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# Internal migration

• Introduction

• Determinants

• Types:

1. Rural to urban migration

2. Rural to rural migration
3. Urban to rural migration
4. Urban to urban migration
5. Interregional migration

• Causes of internal migration:

1. Social factor
2. Geographical factor
3. Economic factor
4. Demographic characteristics
5. Other factors

• Consequences

Enter
5 Mar 2025, 11:41
Humayra

# Migration

• Introduction

• Classification:

A. Geographical classification:

1. Internal migration:

i. Rural- urban migration ii. Interurban migration iii. Urban- rural migration iv. Interrural
migration v. Nomadism vi. Intermunicipal migration vii. Interprovincial migration viii.
Interregional migration

2. International migration:

i. Transoceanic migration ii. Transcontinental migration iii. Border migration iv. Neighbor
migration v. Regional migration
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3. Direction of migration:

i. Emigration ii. Immigration iii. Transit migration iv. Circular migration v. Returnirre migration
B. Chronological classification:

1. International duration:

i. Temporary migration ii. Permanent migration iii. Undetermined migration

2. Effective duration:

i. Temporary migration: a. Contract migration b. Seasonal migration c. Pendular migration ii.

Permanent migration C. Demographic - Economic classification:

1. Subjects of migration:

i. Individual migration ii. Family migration iii. Massive migration iv. Male/female migration v.
Child/adult/elderly migratio
n vi. First-generation vii. Second generation viii. Third generation ix. Migration flow x.
Migration stock xi. Migrant population xii. Migrant human power

2. Employment:

i. Highly skilled migration ii. Skilled migration iii. Unskilled migration iv. Brain drain v.
Technology migration vi. Migrants with independent or autonomous work vi. Migrants with
dependent or subordinate works

# Scope of migration studies:

1. Migration histories
2. Literature and the arts
3. Urbanism
4. Economics
5. Demography
6. Immigration law
7. Displacement:
a. Forced migration b. Refugee studies c. Internal displacement d. Climate change and
environmental factors
• Selectivity of migration
Enter
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Humayra

# International migration
• Introduction
• Types:
A. International migration:
1. Historical (pre 1945):
i. Voluntary ii. Economic iii. Force
2. Modern (post 1945-1960)
3. Contemporary (post 1960):
i. Economic (pull factor) ii. Conflict ( push factor)
B. International migration:
1. Permanent migration
2. Temporal migration
C. International migration:
1. Legal immigration
2. Illegal immigrants and
3. Refugees
• Causes of migration:
1. Economic migration
2. Social migration
3. Politial migration
4. Environmental causes
5. Others
• Consequences of migration:
1. Economic consequences
2. Demographic consequences
3. Social consequences
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4. Environmental consequences
5. Other consequences

# Refugee problem in Bangladesh

• Introduction
• Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh
• Refugee problem in Bangladesh:
1. Health issues
2. Mental health
3. Food and water borne disease
4. Infectious diseases among rohingya refugees
5. Vaccination status and disease prevention
6. Malnutrition
7. Reproductive health
8. Education
9. Environmental challenges
10. Economic impact
11. Security impacts
Enter
Humayra

# Refugee and labour migration # Refugee

• Definition of refugee
• Refugees around the World
• Causes:
1. Persecution
2. War
3. Climate change
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4. Violation
5. Financial hardships
6. Hunger
7. Gender and sexual orientation
• Consequences:
1. Shadoweconomy
2. Increased pressure on wages
3. Drain on welfare state
4. Low enforcement
Expenditure
5. Increased pressure on rental
6. Highee tax revenues
• Solutions:
1. Opening up safe routes
2. Resettlement
3. Immediate helping procedure
4. Allowed to cross border without hassles
5. Financial support
6. Government policy to reduce refugee crisis
Enter
Humayra

# Polulation redistribution
• Introduction
* Types:
1. Internal redistribution of population
2. International redistribution of population
• Components of population redistribution:
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1. Natural growth
2. Net migration
Enter
Humayra

# Selecting migration and overseas migration from Bangladesh

• Introduction
• Temporary migrant population classification:
1. Professional
2. Skilled
3. Semi-skilled
4. Unskilled
• Overseas employment policy 2006:
a. Policy parameters of expatriate welfare and overseas employment policy in Bangladesh: i.
Objectives ii. Salient features iii. Plan of action iv. Capacity building for implementation of the
overseas employment policy need b. Processes of policy making in particular relation to overseas
employment: c. Role of various institutions, actors, atakeholder and other interfaces involved in
the policy making d. Other policies of the ministry : • Selection of CIP policy 2006 • Special
privilege policy of expatriate Bangladesh for remittance 2008 •medical test policy for overseas
employment 2008

Course Content:

1. Migration:
Concept and definition, scope of migration studies, classification, typologies, and
selectivity of migration.
2. Data and Statistics:
Sources of data, nature of migration data, and migration estimation procedure.
3. Theoretical Aspects of Migration Studies:
o Ravenstein’s Law
o Lee’s hypothesis
o Stouffer’s intervening opportunity model
o Mabogunje system approach
o Zelinsky’s mobility hypotheses
4. Internal Migration:
Determinants, types, causes, and consequences.
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5. International Migration:
Types, causes, and consequences; selecting migration and overseas migration from
Bangladesh.
6. Migration Policies:
Definitions, aims, objectives, historical background, migration policies in developed and
developing countries, gender and poverty issues in migration.
7. Population Redistribution:
Internal and international redistribution of population, refugee and labour migration,
problems of urbanization, internal displacement problems.
8. Environmental Migration and Refuge Problems:
Mitigation, adaptation, and management.
9. Refugees Problem in Bangladesh:
Socio-economic and environmental perspectives.

Chapter 1- Migration

Concept and Definition of Migration

Migration refers to the movement of people from one geographical location to another, either
temporarily or permanently, with the intention of settling, working, or living in the new area. It is
a complex, multi-dimensional process that involves demographic, socio-economic, political,
environmental, and cultural factors.

Definition of Migration:

• General Definition:
Migration is the spatial movement of people across a specified boundary for the purpose
of establishing a new residence or place of work, either permanently or temporarily.
• According to the United Nations (UN):
Migration refers to the movement of persons away from their place of usual residence,
either across an international border or within a state.
• Scholarly Definitions:
o Ravenstein: Movement is governed by laws, where migrants tend to move short
distances, but long-distance migrants head toward economic centers.
o Lee’s Push-Pull Theory: Migration is influenced by factors pushing people from
their origin and pulling them toward the destination.
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Key Characteristics of Migration:

1. Spatial Movement:
Involves crossing geographical boundaries — local, regional, national, or international.
2. Temporal Aspect:
Can be temporary, seasonal, or permanent.
3. Cause-Oriented:
Driven by a mix of factors: economic opportunities, environmental challenges, political
unrest, education, etc.
4. Selectivity:
Migration is selective; individuals or groups with certain characteristics (age, education,
skill) are more likely to migrate.
5. Impact Oriented:
Migration affects both the place of origin (loss of labor, depopulation) and destination
(urbanization, cultural diversity).

Types of Migration (Brief Overview):

• Internal Migration:
Movement within a country (e.g., rural to urban).
• International Migration:
Movement across country borders.
• Voluntary Migration:
Movement based on free will (for better job opportunities, education).
• Forced Migration:
Involuntary movement due to conflict, persecution, natural disasters.

Importance of Studying Migration:

• Helps understand demographic changes and labor force dynamics.

• Essential for urban planning and infrastructure development.
• Critical for policy-making regarding refugees and internal displacement.
• Vital for addressing social integration and cultural assimilation challenges.

Scope of Migration Studies

Migration studies is a multidisciplinary field that explores the causes, processes, patterns, and
consequences of human mobility. It encompasses a wide range of themes, linking geography,
sociology, economics, political science, environmental studies, and public policy.
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1. Demographic Scope

• Population Dynamics:
Impact on population growth, density, age structure, sex ratio.
• Urbanization:
Role of migration in the expansion of cities and metropolitan regions.
• Family Structure:
Changes in family patterns due to migration (split families, transnational households).

2. Economic Scope

• Labor Market Analysis:

Study of labor migration, skill transfer, employment opportunities.
• Remittances:
Flow of funds from migrants to home countries and its impact on local economies.
• Economic Development:
Migration’s role in both the origin and destination economies (brain drain/gain,
entrepreneurship).

3. Social and Cultural Scope

• Cultural Exchange and Integration:

Blending of traditions, languages, and lifestyles.
• Social Networks:
Role of migrant communities and diaspora networks.
• Identity and Belonging:
How migration shapes personal and collective identities.

4. Political Scope

• Migration Policies and Laws:

Immigration laws, border controls, citizenship issues.
• Human Rights and Refugee Protection:
Rights of migrants, asylum seekers, and internally displaced persons (IDPs).
• International Relations:
Diplomatic relations influenced by migration flows.
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5. Environmental Scope

• Environmental Migration:
Study of people displaced by climate change, natural disasters, resource depletion.
• Sustainability:
Impact of migration on environmental resources in both sending and receiving areas.

6. Health and Well-being Scope

• Public Health:
Spread of diseases, access to healthcare for migrants.
• Mental Health:
Psychological impact of displacement and resettlement.

7. Technological Scope

• Migration and Technology:

Role of digital communication in maintaining ties across borders.
• Data and Mapping:
Use of GIS, remote sensing, and big data to track migration patterns.

8. Future and Emerging Trends

• Climate-induced Migration:
Growing concern due to global warming.
• Pandemics and Mobility:
Migration in the context of global health crises.
• Virtual Migration:
Remote working as a form of non-physical migration.

Here’s a clear and strong note on the Scope of Migration Studies, useful for academic
understanding or exam preparation:
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📚 Scope of Migration Studies

Migration studies is an interdisciplinary field that explores the movement of people across
different geographical areas and its wide-ranging impacts on society, economy, environment, and
culture. The scope of this field extends across multiple academic and applied disciplines:

1. 🕰️ Migration Histories

• Explores historical patterns of human movement across time.

