Okay, here’s a comprehensive set of notes from the provided lecture transcript, structured for easy

understanding and revision for SSC CGL 2024.

NoteGPT: Geography One-Shot Lecture (Parmar SSC)

Lecture Outline:
1. World Geography
– Origin of the Universe
– Solar System
– Shape of the Earth
– Latitudes and Longitudes
– Earth’s Motions (Rotation, Revolution, Seasons, Eclipses, Tides)
– Earth’s Interior
– Plate Tectonics & Related Phenomena (Earthquakes, Volcanoes)
– Ocean Floor Relief
– Mountains
– Rocks
– Weathering & Erosion
– Atmosphere
– Climate & Factors Affecting It (Pressure Belts, Winds, Ocean Currents)
– Köppen Climate Classification
2. Indian Geography
– India: Location, Extent, Boundaries
– Indian Monsoon System
– Physiographic Divisions of India
– River Systems of India
– Soils of India
– Agriculture in India
– Natural Vegetation (Forests) of India
– Minerals of India
3. Miscellaneous Topics
– World Grasslands
– Cyclones
– Important Lakes (Brief)
– Landforms (Riverine, Glacial, Aeolian, Coastal, Groundwater)
– Albedo

1. WORLD GEOGRAPHY

A. Origin of the Universe

• Big Bang Theory:
– Proposed by: Georges Lemaître (1931).
– Concept: Universe originated from an explosion of a singular, infinitely dense point
(singularity).
– Evidence: Universe is continuously expanding (distance between galaxies/stars is
increasing).
• Steady State Theory:
– Proposed by: Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Hermann Bondi (1948).
 – Concept: Universe is expanding, but new matter is continuously created to maintain a
constant density.
• Cosmology: Study of the origin and evolution of the universe.
• Galaxies: Universe comprises many galaxies (e.g., our Milky Way Galaxy). Each galaxy has
many solar systems.

B. Constellations
• Definition: A group of stars forming a recognizable pattern.
• Important Constellations:
– Orion (The Hunter / Kalpurush):
• Shape: Resembles a hunter with a bow and arrow.
• Brightest Star: Rigel.
– Cassiopeia:
• Shape: W-shape.
– Ursa Major (Sapt Rishi / Great Bear):
• Composed of 7 prominent stars.
• Contains an asterism (a smaller, recognizable pattern within a constellation)
called the Big Dipper.

C. The Solar System

• Nebular Hypothesis:

– Proposed by: Immanuel Kant (German philosopher), revised by Pierre-Simon Laplace

(1796).
– Concept: Solar system formed from a rotating cloud of dust and gases (nebula). Lighter
gases (H, He) concentrated at the center (Sun), with rings of material forming planets.
• The Sun:

– Center of the solar system.

– Composition: Primarily Hydrogen (70%) and Helium.
– Outer Layer: Corona.
– Aditya-L1 Mission (ISRO): Placed at Lagrange Point L1 (a gravitationally stable point
between Earth and Sun).
 Rotation/
• Planets (8 Major Planets):Key Revolution Other
Planet Features Satellites Notes Names/Facts
• Moon (Earth’s Satellite):
Mercury Closest to None Fastest Budh
Sun Revolution
(88 Earth
days)

Venus None Slowest Shukra;

Rotation Earth’s Twin,
(243 Earth Morning/Eve
days), E to ning Star,
W Brightest,
Hottest (CO2,
H2SO4
clouds)

Earth Only 1 (Moon) Rotation: Blue Planet

habitable, 23h 56m; (71% water)
Densest Revolution:
365d 6h
9m
Mars Iron 2 Red Planet;
Oxide (Phobos, Nix Olympia
presence Deimos) (highest
mountain)
Jupiter Largest Many Fastest Brihaspati;
planet, (e.g., Rotation Ganymede
Gaseous Ganymed (~10 (largest moon
e) hours) in SS);
Galilean
Moons (Io,
Europa,
Ganymede,
Callisto -
discovered by
Galileo);
Ozone on
Callisto.
Saturn Lowest Many Shani; Titan
density (e.g., (largest),
(can float Titan) Enceladus
on (life possible);
water), Rings
Prominen observed by
t Rings Galileo, gap by
Cassini.
Uranus Methane Many Rotates E Arun; Green
 – Non-luminous (reflects sunlight).
– Rotation period = Revolution period (~27 days), so only one side is visible from Earth.
• Dwarf Planets: Do not meet all criteria for a true planet.

