vol. 24, no. 2, 1981, pp. 1-10.

18
Conrad, David C. "The Ghana Empire: The Mande Impact on West African History." African Studies Review,
vol. 24, no. 2, 1981, pp. 1-10.
19
McIntosh, Roderick J., and McIntosh, Susan Keech. "The Ghana Empire: An Archaeological Perspective."
African Archaeological Review, vol. 9, no. 1, 1991, pp. 119-144.
6
tributary states revolted against high taxes and centralized control, further fragmenting the
empire. Example, the rebellion of the Sosso people, led by Soumaoro Kanté, weakened the

Empire and ultimately contributed to its fall.

External pressures and invasions: Existence of various invasion like Almoravid Invasions in
which the Almoravids, (a Berber Muslim dynasty from North Africa), launched several invasions
into Ghana in the 11th century, weakening the empire and disrupting trade routes. Also, rise of
Rival States where by the emergence of new and ambitious kingdoms, such as the Sosso and
later the Mali Empire, challenged Ghana's dominance and competed for control over trade and
resources. Example, the Almoravids captured Koumbi Saleh in 1076, marking a significant blow
to the Ghana Empire and contributing to its decline.20

Disruption of trade routes: During the period of fall of Ghana empire there were various things
and challenges emerged in trade route which was being as a economic base of survival of Ghana
empire. Due to these challenges like, Shifting Trade Patterns which caused by the rise of new
trade routes, particularly those bypassing Ghana, reduced the empire's control over trans-Saharan
trade and weakened its economic base. Also, Competition from other states where by
neighboring states like the Sosso and Mali increasingly competed for control of trade routes,
further diminishing Ghana's economic power. Example, the development of trade routes further
east, through the Sahara, bypassed Ghana and reduced its importance as a commercial center. 21

Cultural and religious changes: Factors like spread of Islam made difficult for the Ghana empire
to survive where by, while Islam initially brought benefits to the empire, its spread also led to
cultural and religious tensions, particularly between the Muslim elite and those adhering to
traditional beliefs. Also, Religious Conflicts where by these tensions occasionally erupted into
conflicts, further destabilizing the empire and contributing to its decline. Example the Almoravid
conquests were partly motivated by religious zeal, leading to clashes with the local population
and contributing to the empire's fragmentation.22

20
Wilks, Ivor. "Ghana's Ancient Empire." Oxford University Press, 1963.
21
Wilks, Ivor. "The Ghana Empire and the Trans-Saharan Gold Trade." Birmingham University African Studies
Series, vol. 2, 1977.
22
Conrad, David C. "The Ghana Empire: The Mande Impact on West African History." African Studies Review,
vol. 24, no. 2, 1981, pp. 1-10.
7
 THE MALI EMPIRE

The Mali Empire, one of the most powerful and influential empires in West African history, rose
from the ashes of the Ghana Empire and left an indelible mark on the region's cultural, economic,
and political landscape. The Mali Empire was located in West Africa, encompassing present-day
Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Niger, Mauritania, and parts of Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast.
The empire's location on the upper Niger River gave it control over key trade routes and access
to valuable resources like gold and salt. This strategic position fueled its economic prosperity
and political influence. The empire had a centralized administrative system with the Mansa at the
apex.23 Provincial governors, appointed by the Mansa, managed different regions of the empire
and collected taxes. A strong and well-organized army was crucial for maintaining the empire's
vast territory and protecting trade routes. The military included cavalry, infantry, and archers,
and was known for its discipline and effectiveness.24

Origins of Mali empire:

The origin of Mali empire rooted from the Mandinka people, who inhabited the upper Niger
River valley. They were initially a small kingdom within the Ghana Empire, but they gradually
gained power and autonomy. Under the leadership of Sundiata Keita (1217-1255) who were the
legendary founder of the Mali Empire, Sundiata Keita, united the Mandinka people and led a
rebellion against the Sosso king, Soumaoro Kanté, in the Battle of Kirina (1235). This victory
marked the beginning of the Mali Empire's dominance in West Africa. The ruler of the Mali
Empire held the title of "Mansa," meaning "king" or "emperor." The Mansa was considered a
divine figure with absolute power and authority.25

The survival of Mali empire passed through three period where by, the first were Early Period. It
was between 1235-1300 where by this period marked the rise of the empire under Sundiata Keita
and his successors. The empire expanded its territory, established control over trade routes, and
developed its administrative and military systems.26
23
Levtzion, Nehemia, and Hopkins, John F.P., editors. "Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History."
Cambridge University Press, 1981.
24
Insoll, Timothy. "The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa." Cambridge University Press, 2003.
25
Hunwick, John O., and Boye, Alida Jay. "The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu: Historic City of Islamic Africa."
Thames & Hudson, 2008.
26
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa."
Princeton University Press, 2018.
8
The second period was the Golden Age. Was time between 1300-1389 where by this period,
encompassing the reigns of Mansa Musa and Mansa Suleyman, saw the empire reach its zenith
in terms of wealth, power, and cultural influence. The empire flourished through trade,
scholarship, and architectural achievements.27

Third period were the period of Decline. Was the period between 1389-1610 in which internal
rebellions, succession disputes, external invasions, and the rise of rival states gradually
weakened the empire. The Mali Empire eventually fragmented into smaller kingdoms, marking
the end of its dominance in West Africa. Leader during this period was called Mansa
Suleyman.28

Factors for the Rise of the Mali Empire:

Strong and visionary leadership: Presence of leaders like Sundiata Keita who was a founder of
the empire, was a charismatic and skilled leader who united the Mandinka people and led them
to victory against the Sosso king, Soumaoro Kanté, in the Battle of Kirina (c. 1235). His military
prowess and political acumen laid the foundation for the empire's expansion and prosperity.
Effectiveness of administration of subsequent rulers, like Mansa Musa and Mansa Suleyman,
continued to expand the empire and establish a centralized administrative system with efficient
tax collection and provincial governance, ensuring stability and control over vast territories. 29

Control over trans-Saharan trade routes: The Mali Empire's location on the upper Niger River
granted them control over crucial trade routes connecting North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa.
This allowed them to dominate the lucrative trade in gold, salt, ivory, slaves, and other valuable
commodities. Also, the empire established and controlled key trading cities like Timbuktu, Gao,
and Djenné, which became bustling centers of commerce and cultural exchange. Example, the
city of Timbuktu flourished as a center of trade and Islamic scholarship, attracting merchants and
scholars from across the Islamic world.30

27
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
28
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
29
Levtzion, Nehemia, and Hopkins, John F.P., editors. "Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History."
Cambridge University Press, 1981.
30
Conrad, David C. "The Mali Empire: The Sahelian States of West Africa." African Studies Review, vol. 26, no. 2,
1983, pp. 29-39.
9
Abundant resources: The Mali Empire controlled some of the most productive gold mines in
West Africa, providing immense wealth and ensuring their dominance in trade. Furthermore,
Access to salt deposits in the Sahara Desert was crucial for trade and consumption, further
strengthening the empire's economic power. Also, the fertile lands along the Niger River
supported a thriving agricultural sector, providing food security and contributing to the empire's
prosperity.31