• Examines causes like colonization, trade, slavery, war, and industrialization.
• Helps understand how migration has shaped societies and civilizations.

2. 🎭 Literature and the Arts

• Studies how migration is represented in literature, films, music, and art.

• Focuses on themes of identity, belonging, exile, nostalgia, and hybridity.
• Highlights the emotional and psychological dimensions of migration.

3. 🏙️ Urbanism

• Analyzes how migration shapes cities and urban growth.

• Includes rural-to-urban migration, urban planning, informal settlements, and urban
poverty.
• Focuses on multiculturalism, integration, and spatial segregation.

4. 💸 Economics

• Examines labor migration, remittances, employment trends, and economic contributions

of migrants.
• Investigates brain drain, brain gain, and the effect of migration on both origin and
destination economies.
• Includes studies on transnational labor markets and economic inequality.

5. 👥 Demography
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• Studies migration as a component of population change along with birth and death rates.
• Focuses on age, gender, and skill characteristics of migrants.
• Helps predict migration flows and analyze population structures.

6. ⚖️ Immigration Law

• Concerned with national and international legal frameworks governing migration.

• Covers visas, citizenship, border control, asylum, refugee protection, and deportation.
• Explores human rights of migrants and the politics of migration policies.

7. 🚨 Displacement Studies

a. Forced Migration

• Involves people forced to move due to conflict, persecution, or disasters.

b. Refugee Studies

• Examines legal, social, and humanitarian aspects of people fleeing persecution or war.

c. Internal Displacement

• Focuses on people displaced within their own country, often due to conflict or disasters.

d. Climate Change and Environmental Factors

• Studies environmentally induced migration due to sea level rise, droughts, floods, etc.
• Includes slow-onset and sudden-onset environmental hazards.

✅ Conclusion

Migration studies is a dynamic and evolving field with applications in policy-making,

humanitarian work, academic research, urban planning, environmental studies, and international
relations. Its broad scope reflects the complexity and significance of human mobility in shaping
modern societies.
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Classification of Migration

Migration can be classified based on different criteria, such as distance, duration, causes, and
direction. Understanding these classifications helps in analysing the patterns and impacts of
migration more deeply.

1. Based on Geographical Boundaries

Type Description

Internal Migration Movement within the same country (e.g., rural to urban).

International Migration Movement across country borders (e.g., from Bangladesh to UAE).

2. Based on Distance

Type Description

Short-distance
Movement within a small area (within the same city/region).
Migration

Long-distance Movement across significant distances (e.g., inter-state or

Migration international).

3. Based on Duration

Type Description

Temporary
Migration for a limited period (seasonal work, study abroad).
Migration

Permanent
Migration with no intention of returning (permanent settlement).
Migration

Repeated movement between home and destination (e.g., seasonal

Circular Migration
labourers).

4. Based on Causes
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Type Description

Economic Migration Moving for better job opportunities, income, or living standards.

Social Migration Moving for family reunification, marriage, or social networks.

Political Migration Moving to escape conflict, persecution, or political instability.

Environmental Moving due to natural disasters, climate change, or environmental

Migration degradation.

Forced Migration Migration due to coercion, conflict, disasters, or human trafficking.

Voluntary Migration Migration by choice for personal or professional reasons.

5. Based on Nature of Movement

Type Description

Rural to Urban Migration Movement from villages to cities (urbanization trend).

Urban to Rural Migration Movement from cities to countryside (counter-urbanization).

Urban to Urban Migration Movement between cities.

Rural to Rural Migration Movement between rural areas.

6. Based on Legal Status

Type Description

Legal Migration Migration that complies with legal regulations and policies.

Illegal/Irregular
Migration without proper authorization or documentation.
Migration

Refugees and Asylum People who migrate to escape persecution, with legal protections
Seekers under international law.

7. Based on Motivation
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Type Description

Pull Migration Attracted by better opportunities, safety, or services in the destination area.

Push Migration Driven away by hardships, lack of opportunities, or dangers in the origin area.

Conclusion

Migration is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon. Classifying migration according to

various criteria allows policymakers, researchers, and society to better understand its dynamics
and develop effective responses to its challenges and opportunities.

📦 Classification of Migration

Migration can be classified in multiple ways depending on space (geography), time (duration),
and population and economy (demographic-economic aspects).

🗺️ A. Geographical Classification

1. Internal Migration (within a country)

i. Rural to Urban Migration – e.g., village to city (common in Bangladesh)

ii. Interurban Migration – from one urban center to another
iii. Urban to Rural Migration – reverse migration or retirement movement
iv. Interrural Migration – from one rural area to another
v. Nomadism – movement of people with no permanent home (e.g., Manta or Bedey
communities)
vi. Intermunicipal Migration – between municipalities
vii. Interprovincial Migration – between administrative provinces/divisions
viii. Interregional Migration – between larger regions within a country

2. International Migration (across countries)

i. Transoceanic Migration – crossing oceans (e.g., Bangladesh to USA)

ii. Transcontinental Migration – across continents (e.g., Asia to Europe)
iii. Border Migration – near-border movement (e.g., Bangladesh–India border)
iv. Neighbor Migration – to neighboring countries (e.g., Bangladesh to India)
v. Regional Migration – within a specific global region (e.g., South Asia to Middle East)
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3. Direction of Migration

i. Emigration – leaving one’s home country

ii. Immigration – entering a new country
iii. Transit Migration – temporary stay en route to another destination
iv. Circular Migration – repetitive movement between origin and destination
v. Return Migration – returning to the place of origin

⏳ B. Chronological Classification

1. International Duration

i. Temporary Migration – limited period (e.g., contract jobs abroad)

ii. Permanent Migration – no planned return
iii. Undetermined Migration – uncertain duration

2. Effective Duration

i. Temporary Migration:

• a. Contract Migration – fixed-term labor migration

• b. Seasonal Migration – tied to agricultural/industrial cycles
• c. Pendular Migration – daily or short-term commuting (e.g., village to nearby town)

ii. Permanent Migration – long-term or lifetime settlement

��� �C. Demographic and Economic Classification

1. Subjects of Migration

i. Individual Migration – personal relocation

ii. Family Migration – movement with family members
iii. Massive Migration – large-scale population shift
iv. Male/Female Migration – gender-specific
v. Child/Adult/Elderly Migration – age-specific
vi. First-generation Migration – initial movers
vii. Second-generation Migration – descendants of migrants
viii. Third-generation Migration – later descendants
ix. Migration Flow – movement pattern over time
x. Migration Stock – total migrants in a place
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xi. Migrant Population – all residents who are migrants

xii. Migrant Human Power – workforce composed of migrants

2. Employment-based Migration

i. Highly Skilled Migration – professionals (e.g., doctors, engineers)

ii. Skilled Migration – with vocational/technical skills
iii. Unskilled Migration – manual or low-wage jobs
iv. Brain Drain – loss of skilled human capital from home country
v. Technology Migration – movement of tech professionals and knowledge
vi. Migrants with Independent/Autonomous Work – self-employed or entrepreneurs
vii. Migrants with Dependent/Subordinate Work – employed under others, usually in labor
sectors

✅ Conclusion

Migration is a multi-dimensional phenomenon that varies based on geography, time, individual

attributes, and economic roles. A comprehensive classification helps in better planning,
management, and policy-making related to migration.

Typologies of Migration

Migration typologies are advanced frameworks used to understand the complex patterns and
processes of migration. While classification gives us categories, typologies help explain the
underlying patterns, motives, and characteristics of migration in a more systematic way.

1. Economic Typology

Type Description

Migration driven by the search for employment opportunities (e.g.,

Labour Migration
Gulf countries).

Business Migration Entrepreneurs or investors moving to pursue business opportunities.

Remittance-driven Migration motivated by the goal of sending money back to family in

Migration the home country.
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2. Forced vs. Voluntary Migration

Type Description

Forced Migration Result of conflict, disaster, persecution, or human rights violations.

Voluntary Migration Based on personal choice for better living conditions or opportunities.

3. Environmental Typology

Type Description

Environmental
People displaced by natural disasters (e.g., floods, droughts).
Refugees

Climate-induced Long-term movement due to climate change impacts (e.g., sea-level

Migration rise in coastal areas).

4. Temporal Typology

Type Description

Seasonal Migration Temporary migration for seasonal work (e.g., agriculture).

Temporary Migration Migration for a fixed duration, often for study or contract work.

Permanent Migration Migration with the intent of long-term or permanent settlement.

5. Skill-based Typology

Type Description

High-skilled Movement of professionals such as doctors, engineers, IT experts (brain

Migration drain).

Low-skilled
Movement of labourers in construction, agriculture, domestic work.
Migration
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6. Directional Typology

Type Description

South-North Movement from developing countries to developed countries (e.g.,

Migration Bangladesh to Europe).

South-South
Movement between developing countries (e.g., Nepal to Bangladesh).
Migration

North-North
Migration between developed countries (e.g., USA to Canada).
Migration

North-South Migration from developed to developing countries (less common, e.g.,

Migration retirees moving to warmer climates).

7. Legal Status Typology

Type Description

Documented Migration Migration following legal procedures.

Undocumented Migration Migration without proper legal status or authorization.

8. Demographic Typology

Type Description

Youth Migration Young people moving for education or work.

Family Migration Whole families migrating together.

Elderly Migration Retired individuals moving, often for lifestyle reasons.

Conclusion

Typologies of migration provide deeper insight into the varied and dynamic nature of migration
flows. They help researchers, policymakers, and development planners to design targeted
interventions and policies that address specific migration challenges.
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🌍 International Migration

International migration refers to the movement of people across national boundaries. This
migration can be voluntary or forced, temporary or permanent, and driven by various economic,
social, political, or environmental factors. It has profound effects on both the origin and
destination countries, influencing their economies, societies, and cultures.