– Examples: Ceres (in asteroid belt), Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris (in Kuiper Belt).
– Ceres: Largest asteroid, closest dwarf planet to Earth.
– Makemake: Orbits Sun in 310 Earth years.
• Asteroid Belt: Located between Mars and Jupiter.

• Kuiper Belt: Region beyond Neptune containing icy bodies and dwarf planets.

• Planet Classification:

– Inner/Terrestrial Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (rocky, smaller).

– Outer/Jovian/Gaseous Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (gas giants, larger).
Uranus & Neptune are also “Ice Giants”.
• Planet Size Order (Largest to Smallest): Jupiter > Saturn > Uranus > Neptune > Earth >
Venus > Mars > Mercury (Mnemonic: J SUN E V M)

D. Shape of the Earth

• Actual Shape: Geoid or Oblate Spheroid (bulges at the equator, flattened at the poles).
• Reason for shape: Earth’s rotation (centrifugal force).
• Consequences:
– Equatorial radius > Polar radius.
– Acceleration due to gravity (g) is higher at poles, lower at equator (g ∝ 1/r²).
• Earth’s Tilt:
– On its axis: 23.5°
– Relative to its orbital plane: 66.5° (90° - 23.5°)

E. Latitudes and Longitudes

• Imaginary lines used for location.
• Latitudes (Parallels):
– Horizontal lines, run E-W.
– Full circles, parallel to each other.
– Equator (0°) is the largest, divides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres. It’s a
Great Circle.
– Range: 0° to 90° North (N) and 0° to 90° South (S).
– Total Latitudes: 90 (N) + 90 (S) + 1 (Equator) = 181.
– Total Latitudinal Circles: 179 (90°N and 90°S are points).
– Distance between 1° latitude ≈ 111 km.
• Longitudes (Meridians):
– Vertical lines, run N-S.
– Semi-circles, converge at the poles.
– Prime Meridian (0°), passes through Greenwich, London. Divides Earth into Eastern and
Western Hemispheres.
– Range: 0° to 180° East (E) and 0° to 180° West (W).
– Total Longitudes: 360.
– Distance between longitudes is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles.
– All longitudes, when paired with their opposite meridian, form Great Circles.
• International Date Line (IDL): Roughly 180° longitude. Zigzag line. Crossing West to East =
Gain a day; East to West = Lose a day.
• Important Latitudes:
 – Equator: 0°
– Tropic of Cancer: 23.5° N
– Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5° S
– Arctic Circle: 66.5° N
– Antarctic Circle: 66.5° S
– North Pole: 90° N
– South Pole: 90° S