Military power and expansion: The Mali Empire maintained a powerful and well-organized
army, consisting of cavalry, infantry, and archers. This military strength allowed them to expand
their territory through conquests and defend their trade routes from rivals. Also, Skilled military
leaders like Sundiata Keita and his successors led successful campaigns against neighboring
kingdoms, consolidating the empire's power and influence. Example, the conquest of the Ghana
Empire and the Songhai kingdom further expanded the Mali Empire's territory and solidified its
dominance in the region.32

Cultural and religious tolerance: While Islam became the dominant religion of the ruling elite,
the Mali Empire practiced religious tolerance, allowing traditional African religions to coexist
and flourish. This fostered cultural diversity and facilitated peaceful relations within the empire.
The empire also promoted Islamic scholarship and education, leading to the establishment of
renowned centers of learning like Timbuktu, which attracted scholars from across the Islamic
world.33

Diplomatic skill and alliances: The Mali Empire forged strategic alliances with neighboring
states and powerful trading partners, securing its borders and promoting trade. The empire's
rulers engaged in diplomatic efforts to maintain peaceful relations with other states and secure
favorable trade agreements. Example, Mansa Musa's famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-25 not
only demonstrated the empire's wealth and piety but also fostered diplomatic ties with the
Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt.34

31
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
32
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
33
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
34

10
Significance of the Mali Empire: The Mali Empire holds immense historical significance, not
only for West Africa but also for the wider world. Its influence transcended geographical
boundaries, leaving lasting impacts on trade, culture, religion, and political systems. Economic
powerhouse: Like its predecessor, Ghana, the Mali Empire controlled and benefited immensely
from the trans-Saharan trade routes. It became a crucial hub for the exchange of gold, salt, ivory,
slaves, and other goods between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, generating vast wealth
and prosperity. Also, the empire's control over major gold-producing regions like Bambuk and
Boure solidified its economic power and influence throughout the region. This gold wealth
fueled its expansion and supported its lavish court and ambitious building projects.35

Political and social influence: The Mali Empire established a well-organized and centralized
administrative system, with the Mansa as the supreme ruler and provincial governors overseeing
different regions. This system served as a model for later empires in West Africa. Socially, there
were Urbanization and Cities In which the wealth generated through trade led to the development
of major urban centers like Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenné. These cities became hubs of commerce,
Islamic scholarship, and cultural exchange, attracting merchants and intellectuals from across the
Islamic world. Furthermore, the empire, while predominantly Muslim, exhibited religious
tolerance, allowing the coexistence of Islam and traditional African religions. This fostered a
diverse and vibrant cultural environment.36

Cultural and intellectual legacy: Timbuktu, under Mali rule, became a renowned center of
Islamic learning, attracting scholars and students from across Africa and the Middle East. The
libraries and universities of Timbuktu housed vast collections of manuscripts on various subjects,
contributing significantly to the intellectual and scholarly world of the time. Also, the Mali
Empire left behind impressive architectural achievements, including the Great Mosque of
Djenné, one of the largest mud-brick structures in the world, and the Djinguereber Mosque in
Timbuktu. These architectural marvels reflect the empire's wealth, artistic skills, and cultural

35
. Conrad, David C. "The Mali Empire: The Sahelian States of West Africa." African Studies Review, vol. 26, no.
2, 1983, pp. 29-39
36
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
11
influences. The epic of Sundiata, recounting the story of the empire's founder, and other oral
traditions kept the history and cultural heritage of the Mali Empire alive through generations. 37

Global impact: Mansa Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-25 showcased the empire's immense
wealth and introduced the Mali Empire to a wider international audience. This pilgrimage had a
significant impact on the economies of the regions he passed through and increased awareness of
West Africa in the Mediterranean world. The Mali Empire established diplomatic relations and
trade agreements with various states in North Africa, the Middle East, and Europe, contributing
to global trade networks and cultural exchange.38

Legacy and historical significance: where by the Mali Empire serves as a powerful symbol of
African power, wealth, and cultural achievement. It challenged European perceptions of Africa
and inspired future generations with its legacy of strong leadership, economic prosperity, and
cultural vibrancy. Also, Mali empire had the Influence on West African Identity in which the
empire's cultural and political legacy continues to influence West African societies today. Its oral
traditions, architectural styles, and historical narratives contribute to a sense of shared history
and identity among many West African communities. In case of Historical and Archaeological
Studies, the Mali Empire continues to be a subject of fascination for historians and
archaeologists, who strive to uncover its secrets and understand its complex history and lasting
impact.39

The fall of the Mali Empire:

The Mali Empire, once a beacon of wealth and power in West Africa, eventually succumbed to a
combination of internal and external pressures. Here are some key factors that contributed to its
downfall:

Internal weaknesses: Following the death of strong rulers like Mansa Musa and Mansa
Suleyman, succession disputes became increasingly frequent and violent, weakening the central
authority and destabilizing the empire. Later rulers lacked the political acumen and military
prowess of their predecessors, leading to ineffective governance and a decline in the empire's
37
Conrad, David C. "The Mali Empire: The Sahelian States of West Africa." African Studies Review, vol. 26, no. 2,
1983, pp. 29-39.
38
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
39
Levtzion, Nehemia. "Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
12
prestige and power. Dissatisfied provinces and tributary states, burdened by high taxes and
feeling neglected by the central government, launched rebellions, further weakening the empire
and fragmenting its territory.40

External pressures: The emergence of new and ambitious kingdoms, such as the Songhai Empire
and the Mossi States, challenged Mali's dominance and competed for control over trade routes
and resources. Also, the Mossi Kingdoms, located to the south of Mali, launched frequent raids
into Mali territory, disrupting trade and weakening the lempire's southern borders. More over
The Tuareg, nomadic Berber people from the Sahara, exerted pressure on Mali's northern
borders, disrupting trade routes and challenging the empire's control over the region.41

Economic decline: The development of new trade routes, particularly those bypassing Mali,
reduced the empire's control over trans-Saharan trade and diminished its economic power. Also,
Overexploitation of resources, particularly gold, contributed to a decline in the empire's wealth
and its ability to maintain a strong military and administrative system. More, the arrival of
European traders on the West African coast in the 15th century provided alternative trade routes
and competition for the Mali Empire, further weakening its economic dominance. 42

Loss of cultural and intellectual influence: It was caused by Decline of Timbuktu where by, the
once-flourishing intellectual center of Timbuktu declined in importance as trade routes shifted
and rival states gained prominence. The city was sacked by the Tuareg in 1433 and later
conquered by the Songhai Empire, marking the end of its golden age. As the empire weakened, it
lost its prestige and influence in the region, leading to a decline in its cultural and intellectual
output.43