🔑 Types of International Migration

A. International Migration (by Historical and Modern Context)

1. Historical Migration (Pre-1945)

o i. Voluntary Migration: People migrated for reasons like better economic
opportunities, land availability, or to escape political unrest.
Example: European migration to the Americas in the 19th century.
o ii. Economic Migration: Driven primarily by economic factors such as job
opportunities, wages, and better living conditions.
Example: Industrial revolution migration to urban centers.
o iii. Forced Migration: Migration caused by involuntary factors like war, slavery,
or colonization.
Example: The transatlantic slave trade.
2. Modern Migration (Post-1945 to 1960)
o The aftermath of World War II led to significant shifts in migration patterns.
o International migration during this period was largely influenced by political
restructuring, decolonization, and the beginning of large-scale labor migration.
o Example: Migration from former colonies to colonial powers (e.g., India to the
UK, Caribbean to the USA).
3. Contemporary Migration (Post-1960)
o Migration patterns became more complex and diversified, influenced by
globalization, international conflicts, and economic globalization.
o i. Economic Migration (Pull Factor): Migration driven by the search for better
economic opportunities, higher wages, or improved living standards.
Example: Migration from Latin America to the US for better job opportunities.
o ii. Conflict (Push Factor): Migration forced by conflicts, wars, political
instability, and violence.
Example: Migration of refugees from Syria to Europe due to the Syrian Civil War.
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B. International Migration (By Duration)

1. Permanent Migration
o Migration with the intention of staying permanently in the destination country.
o People may choose permanent migration due to long-term job opportunities,
family reunification, or escaping dire conditions in their home country.
o Example: A family migrating from Bangladesh to Canada for a better future.
2. Temporal Migration
o Migration that is temporary, either seasonal or for specific durations, such as work
contracts, education, or family visits.
o Often involves migrants returning to their home countries after a certain period.
o Example: Migrant workers from Bangladesh traveling to the Middle East for
seasonal labor.

C. International Migration (By Legal Status)

1. Legal Immigration
o Migrants who enter and reside in a country through legal channels such as work
visas, family reunification, or student visas.
o Legal immigration is governed by a country’s immigration policies, and migrants
are often given rights and protections under the law.
o Example: A skilled worker from India moving to the United States with a work
visa.
2. Illegal Immigrants
o People who migrate without proper documentation or authorization, often due to a
lack of legal channels for migration or in search of better opportunities.
o Illegal immigrants often face challenges such as lack of legal rights,
discrimination, and exploitation.
o Example: Individuals crossing the Mexico-US border without permission.
3. Refugees
o People who are forced to flee their home country due to fear of persecution, war,
violence, or human rights violations.
o Refugees are protected under international law, and many countries are
signatories to the 1951 Refugee Convention.
o Example: Syrian refugees fleeing the civil war seeking asylum in European
countries.

✅ Conclusion

International migration is a multifaceted phenomenon that has been influenced by a combination

of historical, social, political, and economic factors. Understanding the types of migration, the
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reasons behind it, and its legal dimensions is crucial for developing effective immigration
policies and managing global human mobility.

Let me know if you want a specific focus on Bangladesh’s migration trends, or if you’d like
this in a summary format!

Here’s a detailed note on the Refugee Problem in Bangladesh, with a focus on the Rohingya
refugee crisis and the various challenges Bangladesh faces in handling the influx of refugees:

🇧🇩 Refugee Problem in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has been grappling with one of the most significant refugee crises in the world,
primarily due to the influx of Rohingya refugees fleeing violence and persecution in Myanmar.
The refugee problem in Bangladesh poses numerous challenges related to health, security,
education, and the environment. This issue requires urgent international attention and sustainable
solutions.

🏠 Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh

The Rohingya are an ethnic Muslim minority group from the Rakhine State in Myanmar. They
have faced decades of discrimination, violence, and exclusion in Myanmar, with their status as
citizens being denied. In recent years, the Myanmar military launched brutal crackdowns in
2017, forcing over 700,000 Rohingya refugees to flee across the border into Bangladesh, seeking
safety in the southeastern coastal region of Cox's Bazar. Bangladesh, already densely populated,
now hosts over a million Rohingya refugees, most of whom live in overcrowded camps with
limited resources.

⚠️ Refugee Problem in Bangladesh: Key Challenges

1. Health Issues

• The refugee camps lack adequate healthcare infrastructure, making it difficult to provide
essential health services to refugees.
• Infectious diseases like cholera, diarrhea, and respiratory infections spread quickly due to
poor sanitation and overcrowding.
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• The healthcare system in Bangladesh, especially in the Cox’s Bazar region, is under
immense pressure, with limited access to medical professionals, medications, and
supplies.

2. Mental Health

• The trauma from fleeing violence, loss of loved ones, and living in dire conditions
severely affects the mental well-being of Rohingya refugees.
• Many suffer from anxiety, depression, PTSD, and other mental health issues due to their
experiences of violence and displacement.
• Lack of mental health care services and cultural barriers make it difficult for refugees to
access appropriate support.

3. Food and Waterborne Diseases

• The refugee camps often lack clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities,
leading to the spread of waterborne diseases like cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
• The food supply is also inconsistent, and many refugees suffer from malnutrition and
food insecurity.
• Overcrowded living conditions further exacerbate the spread of diseases, especially
among children.

4. Infectious Diseases Among Rohingya Refugees

• The cramped conditions in the camps, with inadequate access to hygiene and healthcare,
have led to the rapid spread of infectious diseases.
• Diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and skin infections are common in the camps due
to poor living conditions and lack of vaccination.
• The outbreak of COVID-19 in the refugee camps added another layer of complexity to
the health crisis.

5. Vaccination Status and Disease Prevention

• The vaccination coverage in the camps is insufficient, which has resulted in outbreaks of
preventable diseases like measles and polio.
• International organizations and the Bangladeshi government have made efforts to
vaccinate the refugee population, but challenges remain in reaching everyone due to
logistical difficulties and overcrowding.
• Effective disease prevention campaigns are critical in controlling the spread of infections.
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6. Malnutrition

• Malnutrition, particularly among children, is a severe problem in the camps. The lack of
proper food, especially protein-rich food, results in stunted growth, weakened immune
systems, and other long-term health issues.
• Food aid is often insufficient, and the limited resources available for refugees make it
difficult to meet their dietary needs.

7. Reproductive Health

• Rohingya refugee women face significant challenges in accessing reproductive health

services, including maternal care, family planning, and safe childbirth.
• Sexual violence is a significant concern, with many women subjected to abuse during
their journey to Bangladesh and in the refugee camps.
• Lack of access to basic healthcare services, including gynecological care, increases the
risks of maternal and infant mortality.

8. Education

• Access to education for Rohingya children in the camps is extremely limited. Schools are
often overcrowded, with insufficient resources such as books, teachers, and classroom
space.
• Many children miss out on formal education, which affects their future prospects and
perpetuates cycles of poverty.
• The Bangladeshi government and various humanitarian organizations have attempted to
provide education in the camps, but the scale of the refugee population makes it
challenging to meet the demand.

9. Environmental Challenges

• The refugee camps are situated in environmentally vulnerable areas prone to flooding,
landslides, and cyclones.
• The massive deforestation caused by the construction of makeshift shelters in the camps
has increased the risk of environmental degradation and natural disasters.
• Waste management is a major issue, with large amounts of solid waste and human waste
accumulating in the camps, further exacerbating health risks.
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10. Economic Impact

• The refugee crisis places significant strain on Bangladesh’s economy, especially in terms
of resources for food, healthcare, and infrastructure.
• The local population in Cox's Bazar and neighboring areas is also impacted, as they
compete with refugees for limited resources and jobs.
• While some refugees engage in informal labor, the lack of economic opportunities for
both refugees and host communities exacerbates poverty and inequality.

11. Security Impacts

• The influx of refugees has created security concerns, including tensions between the
Rohingya and local communities, as well as between different refugee factions.
• The large, unregulated population in the camps can also be exploited by criminal groups,
leading to an increase in trafficking, drug smuggling, and other criminal activities.
• There have been reports of violence within the camps, including gang violence, and
security forces have been deployed to maintain order.

✅ Conclusion

The Rohingya refugee crisis presents complex humanitarian challenges in Bangladesh, requiring
coordinated efforts from the Bangladeshi government, international organizations, and
humanitarian agencies. While Bangladesh has shown remarkable generosity in hosting refugees,
the ongoing crisis demands comprehensive solutions addressing health, security, economic, and
social issues. Long-term strategies for repatriation, integration, and improved living conditions
are essential to resolving the refugee problem in the region.

Let me know if you'd like more specific case studies or data on any of the topics mentioned!

Refugee and Labour Migration

Refugee
26 | P a g e

Definition of Refugee

A refugee is defined as a person who has been forced to flee their country because of fear of
persecution due to reasons like:

• Race
• Religion
• Nationality
• Membership of a particular social group
• Political opinion

Refugees are unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin because of a well-founded
fear of persecution. This definition is according to the 1951 Refugee Convention, which is the
key legal document that outlines the rights of refugees and the responsibilities of nations to
protect them.

In practice, refugees are often forced to leave their homes due to extreme circumstances like:

• Armed conflict
• Ethnic violence
• Religious persecution
• Political instability

Refugees typically cross international borders to seek asylum in a country that can provide
them with protection. They are distinct from economic migrants, who may move to improve
their living conditions but do not face direct threats of persecution.