F. Earth’s Motions
• Rotation:
– Spinning of Earth on its axis.
– Time: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds (approx. 24 hours).
– Causes: Day and Night.
• Revolution:
– Movement of Earth around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
– Time: 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes (approx. 365.25 days).
– Causes: Seasons (due to revolution AND Earth’s axial tilt).
• Key Positions during Revolution:
– Summer Solstice (N. Hemisphere): Around June 21. Sun directly overhead Tropic of
Cancer. Longest day in N. Hemisphere.
– Winter Solstice (N. Hemisphere): Around December 22. Sun directly overhead
Tropic of Capricorn. Shortest day in N. Hemisphere.
– Vernal (Spring) Equinox: Around March 21. Sun directly overhead Equator. Equal day
and night.
– Autumnal Equinox: Around September 23. Sun directly overhead Equator. Equal day
and night.
• Perihelion: Around January 3. Earth closest to the Sun.
• Aphelion: Around July 4. Earth farthest from the Sun.
• Eclipses:
– Lunar Eclipse: Earth comes between Sun and Moon. Occurs on a Full Moon (Purnima).
– Solar Eclipse: Moon comes between Sun and Earth. Occurs on a New Moon
(Amavasya).
• Tides: Periodic rise and fall of sea levels.
– Caused by: Gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, and Earth’s rotation (centrifugal
force). Moon has a greater effect.
– Spring Tides: Sun, Earth, Moon aligned (Full/New Moon). High tidal range.
– Neap Tides: Sun, Earth, Moon at 90° angle. Low tidal range.

G. Earth’s Interior
• Layers:

1. Crust (Outer Layer):

• Continental Crust: Thicker (avg. 30-70 km), less dense, granitic. Rich in Silica &
Aluminium (SIAL).
• Oceanic Crust: Thinner (avg. 5-10 km), denser, basaltic.
• Overall Crust Composition (by weight): Oxygen (46.6%), Silicon (27.7%),
Aluminium (8.1%), Iron (5%). Mnemonic: OSIAL (Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium,
Iron, Calcium…)
2. Mantle (Middle Layer):
• Extends up to 2900 km depth.
• Rich in Silica & Magnesium (SIMA).
 • Upper Mantle (solid) + Crust = Lithosphere (approx. 100-200 km thick).
• Asthenosphere: Semi-molten, plastic layer below lithosphere, on which
lithospheric plates move. Source of magma.
3. Core (Innermost Layer):
• Rich in Nickel & Iron (NIFE).
• Outer Core: Liquid state. Responsible for Earth’s magnetic field.
• Inner Core: Solid state (due to immense pressure).
• Discontinuities (Boundaries between layers):

– Mnemonic: Conrad Mohorovicic Repetti Gutenberg Lehmann (Come Meet Rich Guy
Later)
– Conrad: Between Upper and Lower Crust.
– Mohorovičić (Moho): Between Crust and Mantle.
– Repetti: Between Upper and Lower Mantle.
– Gutenberg: Between Mantle and Core.
– Lehmann: Between Outer and Inner Core.
• Percentage by Volume & Mass:

Layer % by Volume (approx) % by Mass (approx)

Crust 1% 0.5%
Mantl 84% 68%
e
Core 15% 31.5%
(Note: Lecturer mentioned slightly different mass percentages, 1% Crust, 68% Mantle, 31% Core.
The table above is a common representation, but stick to lecturer’s values if specified for exam.)

H. Plate Tectonics
• Lithospheric Plates: Earth’s crust and upper mantle are broken into large and small plates
that move over the asthenosphere.
– Major Plates (7): Pacific, North American, South American, Eurasian, African,
Australian-Indian, Antarctic.
– Minor Plates: Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean, Scotia, Arabian, Philippine, Juan de Fuca etc.
• Continental Drift Theory:
– Proposed by: Alfred Wegener (1912).
– Concept: All continents were once a single supercontinent called Pangaea, surrounded
by a superocean called Panthalassa. Pangaea broke apart and continents drifted to
their current positions.
– Evidence: Jigsaw fit of continents, fossil distribution, similar rock formations,
paleoclimatic evidence, gold veins.
• Driving Force: Convection currents in the mantle (proposed by Arthur Holmes).
• Sea Floor Spreading:
– Proposed by: Harry Hess.
– Concept: New oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridges and spreads outwards.
Older crust is subducted at trenches.
– Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Rocks are younger near the ridge, older away from it.
• Plate Boundaries:
1. Divergent (Constructive): Plates move apart. Magma rises, new crust forms (e.g., Mid-
Oceanic Ridges, rift valleys).
2. Convergent (Destructive): Plates collide.
 • Oceanic-Continental: Denser oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate.
Forms trenches, volcanic mountain arcs (e.g., Andes).
• Oceanic-Oceanic: Older, denser plate subducts. Forms trenches, volcanic island
arcs (e.g., Japan).
• Continental-Continental: Neither subducts easily. Crust buckles, forms fold
mountains (e.g., Himalayas).
3. Transform (Conservative): Plates slide past each other horizontally. No creation or
destruction of crust. Causes earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).
• Ring of Fire (Circum-Pacific Belt): Zone of high volcanic and seismic activity around the
Pacific Ocean, coinciding with convergent plate boundaries.