THE SONGHAI EMPIRE

The Songhai Empire, another major power in West African history, emerged from the remnants
of the Mali Empire and ultimately surpassed its predecessor in size and influence. The Songhai
40
Hunwick, John O. "The Arab conquest of the Western Sudan: A tentative reassessment." Journal of African
History, vol. 35, no. 3, 1994, pp. 405-432.
41
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard
University Press. 2007.
42
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
43
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University
Press. 2007.
13
Empire was located in West Africa, encompassing a vast territory that included parts of present-
day Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, and Gambia. The empire's
core territory lay along the Niger River, which served as a vital transportation route and source
of water for agriculture and trade. Important cities within the empire included Gao (the capital),
Timbuktu, Djenné, and Agadez. These cities flourished as centers of trade, scholarship, and
cultural exchange. The empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a governor
appointed by the Sunni or Askia ruler. This system allowed for effective control over the vast
territory and efficient tax collection. The Songhai Empire maintained a powerful army,
consisting of cavalry, infantry, and a navy equipped with war canoes, which enabled them to
expand their territory and control trade routes.44

Origins of Songhai Empire:

Songhai Empire originated from the Songhai people who were empire who living along the
Niger River in what is now present-day Niger. They initially formed a small kingdom centered
around the city of Gao, paying tribute to the Mali Empire. Songhai rulers gradually expanded
their territory and influence through trade and military conquests. Leaders like Sunni Ali Ber in
period between 1464- 1492 played a pivotal role in consolidating Songhai power and laying the
foundation for the empire's expansion.45

The Sunni dynasty, founded by Sunni Ali Ber, ruled the Songhai Empire during its peak. The
rulers held the title of "Sunni" and wielded considerable power, overseeing military campaigns,
administering justice, and managing the empire's vast territory. Following a period of internal
conflict after the death of Sunni Ali Ber, the Askia dynasty rose to power. Askia Mohammad I
in the period of 1493-1528 established a centralized administration, reformed the legal system,
and promoted Islamic scholarship and trade, leading the empire into a golden age.46

As Ghana Empire and Mali Empire passed through three period, also to the Songhai empire
passed through three period or phases as follows. First, rising period which were in 1464-1492.

44
Hunwick, John O. "Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other
contemporary documents." Brill, 2003.
45
Hunwick, John O. "Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other
contemporary documents." Brill, 2003.
46
Hunwick, John O., and Boye, Alida Jay. "The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu: Historic City of Islamic Africa."
Thames & Hudson, 2008.
14
Under the leadership of Sunni Ali Ber, the Songhai kingdom expanded its territory and influence,
breaking free from Mali dominance and laying the foundation for a powerful empire.47

The second period was Golden Age from 1493 to1591. The Askia dynasty, particularly under
Askia Mohammad I, led the empire to its peak. This period witnessed economic prosperity,
flourishing trade, the promotion of Islamic scholarship, and significant territorial expansion. 48

The last phase was the Decline period which was between 1591 to 159. Internal conflicts,
succession disputes, and external pressures weakened the empire. In 1591, the Moroccan Saadi
dynasty, seeking to control the trans-Saharan gold trade, invaded Songhai with a technologically
advanced army equipped with firearms. The Songhai Empire, despite its size and strength, could
not withstand the Moroccan forces and ultimately collapsed.49

Factors for the Rise of the Songhai Empire:

Strong and visionary leadership: Considered the founder of the Songhai Empire, Sunni Ali Ber
was a skilled military leader and strategist. He expanded the empire through numerous
conquests, including the capture of Timbuktu and Djenné from the declining Mali Empire. His
military campaigns laid the foundation for Songhai's dominance in the region. Following Sunni
Ali Ber, Askia Mohammad I further consolidated the empire and ushered in a golden age. He
established a centralized administration; implemented legal reforms based on Islamic law, and
fostered economic prosperity through trade and efficient tax collection. His leadership solidified
Songhai's position as a major power in West Africa.50

Military power and expansion: The Songhai army was well-organized and disciplined, consisting
of cavalry, infantry, and a formidable navy equipped with war canoes. This enabled them to
conquer vast territories and control key trade routes along the Niger River. The Songhai army
adopted new military technologies, such as armor and weaponry, which gave them an advantage
over their rivals. Example, Sunni Ali Ber's conquest of the important trading city of Timbuktu in

47
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
48

49
Ibid “Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd. 1973.
50
Hunwick, John O., and Boye, Alida Jay. "The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu: Historic City of Islamic Africa."
Thames & Hudson, 2008.
15
1468 demonstrated the Songhai Empire's growing military strength and its ambition to control
the lucrative trans-Saharan trade routes.51

Control over Trans-Saharan trade routes: The Songhai Empire's location along the Niger River
and its control over key trading cities like Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné allowed them to dominate
the trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, ivory, and other valuable commodities. Also, the empire
implemented policies that promoted trade and ensured the safety of merchants, attracting traders
from across North Africa and the Mediterranean. Example, the bustling markets of Timbuktu,
under Songhai rule, became a center of trade and cultural exchange, attracting merchants and
scholars from across the Islamic world.52

Efficient administration and governance: Askia Mohammad I established a centralized

administrative system with a hierarchical structure, including provincial governors, tax
collectors, and judges. This system ensured efficient governance and control over the vast
territory. Also, Askia Mohammad I implemented legal reforms based on Islamic law, promoting
justice and stability within the empire. The Songhai Empire promoted Islamic scholarship and
education, establishing centers of learning in Timbuktu and other cities. This fostered
intellectual growth and cultural exchange.53

Cultural and religious influences: Islam played a significant role in the Songhai Empire,
influencing its legal system, scholarship, and cultural practices. The rulers actively promoted
Islam and sponsored the construction of mosques and Islamic schools. While Islam was the
dominant religion, the Songhai Empire practiced religious tolerance, allowing traditional African
religions to coexist. This fostered cultural diversity and social stability.54

Economic prosperity and resource management: The fertile lands along the Niger River
supported a thriving agricultural sector, providing food security for the growing population and
contributing to the empire's economic prosperity. The Songhai Empire controlled gold-producing
regions, ensuring a steady source of wealth and facilitating trade with North Africa and the

51
Ibid “Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
52
Ibid “Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
Conrad, David C. "The Mali Empire: The Sahelian States
53
Levtzion, Nehemia. "Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
54
Conrad, David C. "The Mali Empire: The Sahelian States of West Africa." African Studies Review, vol. 26, no. 2,
1983, pp. 29-39.
16
Mediterranean world. The empire implemented an effective taxation system that generated
revenue for the state and supported its administrative and military functions.55

Significance of the Songhai Empire:

Political and military power: At its peak, the Songhai Empire was the largest empire in West
African history, encompassing a vast territory that stretched from the Atlantic coast to the
interior regions of the Sahel. Its size and military power allowed it to control vital trade routes
and exert influence over neighboring states. The empire's centralized administrative system,
established under Askia Mohammad I, provided a model for effective governance and ensured
stability within the vast territory. The system of provinces, governors, and tax collection
contributed to the empire's strength and prosperity. The Songhai army, with its cavalry, infantry,
and navy, was a formidable force that enabled the empire to expand its territory and maintain its
dominance. The empire's military achievements and its ability to defend its borders ensured
security and stability for trade and commerce.56