Refugees Around the World

The global refugee crisis is one of the most pressing humanitarian issues today. Over the years,
the number of refugees worldwide has increased due to conflicts, natural disasters, and political
oppression. Some key points about refugees globally include:

1. Global Numbers:
o According to the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), as
of 2023, there are over 26 million refugees worldwide. This number includes
refugees from countries like Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan, Myanmar, and
Ukraine.
o The largest refugee-hosting countries are Turkey, Colombia, Uganda, Pakistan,
and Germany, with Turkey alone hosting more than 3.6 million refugees,
primarily from Syria.
2. Major Refugee Crises:
o Syrian Civil War: The ongoing conflict in Syria, which began in 2011, has
caused one of the largest refugee crises in history. Over 6.6 million Syrians have
27 | P a g e

fled their country, with many seeking refuge in neighboring countries such as
Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan.
o Rohingya Refugee Crisis: The persecution of the Rohingya Muslim minority in
Myanmar has resulted in over 700,000 Rohingya refugees fleeing to neighboring
Bangladesh since 2017.
o Afghan Refugees: Decades of conflict, particularly the Taliban's return to power
in 2021, have forced millions of Afghans to flee. Pakistan and Iran host the
majority of Afghan refugees.
o Ukraine Crisis: Following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, millions of
Ukrainians sought refuge in European countries, particularly Poland, Germany,
and Romania.
3. Refugee-Hosting Countries:
o While wealthier nations like the U.S., Germany, and Canada receive large
numbers of refugees, it is often the developing countries that bear the brunt of
refugee hosting. Countries like Uganda, Lebanon, and Jordan host large
numbers of refugees relative to their population size.
4. Refugee Rights and Protection:
o Refugees have specific rights under international law, including the right to non-
refoulement (the principle that refugees should not be sent back to a country
where they face serious threats to their life or freedom).
o Countries that are signatories to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967
Protocol are obligated to protect refugees and offer asylum procedures.

Labour Migration

While refugees are forced to migrate due to safety concerns, labour migration involves the
movement of individuals who migrate for work-related purposes. Labour migrants seek better
job opportunities and higher wages and may migrate for short-term or long-term work. Labour
migration has different characteristics compared to forced migration.

Let me know if you'd like a detailed note on labour migration as well!

• Consequences: of Refugee and labour migration 1. Shadoweconomy 2. Increased pressure on

wages 3. Drain on welfare state 4. Low enforcement Expenditure of Refugee and labour
migration 5. Increased pressure on rental 6. Highee tax revenues • Solutions: 1. Opening up safe
routes 2. Resettlement 3. Immediate helping procedure 4. Allowed to cross border without
hassles 5. Financial support 6. Government policy to reduce refugee crisis

ChatGPT said:
28 | P a g e

Consequences of Refugee and Labour Migration

1. Shadow Economy

• Refugee Migration: Refugees often face difficulties in accessing formal employment

due to legal restrictions and language barriers. As a result, many end up in the shadow
economy, working in informal jobs that are not regulated by the state. This leads to
exploitation, lower wages, and limited access to social security or health benefits.
• Labour Migration: Migrant workers, especially in sectors like agriculture, construction,
and domestic work, can also contribute to the shadow economy. These workers may
accept lower wages and lack access to workplace protections.

2. Increased Pressure on Wages

• Refugee Migration: The influx of refugees into a country can increase competition for
jobs, particularly in low-skill sectors. This can lead to lower wages for native workers,
especially in areas where jobs are scarce or the economy is already strained. Refugees
may be willing to accept lower wages due to their dire need for work.
• Labour Migration: Labour migration can also depress wages in sectors where migrant
workers are concentrated. In some cases, this can lead to resentment and tensions
between local workers and migrants.

3. Drain on Welfare State

• Refugee Migration: Refugees often require significant support from the welfare state,
including housing, healthcare, education, and legal assistance. This can strain public
services, especially in countries already facing economic challenges. The sudden influx
of refugees can lead to increased government expenditure, which might affect the quality
of public services for both refugees and local populations.
• Labour Migration: Migrant workers contribute to the economy through their labor but
may also require access to welfare services, particularly if they are low-skilled and face
barriers to integration. In some cases, this can place a burden on local resources and
public infrastructure.

4. Low Enforcement
29 | P a g e

• Refugee Migration: Countries receiving refugees often face challenges in enforcing

immigration laws and policies. The lack of clear documentation, rapid influx, and urgent
need for assistance can lead to low enforcement of regulations. This may result in
undocumented refugees working in the informal sector, increasing risks for human
trafficking, exploitation, and illegal labor practices.
• Labour Migration: Similarly, migrant workers can also become vulnerable to
exploitation if they are working in an informal economy or without proper
documentation. This often leads to labor rights abuses, such as poor working conditions
and the absence of legal protections.

5. Expenditure on Refugee and Labour Migration

• Refugee Migration: Governments often need to allocate substantial resources to assist

refugees, including emergency aid, housing, healthcare, and legal support. Long-term
support for refugees (such as integration programs) also requires significant government
expenditure.
• Labour Migration: While migrant workers contribute to the economy through taxes and
labor, governments might still need to invest in infrastructure and social programs to
integrate migrants and address potential social tensions.

6. Increased Pressure on Rental Housing

• Refugee Migration: Refugees often need immediate accommodation, which can put
additional pressure on the rental housing market. This can lead to rising rents and
housing shortages, particularly in areas already experiencing high demand for housing.
• Labour Migration: Similar to refugees, labor migrants seeking affordable housing in
urban areas can increase demand for rental properties, driving up rental prices. In some
cases, migrant workers may have to live in overcrowded conditions, which can lead to
poor living standards.

7. Higher Tax Revenues

• Labour Migration: Migrant workers contribute to the tax base through their labor. In
many cases, they contribute to social security and income taxes, even if they are not
fully benefiting from welfare services. This can increase government revenue and
potentially help fund public services and infrastructure.
• Refugee Migration: While refugees may not contribute immediately to tax revenue, over
time, their participation in the economy—through employment, entrepreneurship, and
30 | P a g e

consumer spending—can increase tax revenue. However, this often takes time and
requires investment in integration programs.

Solutions to Address Refugee and Labour Migration Issues

1. Opening Up Safe Routes

• Governments and international organizations should establish safe migration routes for
refugees and migrants, allowing them to travel legally and securely without risking
dangerous journeys or falling prey to traffickers.

2. Resettlement

• Refugees who cannot safely return to their home countries should be resettled in other
countries that have the capacity and resources to provide them with protection and a
stable environment. Resettlement programs can be coordinated by international bodies
like the UNHCR.

3. Immediate Helping Procedures

• Immediate assistance is crucial when refugees arrive in a host country. This includes
emergency shelter, food, medical care, and legal aid to help them navigate asylum
procedures. Governments and NGOs should be prepared to offer rapid response
mechanisms to address these urgent needs.

4. Allowed to Cross Border Without Hassles

• Simplifying border procedures for refugees and migrants is essential. Governments

should work on creating more humane and efficient border management systems,
making it easier for refugees and migrants to cross borders without facing undue
obstacles or exploitation.
31 | P a g e

5. Financial Support

• Host countries should provide financial support for refugees and migrant workers,
including access to employment, healthcare, and education. This can help alleviate the
financial burden on public services and ensure that migrants can contribute productively
to the host country’s economy.

6. Government Policy to Reduce Refugee Crisis

• Governments should adopt proactive policies that reduce the causes of forced migration,
such as political instability, conflict, and persecution. Supporting conflict resolution,
promoting economic development, and enhancing the protection of human rights in the
home countries of refugees can reduce the flow of forced migration.

By addressing these challenges and implementing solutions, countries can better manage the
impacts of both refugee migration and labour migration, while also supporting the welfare of
both migrants and host communities.

ChatGPT said:

Population Redistribution

Introduction

Population redistribution refers to the changes in the distribution of a population across a given
geographic area over time. This phenomenon occurs due to a variety of factors, such as
migration, urbanization, and differences in birth and death rates across regions. Population
redistribution can significantly affect the socio-economic development, environmental
sustainability, and urban planning strategies of a country or region.

The main drivers of population redistribution are migration (both internal and international),
natural growth (births minus deaths), and economic factors such as job opportunities and
living conditions. Understanding these dynamics is essential for governments, policymakers, and
planners to anticipate future needs in infrastructure, healthcare, education, and other public
services.
32 | P a g e

Types of Population Redistribution

1. Internal Redistribution of Population

o This type of redistribution refers to the movement of people within the same
country or territory. It may involve a shift from rural to urban areas
(urbanization), changes in regional population density, or migration within
different provinces or regions of a country. Internal redistribution can result from
various factors, including:
▪ Economic opportunities
▪ Social services
▪ Employment prospects
▪ Natural disasters or climate change
▪ Government policies or infrastructure development
2. International Redistribution of Population
o International redistribution refers to the movement of people across national
borders. This could involve immigration (inflow of people) or emigration
(outflow of people) due to factors such as economic opportunities, political
unrest, conflict, environmental factors (e.g., climate change), or family
reunification. Some notable international redistribution trends include:
▪ Migration from developing to developed countries in search of better
employment opportunities
▪ Refugee movements due to conflict or persecution
▪ Migration for educational purposes

Components of Population Redistribution

1. Natural Growth
o Natural growth refers to the increase or decrease in a population due to birth
rates and death rates. If the birth rate exceeds the death rate, the population
experiences positive natural growth, which contributes to redistribution.
Conversely, negative natural growth can occur if the death rate surpasses the birth
rate. The natural growth rate is a significant factor in determining long-term
population trends in a region.
▪ High birth rates in certain regions can lead to an increase in population,
influencing economic and social dynamics.
▪ High death rates in specific regions (due to poor healthcare, aging
populations, etc.) may result in population decline or migration out of
those areas.
2. Net Migration
33 | P a g e

o Net migration is the difference between the number of people who migrate into a
region and the number of people who migrate out. A positive net migration
indicates that more people are entering a region than leaving it, contributing to
population growth. A negative net migration means that more people are leaving
than arriving, which can result in population decline in specific areas.
▪ Internal migration can be driven by factors such as job opportunities,
better living conditions, or government incentives (e.g., rural development
programs).
▪ International migration is often influenced by economic factors, political
instability, conflict, and environmental conditions.

Population redistribution plays a crucial role in shaping a country’s demographic profile and can
impact policies related to urban planning, housing, employment, healthcare, and infrastructure
development. Understanding both the internal and international components of redistribution
helps governments plan for the needs of growing or shrinking populations, ensuring sustainable
development.