I. Earthquakes
• Definition: Sudden shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by the release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere (often due to plate movement).
• Focus (Hypocenter): The point within the Earth where the earthquake originates.
• Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus. Maximum damage usually
occurs here.
• Seismic Waves:
– Body Waves: Travel through Earth’s interior.
• P-waves (Primary): Fastest, longitudinal, travel through solids, liquids, and
gases.
• S-waves (Secondary): Slower, transverse, travel only through solids. (S-wave
shadow zone is larger).
– Surface Waves (L-waves & R-waves): Travel along Earth’s surface. Slower but most
destructive.
• Measurement:
– Seismograph: Instrument to detect and record earthquake waves.
– Richter Scale: Measures earthquake magnitude (energy released). Logarithmic.
– Mercalli Scale: Measures earthquake intensity (effect on humans, structures). (Range
1-12).

J. Volcanoes & Volcanic Landforms (covered with Mountains/Rocks)

K. Ocean Floor Relief

• Major Relief Features:
1. Continental Shelf: Gently sloping, shallow, submerged extension of a continent.
Average slope <1°. Widest near Siberia. Rich in petroleum, natural gas, fishing grounds.
2. Continental Slope: Steep drop from shelf to deep ocean floor. Slope 2-5° or more.
3. Continental Rise: Gently sloping accumulation of sediments at the base of the slope.
4. Abyssal Plain (Deep Sea Plain): Vast, flat to gently sloping areas of the deep ocean
floor.
• Minor Relief Features:
– Mid-Oceanic Ridges: Underwater mountain ranges (divergent boundaries).
– Seamounts: Submarine mountains, volcanic in origin, do not reach surface.
– Guyots (Tablemounts): Flat-topped seamounts (eroded by waves).
– Oceanic Trenches: Deep, narrow depressions (convergent boundaries, subduction
zones). E.g., Mariana Trench (deepest).
– Atolls: Ring-shaped coral reefs enclosing a lagoon.

L. Mountains
• Types based on formation:
 1. Fold Mountains: Formed by compression and folding of rock strata (convergent
boundaries).
• Young Fold Mountains: Geologically recent, high peaks, rugged. E.g.,
Himalayas, Andes (longest range), Rockies, Alps.
• Old Fold Mountains: Older, lower, more rounded due to erosion. E.g., Aravalis
(India), Urals (Russia, separate Asia/Europe), Appalachians (USA).
2. Block Mountains (Fault-Block): Formed by tensional or compressional forces causing
faulting and displacement of large blocks of crust.
• Horst: Uplifted block.
• Graben (Rift Valley): Down-dropped block.
• E.g., Vosges (France), Harz (Germany), Vindhya & Satpura (India), Sierra
Nevada (USA).
3. Volcanic Mountains (Accumulation): Formed by accumulation of volcanic material
(lava, ash).
• E.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania, highest free-standing), Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt.
Cotopaxi (Ecuador), Ojos del Salado (Argentina/Chile, highest active
volcano), Mt. Stromboli (Italy, “Lighthouse of the Mediterranean”), Mt. Etna
(Italy).