Economic prosperity and trade: The Songhai Empire controlled and benefited immensely from
the trans-Saharan trade routes, facilitating the exchange of gold, salt, ivory, slaves, and other
goods between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa. This trade generated vast wealth and
contributed to the empire's economic prsosperity. The wealth generated through trade led to the
development of major urban centers like Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné. These cities became hubs
of commerce, scholarship, and cultural exchange, attracting merchants and intellectuals from
across the Islamic world. Example, Timbuktu, under Songhai rule, flourished as a center of
Islamic learning and trade. Its libraries and universities housed vast collections of manuscripts,
attracting scholars and students from across Africa and the Middle East.57

Cultural and intellectual legacy: The Songhai Empire actively promoted Islamic scholarship and
education, establishing mosques, schools, and libraries throughout its territory. Timbuktu, in
particular, became a renowned center of Islamic learning, attracting scholars from across the
Islamic world. The Songhai Empire left behind impressive architectural achievements, including
mosques, palaces, and universities in cities like Gao and Timbuktu. These buildings reflected the
55
Ibid Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
56
Levtzion, Nehemia. "Ancient Ghana and Mali." Methuen & Co Ltd., 1973.
57
Insoll, Timothy. "The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa." Cambridge University Press, 2003.
17
empire's wealth, artistic skills, and cultural influences. The Songhai people have a rich tradition
of oral history and storytelling, preserving their history, culture, and values through
generations.58

Influence on west African identity: The Songhai Empire's political and administrative systems
served as a model for later states in West Africa. Its legacy of centralized governance and
cultural patronage continues to inspire and influence contemporary West African societies. The
Songhai Empire played a significant role in the spread of Islam in West Africa. Its rulers actively
promoted Islam and supported the construction of mosques and Islamic schools, contributing to
the region's religious landscape.59

Historical and archaeological studies: The Songhai Empire's history, preserved through oral
traditions, written records, and archaeological discoveries, provides valuable insights into the
political, economic, and cultural dynamics of West Africa during its reign. Archaeological
excavations in cities like Gao and Timbuktu continue to reveal new information about the
Songhai Empire's architecture, urban planning, and daily life.60

The Fall of the Songhai Empire:

The Songhai Empire, once a dominant force in West Africa, eventually succumbed to a
combination of internal and external pressures, below are some key factors that contributed to its
decline:

Internal conflicts and political instability: Following the death of Askia Daoud, a series of
succession disputes and power struggles weakened the empire's central authority. Rival factions
fought for control, leading to internal instability and division. Example, the reign of Askia Ishaq
II saw numerous rebellions and challenges to his authority, ultimately contributing to the
weakening of the empire's political structure.61

58
Davidson, D. A history of west Africa 1000-1800. London: Longman Group Limited. 1964
59
Thornton, J. K. (1998). Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
60
Davidson, D. A history of west Africa 1000-1800. London: Longman Group Limited. 1964
61
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
18
Economic challenges: The Songhai Empire heavily depended on the trans-Saharan trade for its
wealth. As trade routes shifted and European exploration opened up new maritime trade routes,
the empire's economic base eroded. Example, the Portuguese established trading posts along the
West African coast, bypassing the traditional trans-Saharan routes and diminishing the Songhai
Empire's control over trade.62

Military weakness: The Songhai army relied on traditional warfare methods and seems to be
outdated, while their rivals, particularly the Moroccan army, employed advanced weaponry like
firearms and cannons. This technological disparity put the Songhai at a significant disadvantage
and hence become invaded by Moroccan in 1591. Also, Internal conflicts and political instability
weakened the Songhai military, making it difficult to mount a unified defense against external
threats. Example, the Battle of Tondibi in 1591 saw the Songhai army, despite its larger size,
suffer a devastating defeat against the Moroccan forces equipped with firearms.63

External threats and invasion: The Saadi dynasty of Morocco, attracted by the Songhai Empire's
wealth and control of the gold trade, launched an invasion in 1591. The Moroccan forces,
equipped with superior weaponry and tactics, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhai army.
Example, the Moroccan victory at the Battle of Tondibi marked the beginning of the end for the
Songhai Empire, as they were unable to effectively resist the invaders.64

Environmental factors: The Songhai Empire, like many other Sahelian kingdoms, was vulnerable
to periods of drought and famine. These environmental challenges could disrupt agriculture,
leading to food shortages and economic hardship. Example, the late 16th century witnessed a
severe drought in the Sahel region, exacerbating the empire's existing economic and political
difficulties.65

62
Thornton, J. K. (1998). Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
63
Hunwick, John O. "The Arab conquest of the Western Sudan: A tentative reassessment." Journal of African
History, vol. 35, no. 3, 1994, pp. 405-432.
64
Hunwick, John O. "The Arab conquest of the Western Sudan: A tentative reassessment." Journal of African
History, vol. 35, no. 3, 1994, pp. 405-432.
65
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard
University Press. 2007.
19
West African states, apart from Mali, Songhai, and Ghana

Kanem-Bornu Empire (9th–19th Century), Present-day Chad, northeastern Nigeria, and southern
Libya. Originated around Lake Chad and became a powerful empire by the 9th century. Mai
Dunama Dabbalemi was one of the most notable rulers, expanding the empire and promoting
Islam. Islam was introduced in the 11th century and deeply influenced the administration and
culture. Kanem-Bornu thrived through trans-Saharan trade in salt, slaves, and horses Known for
its administrative structure and Islamic scholarship; lasted over 1,000 years in various forms.

Oyo Empire (14th – 19th Century) it is now found in Southwestern Nigeria and parts of Benin.
Ethnic Group: Yoruba. it was A powerful centralized monarchy with checks on the king's power
by the Military Known for its strong cavalry and expansionist policies66

Economy Prosperous through trade in kola nuts, cloth, and slaves with both northern and coastal
regions. Fall due to internal conflicts, civil wars, and the rise of British

Dahomey Kingdom (17th – 19th Century), Present-day Benin. Origins: Rose as a military
kingdom, conquering neighboring states like Allada and Whydah. Military: Notably included the
Dahomey Amazons an all-female elite military unit. Economy: Strongly reliant on the Atlantic
slave trade. European Contact: Had complex relations with Portuguese, French, and British
traders. Colonial Impact: Became a French colony by the end of the 19th century67

Asante (Ashanti) Empire (17th – 19th Century), Present-day Ghana. Ethnic Group: Akan
(Asante). Government: Ruled by the Asantehene (king), supported by a strong bureaucracy and
regional chiefs. Military and Expansion: Expanded through military conquests; had a formidable
army. Economy: Thrived on gold mining, kola nuts, and trade, especially in slaves and firearms.
Colonial Wars: Fought multiple wars with the British, eventually becoming part of the Gold
Coast colony.