4o mini

You said:

Selecting migration and overseas migration from Bangladesh • Introduction • Temporary migrant
population classification: 1. Professional 2. Skilled 3. Semi-skilled 4. Unskilled • Overseas
employment policy 2006: a. Policy parameters of expatriate welfare and overseas employment
policy in Bangladesh: i. Objectives ii. Salient features iii. Plan of action iv. Capacity building for
implementation of the overseas employment policy need b. Processes of policy making in
particular relation to overseas employment: c. Role of various institutions, actors, atakeholder
and other interfaces involved in the policy making d. Other policies of the ministry : • Selection
of CIP policy 2006 • Special privilege policy of expatriate Bangladesh for remittance 2008
•medical test policy for overseas employment 2008

ChatGPT said:

Selecting Migration and Overseas Migration from Bangladesh

Introduction

Migration, particularly overseas migration, plays a significant role in Bangladesh’s economy. A

substantial portion of the workforce, especially from rural areas, migrates to different countries
in search of employment opportunities. The economic impact of this migration is notable,
34 | P a g e

primarily due to the remittances sent back home, which contribute significantly to the country's
GDP. This migration involves both temporary and permanent migration, with temporary
migration being the most common form for laborers seeking employment abroad.

Overseas migration from Bangladesh is influenced by various factors such as economic

opportunities, political stability, education, and better living standards. The government has
enacted several policies to regulate and facilitate the overseas migration process, ensuring the
welfare of the migrant workers and enhancing their contributions to the national economy.

Temporary Migrant Population Classification

The temporary migrant population from Bangladesh is typically classified based on their skill
levels, which determines the type of work they are engaged in abroad. The classification
includes:

1. Professional Migrants
o These are individuals who have specialized education and training, often holding
degrees or higher qualifications. Professional migrants work in fields such as
engineering, healthcare, education, IT, and management. They are usually
employed in more developed countries with higher wage scales.
2. Skilled Migrants
o Skilled migrants possess technical expertise and vocational training in specific
fields, such as plumbing, carpentry, electrical work, or mechanics. They often find
work in countries where there is a demand for such skills. These migrants are
typically more highly paid than semi-skilled or unskilled workers.
3. Semi-skilled Migrants
o Semi-skilled migrants have limited technical or vocational training and may work
in industries that require some level of expertise but do not demand highly
specialized knowledge. Their work may include roles such as factory workers,
construction laborers, or warehouse operators.
4. Unskilled Migrants
o Unskilled migrants typically engage in low-wage manual labor, which requires
little to no formal training. Common occupations for unskilled migrants include
domestic workers, agricultural laborers, and service workers. These migrants
often work in countries with labor shortages in such fields.

Overseas Employment Policy 2006

Bangladesh's Overseas Employment Policy 2006 was introduced to regulate and facilitate the
overseas employment process, ensuring that the rights of migrant workers are protected and that
35 | P a g e

their contributions to the economy are maximized. The policy has several key parameters
focused on expatriate welfare and the promotion of overseas employment.

a. Policy Parameters of Expatriate Welfare and Overseas Employment Policy in

Bangladesh

1. Objectives
o To promote safe and legal migration.
o To protect the rights and welfare of migrant workers.
o To enhance the remittance inflow to the national economy.
o To provide capacity-building support for migrant workers to improve their skills
and employability abroad.
2. Salient Features
o The policy focuses on creating an environment conducive to safe migration by
addressing the challenges faced by migrant workers.
o It emphasizes the role of foreign employment as a critical economic pillar for
Bangladesh.
o The policy ensures the provision of pre-departure training, legal support, and
health screening for migrants.
3. Plan of Action
o The policy includes provisions for the creation of awareness among potential
migrants about their rights and responsibilities.
o It advocates for training and skill development programs to improve the
employability of the migrant workforce.
o A strong legal framework to regulate recruitment agencies and protect migrant
workers from exploitation.
4. Capacity Building for Implementation of the Overseas Employment Policy
o The policy outlines the need for building the institutional and human resource
capacity of the government and related agencies to manage overseas migration
effectively.

b. Processes of Policy Making in Relation to Overseas Employment

Policy-making related to overseas employment in Bangladesh involves multiple actors and

stakeholders, including government ministries, recruitment agencies, trade unions, and
international organizations. The government drafts and updates the policy based on the evolving
needs of migrant workers and global employment trends.

• Key stakeholders include:

o The Ministry of Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment (MoEWOE)
o Recruitment agencies
o International employers
36 | P a g e

o Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and trade unions advocating for migrant

workers' rights
o The Bangladesh Overseas Employment and Services Limited (BOESL)

c. Role of Various Institutions, Actors, Stakeholders, and Other Interfaces Involved in

Policy Making

The process of policy-making is collaborative and involves various institutions, such as:

• The Ministry of Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment (MoEWOE), which

is responsible for formulating policies and monitoring implementation.
• Recruitment agencies, which play a key role in facilitating the migration process and
ensuring compliance with legal requirements.
• Trade unions and NGOs, which advocate for the protection of workers' rights and better
working conditions for migrants.
• International organizations such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM)
provide technical assistance and funding support for policy development.

d. Other Policies of the Ministry

1. Selection of CIP Policy 2006

o The CIP (Commercially Important Person) Policy is a special recognition
given to migrant workers who have made significant contributions through
remittances. This policy incentivizes migrants by granting them benefits such as
easier access to government services and facilities.
2. Special Privilege Policy of Expatriate Bangladesh for Remittance 2008
o This policy provides incentives to expatriates for sending remittances back to
Bangladesh, such as reduced taxes and financial benefits, aiming to increase
remittance inflows.
3. Medical Test Policy for Overseas Employment 2008
o This policy ensures that migrant workers undergo mandatory health screenings
before departure. It aims to minimize health risks both for the workers and the
countries they migrate to by ensuring that they meet the health standards required
for overseas employment.

4o

You said:

selectivity of migration
37 | P a g e

ChatGPT said:

Of course! Here’s a well-structured and strong note on Selectivity of Migration for your
master's geography notes:

Selectivity of Migration

Definition:
Migration is not a random process; it is a selective phenomenon. Certain characteristics such as
age, sex, education, skill level, socio-economic status, and region play crucial roles in
influencing who migrates, when, and where.

Key Aspects of Migration Selectivity

1. Age Selectivity

• Migration is highly age-selective.

• Young adults (15–35 years) are more likely to migrate.
• Reasons: pursuit of education, employment, marriage, adventure, or independence.

Example: Majority of international labour migrants from South Asia fall in the 20–35 age group.

2. Gender Selectivity

• Traditionally, male-dominated, especially in labour migration.

• However, in many regions, feminisation of migration is growing (e.g., care work,
domestic workers).
• Gender norms and cultural factors play a big role.

Example: High female migration from the Philippines for caregiving roles.

3. Educational Selectivity

• Educated individuals are more likely to migrate internationally.

• Higher education levels increase awareness of opportunities and ability to navigate
migration processes.

Example: Skilled professionals migrating to OECD countries for better career prospects.
38 | P a g e

4. Skill Selectivity

• Skilled workers are preferred in many destination countries (e.g., engineers, doctors).
• Unskilled migrants also move for labour-intensive jobs in construction, agriculture, or
domestic work.

5. Economic Selectivity

• People from middle-income groups are often the most mobile.

• Extremely poor populations may lack resources to migrate, while wealthy classes may
migrate for lifestyle or investment reasons.

Example: Migration from rural Bangladesh to urban areas for factory jobs.

6. Regional Selectivity

• Certain regions produce more migrants due to factors like underdevelopment, conflict, or
environmental degradation.

Example: Coastal areas affected by salinity intrusion in Bangladesh see high out-migration
rates.

7. Ethnic and Cultural Selectivity

• Migration often follows cultural or ethnic networks.

• Established migrant communities abroad encourage further migration from their home
areas.

Example: Bangladeshi communities in the UK attract migrants from specific districts like
Sylhet.

Importance of Migration Selectivity

• Helps explain migration patterns and trends.

• Assists policymakers in creating targeted migration policies.
• Supports better integration and support systems in destination areas.
39 | P a g e

Conclusion:
Migration selectivity highlights that migration is not uniform across populations. By
understanding selectivity, we can grasp why some groups are more mobile and how migration
impacts both origin and destination areas.

If you like, I can also prepare: ✅ Flowchart of migration selectivity

✅ Case studies for Bangladesh and global context
✅ Short bullet points for quick revision

Would you like me to make those too? It’ll help you prepare your notes perfectly! 🚀

4o

Chapter 4-internal migration

4. Internal Migration
ChatGPT said:

Absolutely! Here's a strong and well-organized note on Internal Migration for your master's
level geography note:

Internal Migration

Definition:
Internal migration refers to the movement of people within the same country’s boundaries,
from one geographical area to another, without crossing international borders.

Example: Migration from rural villages in Khulna to urban areas like Dhaka.

Characteristics of Internal Migration

• Takes place within national boundaries.

• Usually governed by national policies and regulations.
• Can be either temporary or permanent.
40 | P a g e

• Often motivated by economic opportunities, natural disasters, conflict, or

urbanization.

Types of Internal Migration

Type Description Example

Movement from countryside to

Farmers moving to Dhaka for
Rural to Urban Migration cities in search of better jobs and
garment industry jobs.
facilities.

Movement from cities back to rural People returning to native

Urban to Rural Migration
areas, often for lifestyle or villages from congested
(Counter-urbanization)
retirement. urban areas.

Migration between rural areas,

Seasonal labourers moving
Rural to Rural Migration often for agricultural work or
between farms.
marriage.

Moving from Khulna to

Movement between cities for better
Urban to Urban Migration Dhaka for higher-paying
employment or living conditions.
jobs.

Causes of Internal Migration

• Economic Factors: Employment, better wages, industrial growth.

• Social Factors: Education, marriage, family reunification.
• Environmental Factors: Natural disasters (floods, cyclones), salinity, river erosion.
• Political Factors: Regional conflicts, land disputes, development projects (dams, roads).
• Urbanization: Pull of better services, healthcare, and lifestyle.

Impacts of Internal Migration

Positive:

• Labour force redistribution.

• Economic development in urban centres.
• Skill development and remittances within the country.