M. Rocks
• Study of rocks: Petrology.
• Rock Cycle: Continuous process of transformation between rock types.
• Types of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks (Primary Rocks): Formed from cooling and solidification of magma
(molten rock beneath surface) or lava (molten rock on surface).
• Intrusive (Plutonic): Magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface. Large
crystals. E.g., Granite, Gabbro, Diorite.
– Landforms: Batholith (large irregular mass), Laccolith (dome-shaped),
Lopolith (saucer-shaped), Phacolith (lens-shaped in folds), Sill (horizontal
sheet), Dyke (vertical sheet).
• Extrusive (Volcanic): Lava cools rapidly on Earth’s surface. Small crystals or
glassy. E.g., Basalt, Pumice, Obsidian, Rhyolite.
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by accumulation, compaction, and cementation
(lithification) of sediments.
• Often stratified (layered) and contain fossils.
• Mechanically Formed (Clastic): From rock fragments. E.g., Sandstone, Shale,
Conglomerate.
• Chemically Formed: From precipitation of minerals. E.g., Limestone (some
types), Rock Salt, Gypsum.
• Organically Formed: From remains of organisms. E.g., Coal, Limestone (from
shells/corals), Chalk.
• Term: Lithification (process of sediment becoming rock).
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Formed when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks are changed
by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions.
• Foliation/Lineation: Alignment of mineral grains (e.g., in Gneiss, Schist, Slate).
• Banding: Alternating light and dark layers (e.g., in Gneiss).
• Examples of transformations:
– Granite (Igneous) → Gneiss
– Shale (Sedimentary) → Slate → Phyllite → Schist
– Sandstone (Sedimentary) → Quartzite
– Limestone (Sedimentary) → Marble
 – Basalt (Igneous) → Schist / Amphibolite
– Coal (Sedimentary) → Graphite / Anthracite (high-grade coal is
sometimes considered metamorphic)

N. Weathering & Erosion (Denudation Processes)

• Exogenic Forces: Originate from outside the Earth (primarily Sun-driven). E.g., wind, water,
ice, temperature changes. Generally destructive/degradational.
• Endogenic Forces: Originate from within the Earth. E.g., plate tectonics, volcanism. Generally
constructive/aggradational.
– Diastrophism: Slow, large-scale Earth movements.
• Orogenic: Mountain building.
• Epeirogenic: Continent building (uplift/subsidence).
• Denudation: Overall lowering of Earth’s surface by weathering and erosion.
• Weathering: In-situ (on-site) breakdown and decomposition of rocks.
– Physical/Mechanical: Disintegration without chemical change (e.g., frost action,
thermal expansion/contraction).
– Chemical: Decomposition by chemical reactions (e.g., oxidation, carbonation,
hydration).
– Biological: Breakdown by living organisms (e.g., plant roots, burrowing animals).
• Erosion: Removal and transportation of weathered material by agents like water, wind, ice,
gravity.