66
Shillington, Kevin. "The Ghana Empire." Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005
67
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard
University Press. 2007.
20
 ISLAM, THE TRANS ATLANTIC TRADE AND THE STATE IN WEST AFRICA

Origin of the Islamic States of West Africa:

The spread of Islam into West Africa began primarily through peaceful means, trade,
intermarriage, and scholarly exchange, rather than military conquest. Islam was introduced into
the region around the 8th century CE, primarily through trans-Saharan trade routes that
connected North Africa with the Sahel and Savanna regions. Arab and Berber Muslim
merchants were key in this process, carrying not only goods such as salt, gold, and textiles, but
also religious ideas and Islamic practices. The Sahara, once considered a vast barrier, became a
highway of interaction. Major trading cities such as Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenné developed into
hubs of Islamic culture and learning. Over time, local African rulers began to convert to Islam,
recognizing the potential political and economic benefits it offered, such as strengthened ties
with wealthy Muslim merchants and access to broader intellectual networks. The conversion of
elites gradually encouraged the spread of Islam among the wider population, although traditional
African religions often coexisted with Islamic beliefs for centuries68

The rise of powerful Islamic empires in West Africa also played a major role in entrenching the
religion in the region. The Mali Empire, under the rule of Mansa Musa in the 14th century, is one
of the most famous examples. Mansa Musa's legendary pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca in 1324 not
only showcased the immense wealth of West Africa but also highlighted the deep connections
between West African Muslims and the wider Islamic world. His return brought architects,
scholars, and religious leaders who helped further Islamic education and infrastructure in Mali.
Later, the Songhai Empire also adopted Islam as a state religion, continuing the trend of
integrating Islamic law and scholarship into governance. Despite the growing influence of Islam,
the religion often took on uniquely African characteristics, blending with local customs and
traditions process known as syncretism69

The spread and entrenchment of Islam in West Africa involved a wide array of participants
traders, scholars, rulers, and ordinary people; each playing a distinctive role in the Islamicization

68
Richardson et al. Atlas of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. Yale University Press. 2010.
69
Richardson et al. Atlas of the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. Yale University Press. 2010.
21
of the region. North African traders, particularly Berbers, were among the earliest and most
consistent carriers of Islam to West Africa. Their presence in commercial hubs facilitated not
only economic exchange but also the transmission of religious beliefs and practices. These
traders often settled in West African towns, establishing Muslim communities and marrying into
local populations, which helped root Islam within the social fabric of the region. Through these
communities, Islamic ideas, scripts (especially Arabic), and customs began to take hold in West
African society70

West African rulers were especially crucial participants in Islam’s expansion. Kings and
emperors often converted to Islam to enhance their political legitimacy, gain support from
powerful Muslim neighbors or trading partners, and gain access to the bureaucratic and legal
systems associated with Islamic governance. For instance, rulers like Mansa Musa of Mali and
Askia Muhammad of Songhai institutionalized Islam within their administrations, sponsored the
construction of mosques and Islamic schools (madrasas), and patronized scholars and clerics.
These elite led conversions helped establish Islam as a major cultural force in West Africa.
Additionally, Islamic scholars, both local and foreign, were indispensable participants. They
built centers of learning such as the Sankore University in Timbuktu and played key roles in the
administration of Islamic law (sharia) and education. Over time, ordinary people also became
active participants, gradually adopting Islamic practices such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage,
often blending them with traditional African beliefs in a unique expression of West African
Islam71

Factors that contributed to the rise of Islam in West Africa

Trans-Saharan trade. One of the most significant factors in the spread of Islam in West Africa
was the trans-Saharan trade routes. These trade networks connected North Africa already
predominantly Muslim with West African regions. Muslim traders, especially the Berbers and
Tuaregs from North Africa, journeyed across the vast Sahara desert to trade goods such as salt,
gold, ivory, and slaves with West African kingdoms like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Alongside
goods, these traders brought Islamic beliefs, practices, and scholars. Cities like Timbuktu, Gao,

70
Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. 2010 ( 2nd ed.)
71
Hunwick, John O. "The Arab conquest of the Western Sudan: A tentative reassessment." Journal of African
History, vol. 35, no. 3, 1994, pp. 405-432.
22
and Djenne emerged as important centers of trade and learning. In these urban centers, mosques
were built and Islamic schools were established, helping to spread the faith. For example, the
Mali Empire under Mansa Musa grew wealthy through trade, and during his pilgrimage to
Mecca in 1324, he showcased his devotion to Islam, further cementing its influence in the
region72

Role of Muslim scholars and missionaries, Islam was also spread in West Africa by scholars and
missionaries who traveled from North Africa and the Middle East. These individuals were often
well-educated and played key roles in establishing Islamic education systems in West Africa.
They built madrasas (Islamic schools) and taught the Quran, Arabic language, and Islamic law
(Sharia). Their efforts helped integrate Islamic values and practices into the social and cultural
life of the region. The city of Timbuktu became a famous center of Islamic scholarship,
attracting students and scholars from across Africa and the Islamic world. Scholars like Ahmed
Baba of Timbuktu wrote extensively and contributed to Islamic knowledge. These efforts helped
Islam to take root not only in urban centers but also in rural communities, slowly becoming part
of everyday life for many West Africans73

Influence of Islamic rulers. The conversion of local kings and rulers to Islam played a crucial
role in the spread of the religion. Once rulers adopted Islam, it often became the official or
dominant religion of their kingdoms. This had a top-down influence on society, as subjects
tended to follow the religion of their leaders, either for genuine belief or for political and
economic advantage. A prime example is Mansa Musa, the emperor of Mali, whose devotion to
Islam and his pilgrimage to Mecca gained international attention. His reign helped integrate
Islamic practices into the governance of the Mali Empire. Another example is Askia Muhammad
of the Songhai Empire, who also promoted Islamic scholarship, built mosques, and brought in
Muslim judges and administrators to run his empire according to Islamic law. These rulers used
Islam to legitimize their authority and to connect with the wider Islamic world, boosting both
their power and the religion’s influence.

Urbanization and the rise of trade cities. Urbanization in West Africa, driven by trade and
political centralization, created ideal conditions for the spread of Islam. As cities like Timbuktu,

72
Klein, H. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. 2010 ( 2nd ed.)
73
Walvin, J. Crosdsings: Africa, the Americas, and the Atlantic Slave Trade. Reaction Books, 2013.
23
Gao, and Kano grew into major economic and political centers, they attracted a diverse
population, including Muslim traders, scholars, and artisans. These cities became melting pots
where Islamic culture, language, and religion could flourish. The establishment of Islamic
institutions such as mosques, courts, and schools in these urban centers made Islam visible and
accessible. For instance, in Hausaland (present-day northern Nigeria), cities like Kano and
Katsina became important Islamic centers by the 15th century, with rulers who supported Islamic
education and administration. The structure and organization of these cities often reflected
Islamic principles, making them hubs for the continued growth of the religion74

Social and cultural appeal of Islam. Islam offered social, cultural, and legal systems that
appealed to many West Africans, especially those engaged in trade and governance. The religion
provided a unifying identity and ethical framework that facilitated trust and cooperation in
commercial and political relationships. For example, Islamic law helped regulate trade disputes
and contracts, making business more reliable. Additionally, conversion to Islam could enhance
one's social status, especially in urban and elite circles. Arabic literacy, promoted through
Quranic studies, became a symbol of education and prestige. This cultural prestige associated
with Islam made it desirable to many who aspired to upward mobility. Over time, Islamic
practices such as daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, and charitable giving (zakat) became
integrated into local customs, blending with traditional African beliefs and creating a unique
form of West African Islam75

Contributions of Islam to the rise of West Africa state.