Negative:

• Overcrowding in cities.
• Pressure on urban infrastructure (housing, water, sanitation).
41 | P a g e

• Depopulation and ageing in rural areas.

• Environmental degradation in urban slums.

Case Study: Bangladesh

• Bangladesh experiences significant rural-to-urban migration.

• Dhaka, Chattogram, and Khulna are major destination cities.
• Environmental factors like floods and river erosion play a big role.
• Policy challenge: Managing urban slums and employment generation.

Conclusion:
Internal migration is a major driver of demographic and socio-economic change within countries.
Understanding its patterns and causes is essential for planning sustainable urban growth, rural
development, and social equity.

Would you like me to also prepare: ✅ A mind map for Internal Migration
✅ Case studies (Bangladesh + Global examples)
✅ Short MCQ-friendly points for exams
✅ Diagram showing migration flows inside a country

It’ll make your notes more visual and perfect for revision! 🚀

4o

You said:

Determinants of Internal Migration

ChatGPT said:

Of course! Here's a well-organized and high-quality note on Determinants of Internal

Migration — suitable for your master’s level geography study:
42 | P a g e

Determinants of Internal Migration

Definition:
Determinants of internal migration are the factors and reasons that influence people’s decision to
move from one part of a country to another.

Internal migration is a result of a complex interplay of push and pull factors, as well as personal
and external circumstances.

1. Economic Determinants

• Employment Opportunities:
Lack of jobs in rural areas vs. availability of jobs in urban areas (industry, services,
construction).
• Income Differentials:
Higher wages and better income prospects attract people to cities.
• Poverty and Economic Hardship:
Drives rural populations to urban centres in search of survival.

Example: Migration from rural districts to Dhaka for garment factory jobs.

2. Social Determinants

• Education:
Access to better schools, colleges, and universities in cities.
• Marriage:
Migration due to marriage, especially in patriarchal societies.
• Family Reunification:
Moving to join family members already settled in other regions.
• Urban Lifestyle and Social Services:
Desire for better healthcare, entertainment, and urban amenities.

3. Environmental Determinants

• Natural Disasters:
Floods, cyclones, salinity, drought, river erosion displace rural populations.
• Environmental Degradation:
Declining agricultural productivity forces migration.

Example: Coastal migration in Bangladesh due to sea-level rise and salinity.

43 | P a g e

4. Political and Policy Determinants

• Government Development Projects:

Construction of dams, highways, ports may displace people.
• Conflict and Insecurity:
Localized violence, political unrest, or land disputes cause internal displacement.
• Government Policies:
Incentives for migration to underdeveloped areas or urban development initiatives.

5. Demographic Determinants

• Population Pressure:
High population density and land fragmentation in rural areas push people to migrate.
• Age and Gender:
Young and working-age people, especially males, are more likely to migrate internally.

6. Cultural and Psychological Determinants

• Urban Attraction:
Perception of urban life as modern, progressive, and full of opportunities.
• Migrant Networks:
Presence of friends and relatives in destination areas reduces risk and cost.
• Aspirations for Better Life:
Desire for upward social mobility and a better standard of living.

Conclusion

Internal migration is shaped by a wide range of factors—economic necessity, social aspirations,

environmental challenges, and policy interventions.
Understanding these determinants is crucial for managing migration effectively and ensuring
balanced regional development.

If you want, I can also prepare: ✅ Push-pull factor table

✅ Bangladesh-focused case examples
✅ Short summary for quick exam revision
✅ Diagram showing determinants and their linkages

Just tell me! 📚✨

44 | P a g e

4o

You said:

types of internal migration

ChatGPT said:

Of course! Here’s a clear, well-structured note on Types of Internal Migration for your
master's level geography study:

Types of Internal Migration

Internal migration refers to the movement of people within the borders of a country. It can be
classified into various types based on direction, purpose, duration, and nature of movement.

1. Based on Direction
Type Description Example

Movement from countryside to cities,

Rural to Urban Villagers moving to Dhaka
mainly for employment and better
Migration for factory jobs.
living conditions.

Urban to Rural Movement from cities back to rural

Retired workers moving
Migration (Counter- areas, often for family reasons,
back to native villages.
urbanization) retirement, or cheaper living costs.

Migration between rural areas, often Labourers moving between

Rural to Rural
seasonal, for agricultural labour or farming regions in
Migration
marriage. Bangladesh.

Moving from Khulna to

Urban to Urban Movement between cities, usually for
Chattogram for business
Migration better jobs, education, or lifestyle.
opportunities.

2. Based on Duration
Type Description

Temporary Short-term movement, often seasonal or contractual. Example: Agricultural

Migration workers during harvest season.
45 | P a g e

Type Description

Permanent
Long-term or lifelong relocation to a new place within the country.
Migration

Seasonal Movement during specific seasons for employment, such as harvesting or

Migration construction.

Circular Repetitive movement between origin and destination, such as commuting

Migration labourers.

3. Based on Nature of Movement

Type Description

Voluntary
People move by their own choice for better opportunities (economic, social).
Migration

Forced People are compelled to move due to conflicts, natural disasters, or

Migration development projects (e.g., dam construction displacing villages).

4. Based on Causes
Type Description

Economic Migration Migration primarily for employment and livelihood improvement.

Social Migration Migration due to family, marriage, or social networks.

Environmental Movement driven by environmental factors like floods, erosion, or

Migration drought.

Migration due to political instability, displacement by projects, or

Political Migration
conflict.

5. Based on Grouping
Type Description

Individual
Movement of an individual alone.
Migration

Family Migration Movement of entire families for better living conditions.

46 | P a g e

Type Description

Large groups moving together, often in response to disasters or major

Mass Migration
development projects.

Conclusion

The classification of internal migration helps in understanding the diverse motivations, patterns,
and impacts of population movements within a country.
In Bangladesh, for example, rural-to-urban migration dominates due to economic opportunities
and environmental vulnerabilities.

If you want, I can also prepare: ✅ A mind map for all types
✅ Case studies (especially for Bangladesh)
✅ Quick one-page summary for exams
✅ Diagram showing flow of migration types

Would you like that? 📄✨

Here’s a clean and clear note on the Types of Internal Migration, with definitions and
examples—perfect for academic use:

📦 Types of Internal Migration

Internal migration refers to the movement of people within the same country’s borders,
typically for economic, environmental, social, or political reasons.

1. Rural to Urban Migration

• Definition: Movement from villages or rural areas to cities and towns.

• Cause: Search for better employment, education, healthcare, and lifestyle.
• Example: A young person moving from a village in Rajshahi to Dhaka for factory work.

2. Rural to Rural Migration

47 | P a g e

• Definition: Movement from one rural area to another.

• Cause: Agricultural work, marriage, land acquisition, or seasonal labor.
• Example: A farming family relocating from one village in Barisal to another in Khulna
for better farming land.

3. Urban to Rural Migration

• Definition: Movement from cities to rural areas.

• Cause: Retirement, reverse migration, land investment, or escape from urban stress.
• Example: A retired government officer leaving Dhaka to settle in a village near Comilla.

4. Urban to Urban Migration

• Definition: Movement from one city or town to another.

• Cause: Job transfers, business opportunities, or better living conditions.
• Example: A bank employee moving from Chattogram to Sylhet after a job promotion.

5. Interregional Migration

• Definition: Movement between different administrative or geographical regions within

the country.
• Cause: Natural disasters, employment, education, or family reasons.
• Example: A family relocating from the flood-prone northern region to a safer, more
developed area in the southwest.

4o

You said:

causes of internal migration

ChatGPT said:

Of course! Here is a well-organized, high-quality note on the Causes of Internal Migration,

perfect for your master’s in geography:
48 | P a g e

Causes of Internal Migration

Internal migration is influenced by a combination of push and pull factors that encourage
people to move within the borders of their own country. These factors are interconnected and
vary according to socio-economic, environmental, and political contexts.

1. Economic Causes (Major Factor)

• Employment Opportunities
Lack of jobs in rural areas pushes people toward cities with better employment prospects.
• Income Disparities
Higher wages and living standards in urban or industrial areas attract rural workers.
• Poverty and Economic Hardship
Migration as a survival strategy from economically depressed regions.
• Agricultural Instability
Low productivity or land fragmentation forces farmers to seek alternative livelihoods.

Example: Rural population moving to Dhaka for garment industry jobs.

2. Social Causes

• Education
Migration for access to better schools, colleges, and universities.
• Marriage and Family Reunification
Migration for marriage or to join family members already residing elsewhere.
• Urban Lifestyle and Modern Facilities
Desire for better healthcare, housing, transportation, and entertainment.

Example: Students from rural areas migrating to cities like Rajshahi or Chattogram.

3. Environmental Causes

• Natural Disasters
Floods, cyclones, river erosion, and droughts displace rural populations.
• Environmental Degradation
Soil erosion, salinity intrusion, or deforestation reduce land productivity.
• Climate Change Impact
Rising sea levels and increasing salinity in coastal areas of Bangladesh.

Example: Migration from coastal Khulna and Barisal regions due to salinity intrusion.
49 | P a g e

4. Political and Policy Causes

• Development Projects
Infrastructure projects like dams, roads, or urban development displace communities.
• Conflict and Insecurity
Localized violence or land disputes force people to relocate.
• Government Policies
Urbanization strategies or incentives to develop specific regions.

Example: Displacement caused by river training works and embankment projects.

5. Demographic Causes

• Population Pressure
High population density in rural areas leads to migration to less crowded or more
productive areas.
• Youthful Population
Young people seek better opportunities in urban centres.
• Age and Gender Dynamics
Migration is often dominated by young male workers in search of employment.

6. Cultural and Psychological Causes

• Urban Attraction and Aspiration

Perception of city life as modern, progressive, and full of opportunities.
• Migrant Networks
Presence of relatives or acquaintances in destination areas reduces risks and costs.
• Search for Better Social Status
Migration as a strategy for upward mobility and personal development.

🔍 Causes of Internal Migration

Internal migration is influenced by multiple interrelated factors. These can be broadly grouped
into social, geographical, economic, demographic, and other causes.