O. Atmosphere
• Definition: Envelope of gases surrounding the Earth, held by gravity.
• Evolution of Atmosphere:
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere (H, He stripped by solar winds).
2. Degassing: Volcanic eruptions released gases (water vapor, CO2, N2, etc.).
3. Modification by life: Photosynthesis by early organisms (bacteria, algae) produced
Oxygen.
– Earth’s age: ~4.5 billion years. Life appeared ~3.8 billion years ago.
• Layers of Atmosphere (from surface upwards):
1. Troposphere:
• Height: 0-8 km (poles), 0-18 km (equator). Average ~13 km.
• All weather phenomena occur here. “Region of mixing” (Tropos=mixing).
• Temperature decreases with altitude (Normal Lapse Rate: ~6.5°C per km).
• Contains ~75-80% of atmospheric mass.
• Tropopause: Boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
2. Stratosphere:
• Height: Up to ~50 km.
• Contains Ozone Layer (absorbs UV radiation).
• Temperature increases with altitude (due to UV absorption by ozone).
• Ideal for jet aircraft flight (stable, no weather).
• Stratopause: Boundary.
3. Mesosphere:
• Height: Up to ~80-85 km.
• Coldest layer.
• Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Meteors burn up here (“shooting stars”).
• Mesopause: Boundary.
4. Thermosphere (Ionosphere):
 • Height: Above 80-85 km.
• Temperature increases significantly with altitude.
• Contains ionized gas particles (ions) that reflect radio waves (important for
communication).
• Auroras (Northern/Southern Lights) occur here.
5. Exosphere:
• Outermost layer, merges with outer space. Very thin.
• Composition of Troposphere (Dry Air by Volume):
– Nitrogen (N2): ~78% (used in tires, chips packets - unreactive)
– Oxygen (O2): ~21%
– Argon (Ar): ~0.9% (used in double-pane windows as insulator)
– Carbon Dioxide (CO2): ~0.04% (was 0.036%)
– Trace gases: Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Hydrogen, Water Vapor (variable).
• Water Distribution on Earth:
– Total Water: Oceans (97.2%), Freshwater (2.8%).
– Freshwater Distribution: Glaciers & Ice Caps (68.7%), Groundwater (30.1%), Surface
water (lakes, rivers etc. <1%).
– Aquifer: Underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock.

P. Climate and Factors Affecting It

• Weather vs. Climate:
– Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions.
– Climate: Long-term (average ~30 years) weather patterns.
• Factors Influencing Climate:
1. Latitude: Temperature generally decreases from equator to poles.
2. Altitude: Temperature generally decreases with increasing height.
3. Continentality (Distance from Sea):
• Coastal areas: Moderate climate (smaller temperature range) due to sea’s
moderating influence (water heats/cools slower than land).
• Inland areas: Extreme climate (larger temperature range).
4. Ocean Currents: Warm currents bring warmth, cold currents bring coolness to coastal
regions.
5. Pressure and Wind Systems: Global circulation patterns redistribute heat.
6. Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation): Amount of solar energy received. Varies with
latitude, season, time of day.
• Earth is heated primarily by terrestrial radiation (longwave radiation re-
emitted by Earth) trapped by greenhouse gases, not directly by shortwave
insolation. This is the Greenhouse Effect.
• Global Pressure Belts and Winds:
– Air moves from High Pressure (HP) to Low Pressure (LP).
– Warm air rises (LP), cold air sinks (HP).
– Coriolis Force: Deflects moving objects (like wind) to the Right in Northern
Hemisphere, Left in Southern Hemisphere. Zero at equator, maximum at poles. Caused
by Earth’s rotation.
– Pressure Belts:
• Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (Doldrums / ITCZ - Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone).
• Subtropical High Pressure Belts (~30° N/S - Horse Latitudes).
• Subpolar Low Pressure Belts (~60° N/S).
• Polar High Pressure Belts (Poles).
 – Planetary Winds (Permanent Winds):
• Trade Winds (Easterlies): Blow from Subtropical Highs to Equatorial Low. NE
Trades (N.H.), SE Trades (S.H.).
• Westerlies: Blow from Subtropical Highs to Subpolar Lows. Stronger in S.
Hemisphere (Roaring Forties 40°S, Furious Fifties 50°S, Shrieking Sixties 60°S)
due to less landmass.
• Polar Easterlies: Blow from Polar Highs to Subpolar Lows.
– Atmospheric Circulation Cells: Hadley Cell (Equator-30°), Ferrel Cell (30°-60°), Polar
Cell (60°-Poles).
– ITCZ: Zone where NE and SE Trade Winds converge. Shifts north/south with apparent
movement of the Sun. Area often called Doldrums (calm winds).
– Climatic Zones based on Latitude: Torrid Zone (Tropics), Temperate Zones, Frigid
Zones (Polar).
• Local Winds:
– Loo: Hot, dry wind in N. India/Pakistan (summer). (Advection: horizontal heat
transfer).
– Chinook (“Snow Eater”): Warm, dry wind on eastern slopes of Rockies (N. America).
– Foehn: Warm, dry wind on leeward side of Alps.
– Sirocco: Hot, humid, dusty wind from Sahara to Mediterranean (can cause “blood rain”).
– Harmattan (“The Doctor”): Dry, dusty wind from Sahara to W. African coast.
– Blizzard: Cold, strong wind with snow (N. America, Polar regions).
– Pampero: Cold wind in Pampas (Argentina).
– Mistral: Cold, dry wind in S. France.
• Land and Sea Breezes:
– Sea Breeze: During day, land heats faster (LP) than sea (HP). Wind blows from sea to
land.
– Land Breeze: During night, land cools faster (HP) than sea (LP). Wind blows from land
to sea.
• Ocean Currents: Large-scale movement of ocean water.
– Factors: Wind, temperature differences, salinity differences, density differences, Coriolis
force, shape of coastlines.
– Warm Currents: Flow from equator towards poles (e.g., Gulf Stream, Kuroshio,
North/South Equatorial, Agulhas, Mozambique).
– Cold Currents: Flow from poles towards equator (e.g., Labrador, Oyashio, Benguela,
Peru/Humboldt, Canary, California, West Australian Drift).
– Effects: Influence coastal climates. Meeting of warm and cold currents creates rich
fishing grounds (e.g., Newfoundland - Gulf Stream & Labrador; Japan Coast - Kuroshio &
Oyashio) but also dense fog (hazardous for shipping). Cold currents on western coasts
of continents often lead to desert formation (e.g., Atacama-Peru, Namib-Benguela,
Sonoran-California).