The Islamic states of West Africa played a significant role in the region's history, contributing to
cultural, economic, political, and social developments, it is shown below;

Promotion of Education and Scholarship, One of the most profound contributions of the Islamic
states in West Africa was the promotion of education and scholarship. As Islam spread
throughout the region, particularly with the establishment of empires like the Mali and Songhai,
centers of learning flourished. The city of Timbuktu became renowned for its prestigious
universities and libraries, such as the famous Sankore University. Scholars gathered in these

74
Klein, H. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. 2010 ( 2nd ed.)
75
Gomez, M. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
24
institutions to study various fields, including theology, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and
literature. The famed scholar Ibn Battuta noted Timbuktu's rich intellectual environment during
his travels in the 14th century, highlighting its reputation as a hub of learning. The Mauritanian,
Sudanese, and Malian scholars produced volumes of written works, many of which were
transcribed and preserved in Arabic, thus contributing significantly to the global Islamic
intellectual tradition. This educational legacy not only enriched the local population but also
attracted students from various regions, establishing West Africa as a crucial node in the trans-
Saharan knowledge network76

Economic development through trade, The Islamic states of West Africa were instrumental in
developing extensive trade networks that significantly boosted the region's economy. The
introduction of Islam facilitated trade relations across the Sahara Desert, enhancing connections
between West Africa and North Africa, the Middle East, and even Europe. The empires,
particularly the Mali Empire under Mansa Musa and the Songhai Empire, controlled crucial trade
routes for gold, salt, and other valuable commodities. Mansa Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca in
1324, during which he famously distributed gold along the way, showcased the immense wealth
of the empire and solidified its position within the global trade network. Such trade activities did
not merely benefit the ruling elites; they also led to the rise of merchant classes and urban
centers, where diverse cultures and ideas converged. Cities like Gao and Kumbi Saleh emerged
as bustling trade hubs, supporting a dynamic economy that connected various cultural and
economic spheres, thus impacting the livelihoods of many across the region77

Development of political systems and governance, The Islamic states of West Africa also
contributed significantly to developing political systems and governance structures. Islam
introduced distinctive forms of governance, influenced heavily by Islamic law (Sharia) and
principles. The leadership dynamics in empires such as Mali and Songhai were characterized by
a combination of Islamic governance and traditional African political structures. Rulers in these
empires were often seen as both political leaders and religious figures, which created a sense of
legitimacy and authority based on divine sanction. For instance, the legal codes implemented

76
Smallwood, S.. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University Press.
2007
77
Gomez, M. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.
25
were often derived from both customary law and Sharia, ensuring that the governance was
accessible and relatable to the population. This integration of Islamic principles into governance
helped to create a stable political environment that prioritized justice and community welfare.
Additionally, the concept of the caliphate influenced the organization of leadership among
various states, promoting a sense of unity and collective identity among the diverse ethnic groups
under their rule78

Cultural synthesis and artistic expression, the arrival of Islam in West Africa led to a rich
synthesis of Islamic and indigenous cultures, which significantly impacted the region's artistic
expressions. Architectural styles began to blend African building techniques with Islamic
aesthetics, resulting in distinctive structures such as the Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu,
which exemplifies this unique architectural fusion. Moreover, Islamic art influenced the
production of manuscripts, calligraphy, and other forms of artistic expression. Local artisans
adapted Islamic artistic motifs to reflect their cultural identities, leading to a proliferation of
decorative arts, textiles, and pottery that incorporated both Islamic and traditional designs. The
oral traditions of the West African griots, who were responsible for preserving history and
culture through storytelling, also flourished during this period. They often incorporated Islamic
themes into their narratives, thereby enriching the cultural tapestry of the region. This
intercultural dialogue not only fostered unity but also nurtured a unique identity that celebrated
the diversity of the West African experience79

Social reforms and community building, Islamic states in West Africa were crucial in initiating
social reforms that aimed to improve community welfare. With the spread of Islam came a focus
on moral values and social responsibility, leading to efforts to enhance social justice. The
establishment of Zakat (almsgiving) encouraged wealthy individuals to support the needy, which
fostered a sense of community solidarity and responsibility toward one another. Islamic
teachings promoted the education of both genders, leading to increased literacy and the
emergence of educated women who contributed to society in various capacities. The promotion
of equality among all Muslims, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds, also played a role in

78
Smallwood, S. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard
University Press. 2007
79
Smallwood, S. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University Press.
2007
26
mitigating social stratification. Within the context of complex ethnic societies, Islam acted as a
unifying force, facilitating inter-community dialogue and collaboration. Islamic communities
often engaged in collective social projects such as building mosques, schools, and hospitals,
which contributed to the overall development and cohesion of their societies. Thus, the Islamic
states not only advanced religious practices but also significantly improved social conditions for
many individuals across West Africa80.

Aftermaths of the spread of Islam in West Africa

Trans-Saharan trade, one of the most significant factors in the spread of Islam in West Africa
was the trans-Saharan trade routes. These trade networks connected North Africa already
predominantly Muslim with West African regions. Muslim traders, especially the Berbers and
Tuaregs from North Africa, journeyed across the vast Sahara desert to trade goods such as salt,
gold, ivory, and slaves with West African kingdoms like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Alongside
goods, these traders brought Islamic beliefs, practices, and scholars. Cities like Timbuktu, Gao,
and Djenne emerged as important centers of trade and learning. In these urban centers, mosques
were built and Islamic schools were established, helping to spread the faith. For example, the
Mali Empire under Mansa Musa grew wealthy through trade, and during his pilgrimage to
Mecca in 1324, he showcased his devotion to Islam, further cementing its influence in the
region81.

Role of Muslim scholars and missionaries, Islam was also spread in West Africa by scholars and
missionaries who traveled from North Africa and the Middle East. These individuals were often
well-educated and played key roles in establishing Islamic education systems in West Africa.
They built madrasas (Islamic schools) and taught the Quran, Arabic language, and Islamic law
(Sharia). Their efforts helped integrate Islamic values and practices into the social and cultural
life of the region. The city of Timbuktu became a famous center of Islamic scholarship,
attracting students and scholars from across Africa and the Islamic world. Scholars like Ahmed
Baba of Timbuktu wrote extensively and contributed to Islamic knowledge. These efforts helped

80
Eltis, D. & Richardson, D. (2010). Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Yale University Press.

81
Rediker, M. The slave ship: A human history. Viking. 2007
27
Islam to take root not only in urban centers but also in rural communities, slowly becoming part
of everyday life for many West Africans82

Influence of Islamic rulers, the conversion of local kings and rulers to Islam played a crucial role
in the spread of the religion. Once rulers adopted Islam, it often became the official or dominant
religion of their kingdoms. This had a top-down influence on society, as subjects tended to
follow the religion of their leaders, either for genuine belief or for political and economic
advantage. A prime example is Mansa Musa, the emperor of Mali, whose devotion to Islam and
his pilgrimage to Mecca gained international attention. His reign helped integrate Islamic
practices into the governance of the Mali Empire. Another example is Askia Muhammad of the
Songhai Empire, who also promoted Islamic scholarship, built mosques, and brought in Muslim
judges and administrators to run his empire according to Islamic law. These rulers used Islam to
legitimize their authority and to connect with the wider Islamic world, boosting both their power
and the religion’s influence83.