1. 🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Social Factors

• Marriage: In many societies (like Bangladesh), especially among women, migration

occurs due to marriage.
• Education: Students move to cities or towns with better schools, colleges, or universities.
50 | P a g e

• Social mobility: People seek to improve their lifestyle, status, and access to services
(healthcare, entertainment, etc.).
• Example: A student from a rural area migrating to Dhaka for university education.

2. 🗺️ Geographical Factors

• Natural disasters: Floods, river erosion, cyclones, salinity, and droughts displace people.
• Environmental degradation: Land infertility, deforestation, or water scarcity can push
people out.
• Climate change effects: Sea level rise and loss of livelihoods in coastal zones trigger
migration.
• Example: Families in coastal Satkhira moving to Khulna due to salinity intrusion.

3. 💰 Economic Factors

• Employment opportunities: Major reason for rural to urban migration.

• Better wages and job diversity: Cities provide a wider range of income-generating
options.
• Land and resource access: Migration to areas with more fertile or available land.
• Example: A laborer moving from a village in Rangpur to Dhaka to work in a garment
factory.

4. 👥 Demographic Characteristics

• Young age groups: More likely to migrate in search of education or employment.

• Population pressure: High population density in rural areas pushes people to less
crowded or more developed regions.
• Household size and structure: Larger families may migrate to support livelihoods.
• Example: A young adult moving from Mymensingh to Narayanganj for industrial work.

5. ⚙️ Other Factors

• Government policy: Urban development, relocation programs, or land distribution

schemes can trigger migration.
• Conflict and political unrest: Though less common in Bangladesh, such issues can still
displace people.
51 | P a g e

• Transportation and communication: Better roads and connectivity encourage

movement.
• Cultural attractions or preferences: Desire to live near religious centers, urban culture,
etc.
• Example: A family moving from a remote area to a district town after new roads are
built.

✅ Conclusion

Internal migration is a complex process shaped by social aspirations, economic needs,

environmental conditions, and policy frameworks. Understanding its causes is essential for
planning urban development and managing rural-urban balance.

Conclusion

The causes of internal migration are multifaceted, involving economic necessity, social
aspirations, environmental vulnerabilities, and policy influences.
Understanding these causes is crucial for designing effective migration management policies and
ensuring balanced regional development.

Would you like me to also prepare: ✅ A push and pull factors table?
✅ Bangladesh-specific case study section?
✅ Flow chart for quick revision?
✅ Exam-friendly one-pager?

Just tell me! 📚✨

make a strong note on consequences of internal migration

ChatGPT said:

Sure! Here's a strong and comprehensive note on the Consequences of Internal Migration,
suitable for academic writing, class notes, or research purposes:

Consequences of Internal Migration

52 | P a g e

Internal migration, the movement of people within national boundaries, has profound and
multifaceted consequences. These effects can be categorized into economic, social,
demographic, environmental, and political dimensions, affecting both the source (origin) and
destination (receiving) areas.

1. Economic Consequences

a. On Source Areas:

• Labor shortage: Outmigration of working-age individuals can lead to a shortage of

labor, especially in agriculture and local industries.
• Decline in productivity: With fewer skilled or young workers, economic productivity
may decrease.
• Remittances: Migrants often send money back to their families, which can improve
household income and stimulate local economies.

b. On Destination Areas:

• Labor surplus: An influx of migrants can increase the labor supply, sometimes leading
to underemployment or wage depression.
• Economic growth: Migrants contribute to urban economic development, especially in
construction, informal sectors, and services.
• Pressure on infrastructure: Overcrowding may strain public services like housing,
transportation, water, and sanitation.

2. Social Consequences

a. On Source Areas:

• Social disruption: Migration may lead to the breakdown of traditional family structures
and community support systems.
• Changing gender roles: Women may take up new roles and responsibilities due to the
absence of male members.

b. On Destination Areas:

• Cultural integration/conflict: Influx of diverse groups may lead to cultural enrichment

or, at times, social tension and xenophobia.
• Urban slums: Migrants often settle in informal settlements, leading to the proliferation
of slums with poor living conditions.
• Access to services: Increased population may lead to competition over healthcare,
education, and welfare services.
53 | P a g e

3. Demographic Consequences

• Depopulation in rural areas: Persistent outmigration can lead to aging populations and
demographic imbalance in source regions.
• Urban population growth: Rapid population increase in cities may lead to unplanned
urban sprawl and demographic congestion.
• Youth bulge in cities: Young people form the bulk of migrants, influencing city
demographics and labor market dynamics.

4. Environmental Consequences

• Pressure on urban ecosystems: Overpopulation in cities can lead to pollution, waste

accumulation, and degradation of natural resources.
• Land-use change: Conversion of agricultural or natural land to residential and
commercial purposes may harm local ecosystems.
• Decreased agricultural output: Reduced workforce in rural areas may result in fallow
lands and reduced agricultural productivity.

5. Political and Governance Consequences

• Policy challenges: Managing migration requires efficient urban planning, social

integration policies, and infrastructural development.
• Governance pressure: Local governments may struggle to provide services and
maintain law and order in rapidly growing urban areas.
• Political activism: Migrant populations can influence political outcomes, leading to both
greater representation and political tension.

Conclusion

Internal migration is a double-edged sword, offering both opportunities and challenges. While it
can stimulate economic development and cultural exchange, it also poses significant social,
environmental, and political challenges, particularly when migration is rapid and unplanned.
Effective governance and inclusive development policies are essential to balance these
consequences and harness the benefits of internal migration for national development.

5. International Migration:
54 | P a g e

ChatGPT said:

Here’s a strong and detailed note on International Migration, focusing on definition, causes,
and especially the consequences—ideal for exam prep, research, or academic writing.

5. International Migration

Definition:

International migration refers to the movement of people across international borders to reside
temporarily or permanently in a country other than their country of origin. It includes voluntary
migration (e.g., for jobs, education, or family reunification) and forced migration (e.g., due to
war, persecution, or natural disasters).

Causes of International Migration:

• Economic opportunities (e.g., jobs, higher wages)

• Educational aspirations
• Political instability and conflict
• Environmental disasters
• Family reunification
• Globalization and connectivity

Consequences of International Migration

The impacts of international migration are broad and can be examined at three levels: origin
countries, destination countries, and migrants themselves.

A. Consequences for Origin Countries

1. Economic Effects:

• Remittances: A significant benefit; remittances improve household income and national

foreign exchange reserves.
• Brain drain: Skilled professionals (doctors, engineers, academics) often migrate, causing
a loss of human capital.
55 | P a g e

• Labor shortage: Departure of the working-age population may affect sectors like
agriculture and manufacturing.

2. Social Effects:

• Changed family structures: Families may become dependent on one member abroad;
children may grow up without parental support.
• Social remittances: Migrants bring back new ideas, behaviors, and values that can
influence social norms.

3. Demographic Effects:

• Youth and male outmigration: Alters population structure, often leaving behind
women, children, and the elderly.

B. Consequences for Destination Countries

1. Economic Effects:

• Labor force enhancement: Migrants often fill labor shortages in key sectors like
agriculture, construction, and healthcare.
• Entrepreneurship: Many migrants start businesses, contributing to economic dynamism.
• Pressure on public services: Influx may strain healthcare, housing, education, and
welfare systems.

2. Social and Cultural Effects:

• Cultural diversity: Migration fosters multiculturalism, enriching societies with new

traditions, languages, and cuisines.
• Social tension and xenophobia: Sudden influx or poor integration may cause backlash,
discrimination, or rise of anti-immigrant sentiment.
• Integration challenges: Language barriers and cultural differences may hinder
assimilation.

3. Political Effects:

• Policy reforms: Immigration often becomes a central issue in politics, influencing

elections and public debates.
• Security concerns: Some governments view migration as a security issue, leading to
stricter border controls.
56 | P a g e

C. Consequences for Migrants Themselves

• Opportunities for better living standards, income, and education.

• Risk of exploitation, especially for undocumented migrants (e.g., low pay, unsafe
working conditions).
• Psychological stress: Cultural shock, separation from family, and discrimination may
impact mental health.
• Legal challenges: Issues with visa status, citizenship, and legal protection may arise.

Conclusion:

International migration is a powerful force shaping global demographics, economies, and

societies. While it presents numerous opportunities for development, growth, and cultural
exchange, it also raises critical challenges related to inequality, integration, brain drain, and
governance. Balanced and humane migration policies are essential to maximize the benefits
while minimizing adverse consequences.

Let me know if you need this as a short version, bullet points, or specific to Bangladesh (like
migrant workers in the Middle East), and I can adapt it!

4o

You said:

Types of it
ChatGPT said:

Sure! Here's a concise and structured explanation of the Types of International Migration,
perfect for academic use or exam preparation:

Types of International Migration

International migration can be classified based on duration, cause, legal status, and direction
of movement. Below are the key types:
57 | P a g e

1. Based on Duration

a. Permanent Migration:

• Migrants relocate to another country with no intention of returning.

• Often involves obtaining permanent residency or citizenship.
• Example: Family migration to settle in Canada or Australia.

b. Temporary Migration:

• Movement for a specific period, often for work, study, or seasonal needs.
• Example: Seasonal workers in agriculture in Europe or students on a visa.

2. Based on Cause

a. Voluntary Migration:

• Migrants move by choice for better opportunities, education, or living standards.

• Example: Skilled professionals moving to the US for jobs.

b. Forced Migration:

• Migration due to conflict, persecution, environmental disasters, or human trafficking.

• Example: Refugees fleeing war in Syria or climate refugees from island nations.

3. Based on Legal Status

a. Legal/Documented Migration:

• Migrants move through official channels with proper documentation like visas or work
permits.
• Example: H-1B visa holders in the USA.

b. Illegal/Undocumented Migration:

• Movement without proper legal authorization.

• Often results in vulnerability to exploitation.
• Example: Border crossings without visas or overstaying a visa.

4. Based on Skill Level

a. Skilled Migration:
58 | P a g e

• Highly educated or professionally trained individuals.

• Example: Engineers, IT professionals migrating to developed countries.

b. Unskilled Migration:

• Involves manual laborers or domestic workers.

• Example: Construction workers from South Asia migrating to the Middle East.

5. Based on Direction of Movement

a. South-North Migration:

• From developing (Global South) to developed (Global North) countries.

• Dominant form of migration.
• Example: Workers from Bangladesh migrating to the UK or Italy.

b. South-South Migration:

• Between developing countries.

• Increasing trend in recent years.
• Example: Nepalese migrants working in India or Bangladeshi migrants in Malaysia.

c. North-North Migration:

• Between developed countries.

• Often involves professionals or retirees.
• Example: Canadians migrating to the USA or Germans to Switzerland.

d. North-South Migration:

• From developed to developing countries, often for investment, retirement, or

volunteering.
• Example: Europeans settling in Thailand for retirement.

Conclusion

Understanding the different types of international migration is essential for analyzing

migration trends, formulating policy responses, and studying global demographic shifts. These
classifications help in identifying the underlying causes, challenges, and impacts on both origin
and destination countries.
59 | P a g e

Let me know if you'd like a diagram or chart version of this for easier memorization or
presentation!

4o

You said:

causes of it
ChatGPT said:

Here’s a well-structured note on the Causes of International Migration, covering the main
drivers from multiple perspectives—perfect for exams, essays, or presentations.

Causes of International Migration

International migration is driven by a variety of economic, social, political, and environmental

factors. These are often categorized into “push” factors (reasons that force people to leave their
country) and “pull” factors (reasons that attract them to another country).

🌍 1. Economic Causes

Push Factors:

• Unemployment and underemployment

• Low wages
• Poverty and lack of economic opportunity

Pull Factors:

• Higher wages and better job opportunities

• Demand for labor in developed countries
• Access to global markets and better living standards

Example: Migration of South Asian workers to the Middle East for construction and domestic
jobs.

�� �2. Social Causes

Push Factors:
60 | P a g e

• Limited educational and healthcare facilities

• Social inequality or lack of mobility
• Gender discrimination

Pull Factors:

• Better education and healthcare systems

• Greater social freedom and quality of life
• Family reunification or diaspora networks

Example: Students from Bangladesh moving to Europe or North America for higher studies.

🏛️ 3. Political Causes

Push Factors:

• Political instability
• Armed conflict or civil war
• Persecution based on race, religion, or political opinion

Pull Factors:

• Political stability and safety

• Democratic governance and human rights
• Asylum and refugee protection policies

Example: Refugees from Syria seeking asylum in Europe.

🌪️ 4. Environmental Causes

Push Factors:

• Natural disasters (floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes)

• Climate change (sea-level rise, desertification)
• Degradation of natural resources

Pull Factors:

• Favorable climate and safer environments

• Access to clean water, arable land, or habitable zones

Example: People from low-lying Pacific islands migrating due to sea-level rise.
61 | P a g e

🌐 5. Technological and Globalization Factors

• Increased global connectivity (transportation and communication)

• Awareness of opportunities abroad via internet and media
• Easier access to information about migration procedures

🧭 6. Policy and Legal Causes

• Immigration-friendly laws and work visa systems

• Recruitment policies by destination countries
• Bilateral labor migration agreements

Example: Gulf countries actively recruiting labor from South Asia.

Conclusion

International migration is a complex phenomenon influenced by a mix of push and pull factors.
Understanding its causes is essential for shaping migration policies, supporting migrants, and
addressing root problems such as inequality, conflict, and environmental change.

Let me know if you’d like this summarized into bullet points, visual mind maps, or customized
for a country like Bangladesh.

4o

You said:

consequences of it
ChatGPT said:

Here is a strong and detailed note on the Consequences of International Migration, covering
economic, social, political, and environmental impacts—organized clearly and ideal for
academic writing or exam prep.
62 | P a g e

✅ Consequences of International Migration

International migration significantly impacts origin countries, destination countries, and the
migrants themselves. These consequences can be both positive and negative.

🔶 A. Consequences for Origin Countries

✅ Positive:

1. Remittances
o Migrants send money home, boosting household income and national foreign
reserves.
o Major source of foreign currency in countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and the
Philippines.
2. Skill and Knowledge Transfer
o Returning migrants bring back skills, experience, and ideas that can boost
development.
3. Unemployment Relief
o Reduces pressure on the domestic job market, especially in overpopulated
countries.

❌ Negative:

1. Brain Drain
o Loss of skilled professionals (doctors, engineers, teachers), weakening vital
sectors.
2. Labor Shortage
o Migration of working-age people can lead to a shortage in agriculture or industry.
3. Social Impact
o Family separation may cause psychological issues and affect child development.

🔷 B. Consequences for Destination Countries

✅ Positive:

1. Labor Force Supply

o Migrants fill labor shortages, especially in sectors like construction, healthcare,
agriculture, and hospitality.
2. Economic Growth
63 | P a g e

o
Migrants contribute to GDP through taxes, labor, and consumer spending.
3. Cultural Diversity
o Brings multiculturalism, new languages, cuisines, art, and traditions.

❌ Negative:

1. Pressure on Infrastructure
o Sudden influx can strain public services like housing, healthcare, education, and
transport.
2. Social Tensions
o Risk of xenophobia, racism, or cultural clashes if integration policies are weak.
3. Security and Legal Issues
o Illegal migration may raise concerns about crime, border security, and social
unrest.

🧍 C. Consequences for Migrants Themselves

✅ Positive:

1. Better Living Standards

o Higher income, access to better healthcare, education, and quality of life.
2. Opportunities for Growth
o Professional development, global exposure, and future family benefits.

❌ Negative:

1. Exploitation and Abuse

o Vulnerability to low wages, unsafe work conditions, especially among
undocumented migrants.
2. Legal and Citizenship Issues
o Risk of deportation or legal complications in host countries.
3. Cultural Shock and Isolation
o Stress due to language barriers, cultural differences, or racism.

🌍 D. Global-Level Consequences

1. Global Inequality
o Migration reflects and can worsen inequalities between rich and poor nations.
2. Diaspora Networks
64 | P a g e

o
Strengthen international relations and business between countries.
3. Spread of Ideas and Technology
o Accelerates globalization and transfer of innovation.

✅ Conclusion

International migration brings both opportunities and challenges. It can boost economic
growth, transfer skills, and enhance cultural exchange—but also create issues like brain drain,
social tension, and policy stress. Managing migration with fair policies and integration strategies
is essential for maximizing benefits and minimizing drawbacks.

Let me know if you'd like this version summarized into bullet points, a table, or focused on
Bangladesh specifically.

4o

You said:

selecting migration and overseas migration from Bangladesh.

ChatGPT said:

Great! Here's a strong academic-style note focusing on Migration and Overseas Migration
from Bangladesh, covering types, causes, destinations, and consequences—perfect for
assignments, presentations, or exam prep.

🇧🇩 Migration and Overseas Migration from Bangladesh

🔹 1. Overview of Migration in Bangladesh

Migration, both internal and international, plays a vital role in Bangladesh’s economy, society,
and development. Due to population pressure, economic disparity, environmental vulnerabilities,
and global labor demand, Bangladesh has become one of the top labor-exporting countries in the
world.

🔹 2. Types of Migration in Bangladesh

65 | P a g e

A. Internal Migration

• Movement within the country, mainly rural to urban.

• Driven by poverty, unemployment, and environmental factors (e.g., river erosion, floods).
• Major destination cities: Dhaka, Chattogram, Khulna, Rajshahi.
• Types: Seasonal, rural-urban, urban-urban, and distress migration.

B. International/Overseas Migration

• Migration beyond national borders.

• Mostly temporary labor migration, but also includes permanent migration, student
migration, and family reunification.

🔹 3. Causes of Overseas Migration from Bangladesh

✅ Push Factors (from Bangladesh):

• High unemployment and poverty.

• Low wages and limited job opportunities.
• Natural hazards like floods, cyclones, salinity intrusion.
• Political instability and limited upward mobility.

✅ Pull Factors (in host countries):

• High demand for low-skilled labor (e.g., construction, domestic work, manufacturing).
• Higher wages and better living standards.
• Existing Bangladeshi communities abroad (diaspora support).
• Favorable migration policies (e.g., Gulf recruitment, Malaysian labor programs).

🔹 4. Key Destination Countries

Region Countries

Middle East Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Oman, Kuwait

Southeast Asia Malaysia, Singapore

Europe UK, Italy, Greece

North America USA, Canada

66 | P a g e

Region Countries

Others South Korea, Maldives, Libya (in past decades)

🔹 5. Consequences of Overseas Migration from Bangladesh

✅ Positive Impacts

• Remittances: A major source of foreign currency (over $21 billion annually); contributes
to national GDP.
• Poverty Reduction: Helps improve living standards and education levels in migrant
households.
• Human Capital Development: Exposure to skills and global work culture.
• Social Mobility: Migrants often invest in land, housing, and small businesses after
return.

❌ Negative Impacts

• Brain Drain: Skilled professionals (doctors, engineers) often do not return.

• Exploitation: Migrants face unsafe conditions, wage theft, or abuse—especially in the
Gulf.
• Family Separation: Emotional and social strain due to long-term separation.
• Irregular Migration: Many migrants travel through unsafe, illegal routes (e.g., via
Libya, Mediterranean).

🔹 6. Government and Policy Initiatives

• BMET (Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training): Provides training and

oversees labor migration.
• BOESL (Bangladesh Overseas Employment and Services Ltd): Promotes safe migration.
• Wage Earners’ Welfare Board: Provides services to migrants and their families.
• Migration policy frameworks: Bangladesh Overseas Employment Policy (2006),
Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment Policy (2016).

✅ Conclusion

Migration—especially overseas labor migration—remains a lifeline for Bangladesh’s economy.

While it offers major economic benefits through remittances and development, it also poses
67 | P a g e

challenges related to migrant rights, safety, and long-term sustainability. Balanced policies,
international cooperation, and support systems are crucial for maximizing its positive impact.