Urbanization and the rise of trade cities, Urbanization in West Africa, driven by trade and
political centralization, created ideal conditions for the spread of Islam. As cities like Timbuktu,
Gao, and Kano grew into major economic and political centers, they attracted a diverse
population, including Muslim traders, scholars, and artisans. These cities became melting pots
where Islamic culture, language, and religion could flourish. The establishment of Islamic
institutions such as mosques, courts, and schools in these urban centers made Islam visible and
accessible. For instance, in Hausaland (present-day northern Nigeria), cities like Kano and
Katsina became important Islamic centers by the 15th century, with rulers who supported Islamic
education and administration. The structure and organization of these cities often reflected
Islamic principles, making them hubs for the continued growth of the religion84

82
Gomez, M. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.

83
Eltis, D., & Richardson, D. Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Yale University Press. 2010.

84
Gomez, M. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa." Princeton
University Press, 2018.

28
Social and cultural appeal of Islam, Islam offered social, cultural, and legal systems that
appealed to many West Africans, especially those engaged in trade and governance. The religion
provided a unifying identity and ethical framework that facilitated trust and cooperation in
commercial and political relationships. For example, Islamic law helped regulate trade disputes
and contracts, making business more reliable. Additionally, conversion to Islam could enhance
one's social status, especially in urban and elite circles. Arabic literacy, promoted through
Quranic studies, became a symbol of education and prestige. This cultural prestige associated
with Islam made it desirable to many who aspired to upward mobility. Over time, Islamic
practices such as daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, and charitable giving (zakat) became
integrated into local customs, blending with traditional African beliefs and creating a unique
form of West African Islam.

TRANS ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE IN WEST AFRICA

Origin of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in West Africa:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade originated in the late 15th century, following the European Age of
Exploration, when Portuguese explorers first made contact with West African coastal regions.
Initially, trade between Europeans and Africans focused on gold, ivory, and other goods, but
over time, the growing demand for labor in the Americas especially for sugar, tobacco, and
cotton plantations led to the development of a massive human trafficking system. The
transatlantic slave trade formally began in the early 16th century and continued until the 19th
century. West Africa became the main source of enslaved Africans due to its proximity to the
Atlantic Ocean and the existence of well-established local trade and political networks that
European merchants could exploit. European traders established coastal forts and trading posts,
such as Elmina Castle in present-day Ghana, which became central hubs for buying and shipping
enslaved Africans. Africans were often captured through wars, raids, or sold by rival African
groups or leaders in exchange for European goods such as guns, cloth, alcohol, and
manufactured items85. The trade grew into a systematic and brutal enterprise, with millions of
Africans forcibly taken from their homelands, packed into ships under inhumane conditions, and
transported across the Atlantic in what became known as the Middle Passage86.

85
Blackburn, R. The American Crucible: Slavery, emancipation and human rights. Verso. 2011.
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Participants in the Transatlantic Slave Trade in West Africa:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade involved a wide range of participants, both African and European,
each playing crucial roles in sustaining the system. On the European side, countries such as
Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and especially Britain were heavily involved in
financing, organizing, and operating the trade. European traders built coastal forts, provided
ships, and transported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas. African rulers,
merchants, and middlemen were also deeply involved, as they supplied captives to European
traders in exchange for valuable goods87. In many West African societies, slavery already existed
in various forms, but the transatlantic trade intensified the scale and brutality of the institution.
Some African kingdoms, such as the Ashanti Empire, the Dahomey Kingdom, and the Oyo
Empire, became heavily dependent on the slave trade for wealth and power. These states
conducted military campaigns to capture prisoners, who were then sold into slavery. The
involvement of both European traders and African elites meant that the trade became a deeply
embedded system, with economic and political incentives reinforcing its continuation.
Tragically, the result was the forced displacement of an estimated 12–15 million Africans, the
destabilization of African societies, and a legacy of trauma that continues to affect the
descendants of enslaved people around the world88.

Factors for the rise of the transatlantic slave trade in West Africa

European demand for labor on plantations in the America, The rise of the transatlantic slave
trade was fundamentally driven by the enormous demand for labor in European colonies in the
Americas. As European powers like Portugal, Spain, Britain, France, and the Netherlands
established colonies in the Caribbean, South America, and the American South, they began to
grow labor-intensive crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, and coffee. These plantations
required a vast and controllable labor force. Indigenous populations in the Americas were either
decimated by European diseases or unsuitable for sustained forced labor. For example, in the

86
Levtzion, N. The Saharan and Sudanic Africa in Islamic Times. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers.1980

87
Smallwood, S. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University Press.
2007.
88
Thornton, J. Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. 1998.
30
Caribbean, sugar plantations needed thousands of workers to plant, harvest, and process cane,
prompting European colonists to turn to West Africa for slaves. British colonists in Barbados and
Jamaica relied heavily on enslaved Africans, and by the late 17th century, African slaves had
become the backbone of plantation economies across the Americas89.

Existing Slave systems and trade networks in Africa, Slavery was not new to Africa; many
African societies had long practiced forms of slavery. However, these were typically domestic,
and slaves often became integrated into the society. What made the transatlantic slave trade
different was the scale and brutality of the system, driven by European demands. Importantly,
African kingdoms such as Dahomey, Oyo, and Ashanti already had systems for capturing and
selling war captives, criminals, or debtors as slaves. With the arrival of Europeans, these systems
were transformed and expanded to meet external demand. For instance, the Kingdom of
Dahomey in present-day Benin developed a militaristic state that conducted annual raids to
capture slaves, which were then sold to European traders in exchange for guns, alcohol, and
textiles. These existing internal practices created a supply chain that European traders exploited
and scaled up massively.

Availability of European goods and the Rise of trade Incentives, One of the most important
factors that facilitated the slave trade was the introduction of European manufactured goods,
which many African leaders found desirable. Europeans brought firearms, metal tools, textiles,
alcohol, and other manufactured items that were not locally produced in West Africa. These
goods became highly sought after by African elites who used them to bolster their political
power and military might. For example, the exchange of firearms allowed kingdoms like the
Asante Empire to wage wars and capture more slaves90. This created a vicious cycle—more
slaves meant more goods, which meant more power to wage further wars. The slave trade thus
became a profitable business not only for Europeans but also for African intermediaries who
grew dependent on European imports91

89
Gomez, Michael A. "African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa."
Princeton University Press, 2018
90
Wilks, Ivor. "Ghana's Ancient Empire." Oxford University Press, 1963.

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Davidson, D. A history of west Africa 1000-1800. London: Longman Group Limited. 1964
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Weak Political structures and internal conflicts in Some Regions, the lack of unified political
control over large territories in West Africa contributed to the ease with which slave raiding and
trading expanded. Many regions were fragmented into small, often rival kingdoms or
chieftaincies. These internal divisions made it difficult to mount a united resistance to European
traders or to suppress the slave trade. In fact, some African states waged wars specifically to
capture people to sell as slaves. For instance, during the 18th century, the Yoruba region in
modern-day Nigeria experienced internal conflicts, leading to the enslavement and sale of
thousands of people. Rival states, such as Oyo and Benin, often exploited these conflicts to
capture and export slaves. The political fragmentation and absence of centralized authority thus
allowed for the proliferation of slave raids and enabled European traders to manipulate and
exploit local power struggles92.

European maritime and trading superiority, European advancements in maritime technology and
navigation gave them a significant advantage in conducting long-distance trade, including the
transatlantic slave trade. By the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations had developed ships
capable of crossing the Atlantic and engaging in large-scale trading missions. Portugal, for
example, established early trading posts along the West African coast, such as Elmina Castle in
present-day Ghana, which became a major hub for the slave trade. These fortified ports allowed
Europeans to store slaves before shipping them across the Atlantic. The triangular trade system
where ships brought goods to Africa, slaves to the Americas, and raw materials back to Europe,
was only possible because of European naval strength and organization. This maritime
dominance enabled sustained and large-scale transportation of millions of Africans across the
ocean over several centuries93.

Contribution of the triangular slave trade to the rise of West African states

Economic empowerment through trade profits, the triangular slave trade significantly boosted the
economies of many West African states by integrating them into a profitable transatlantic trade
network. African rulers and merchants exchanged enslaved people for European goods such as

92
Smallwood, S. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University Press.
2007.
93
Thornton, J. Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. 1998.
32
firearms, textiles, alcohol, and metalware. These goods were not only signs of wealth but also
means of reinforcing local power. For example, the Kingdom of Dahomey (in present-day
Benin) thrived economically during the 18th century due to its involvement in the slave trade.
Dahomey's kings centralized control over the trade, levied taxes on slave sales, and used the
revenues to build strong armies and elaborate courts. The wealth generated from the trade
allowed states like Dahomey and the Ashanti Empire to expand their influence and
infrastructure, facilitating the growth of urban centers and royal capitals. These states were able
to dominate surrounding territories, collect tributes, and monopolize trade routes, further
increasing their wealth and power94

Military strength and expansion of empires, the profits from the slave trade were often invested
in acquiring firearms and other European military technologies, which transformed the balance
of power in West Africa. Armed with superior weapons, states could expand their territories,
conquer rivals, and secure more captives to sell into slavery. This cycle of militarization and
expansion was particularly evident in the rise of the Oyo Empire (in present-day Nigeria), which
became one of the most powerful West African states in the 17th and 18th centuries. Oyo’s
cavalry and firearm-equipped infantry enabled it to dominate the region and control trade routes
to the coast. Similarly, the Ashanti Empire used its military strength, funded by slave-trade
profits, to wage successful wars against neighboring peoples, incorporating them into the empire
and turning some of them into slaves 95. This militarized expansion not only consolidated political
power but also led to the formation of centralized, bureaucratic state structures that sustained
long-term governance.

Centralization of political power, the triangular slave trade encouraged the development of
centralized states by empowering rulers who could control access to European merchants and
coastal trading posts. Control over trade often translated into political authority, as rulers who
monopolized relations with European traders gained leverage over local chiefs and rival factions.
In states like Dahomey, the king monopolized the slave trade by appointing officials to oversee
transactions and by creating state-run markets where all trade had to be conducted. This

94
Davidson, D. A history of west Africa 1000-1800. London: Longman Group Limited. 1964.

95
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Wilks, Ivor. "Ghana's
Ancient Empire." Oxford University Press, 1963. Harvard University Press. 2007.
33
centralization reduced internal conflict and helped create more organized governance systems.
Furthermore, European traders often preferred to deal with strong, centralized authorities who
could ensure a steady supply of slaves and maintain order, further reinforcing the power of
African kings. As a result, slave-trade wealth was used to build administrative institutions,
palaces, and court systems that legitimized and strengthened state rule96.

Development of coastal cities and trade networks, the demand for slaves and the goods
exchanged for them led to the growth of major coastal cities and internal trade routes that linked
hinterlands to the Atlantic coast. Cities such as Elmina (in modern Ghana), Lagos, and Whydah
became bustling centers of commerce, attracting traders, artisans, and political envoys. These
cities often became semi-autonomous economic hubs that were both entry points for European
goods and exit points for enslaved Africans. The economic activity stimulated by the trade led to
the development of infrastructure such as roads, warehouses, and ports. Additionally, inland
trade routes connecting interior regions like Kano and Timbuktu to coastal hubs helped integrate
diverse regions into a more cohesive economic system 97. States that controlled these routes, like
the Ashanti Empire, benefited immensely by collecting tariffs and ensuring the flow of captives
to the coast. Thus, the triangular trade indirectly fostered regional integration and urbanization,
which are key indicators of state formation98.

Diplomatic relations and international recognition, Participation in the slave trade brought West
African states into sustained diplomatic and commercial contact with European powers,
contributing to their global political significance. Some African rulers, such as King Agaja of
Dahomey and King Tegbesu who succeeded him, sent envoys and ambassadors to Europe to
negotiate trade terms, seek military support, or display diplomatic stature. These diplomatic
missions helped states gain international recognition and sometimes resulted in formal
agreements that enhanced the prestige and legitimacy of African rulers. Moreover, these
interactions allowed African leaders to gain insights into European political systems and
technologies, which they adapted to strengthen their own rule. In some cases, the mere act of
96
Smallwood, S. E. Saltwater slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American diaspora. Harvard University
Press. 2007.

97
Blackburn, R. The American Crucible: Slavery, emancipation and human rights. Verso. 2001.

98
Thornton, J. Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400–1800 (2nded.). Cambridge
University Press. 1998.
34
engaging in diplomatic exchange with European states elevated the status of African rulers
among their own people and rival states. Although often unequal, these relationships symbolized
a new level of political maturity and global interconnectedness that contributed to the rise and
consolidation of West African states99.

The Sudanic states of West Africa, including Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, originated from the
region’s strategic position in trans-Saharan trade routes and grew into powerful empires known
for their wealth, political organization, and cultural achievements. Their significance lies in their
role as centers of commerce, governance, and learning. Islam, introduced through trade, deeply
influenced their legal systems, education, and connection to the wider Muslim world. However,
the rise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade shifted economic power to coastal states and disrupted
traditional trade networks, contributing to the decline of these inland empires. Internal conflicts,
weak leadership, and European intervention further accelerated their fall. The aftermath of their
decline left a legacy of cultural richness and historical pride, but also set the stage for colonial
domination and lasting socio-political changes in West Africa.

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