Q. Köppen Climate Classification (1884, empirical)

• Uses letters to denote climate types based on temperature and precipitation.
• Major Climate Groups (Capital Letters):
– A: Tropical Humid (Average temp of coldest month ≥ 18°C).
– B: Dry Climates (Potential evapotranspiration > precipitation).
– C: Warm Temperate / Mesothermal (Avg temp of coldest month between -3°C and
18°C).
– D: Cold Snow Forest / Microthermal (Avg temp of coldest month ≤ -3°C; warmest
month >10°C).
– E: Cold / Polar Climates (Avg temp of warmest month < 10°C).
 – H: Highland Climates (Climate modified by altitude).
• Precipitation Subgroups (Small Letters):
– f: No dry season (sufficient precipitation in all months).
– m: Monsoon (short dry season, but heavy monsoon rains).
– w: Winter dry season.
– s: Summer dry season.
• Dry Climate (B) Subgroups (Capital Letters):
– S: Steppe (Semi-arid).
– W: Desert (Arid).
• Polar Climate (E) Subgroups (Capital Letters):
– T: Tundra.
– F: Ice Cap.

2. INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

A. India: Location, Extent, Boundaries

• Location: Northern and Eastern Hemispheres.
• Latitudinal Extent: 8°4’ N to 37°6’ N (mainland).
• Longitudinal Extent: 68°7’ E to 97°25’ E.
• Dimensions:
– North-South: 3214 km.
– East-West: 2933 km.
• Extreme Points:
– Northernmost: Indira Col (Siachen Glacier, Ladakh).
– Southernmost: Indira Point / Pygmalion Point (Great Nicobar Island).
– Southernmost (mainland): Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) (Tamil Nadu).
– Westernmost: Guhar Moti (Kutch, Gujarat).
– Easternmost: Kibithu (Anjaw district, Arunachal Pradesh).
• Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N): Passes through 8 states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram. (Mnemonic: “Gujarati Raja Made
Chief Justice Wait To Meet”)
• Indian Standard Time (IST):
– Longitude: 82°30’ E (82.5° E).
– Passes through: Mirzapur (UP).
– States: Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh.
(Mnemonic: MOUCA).
– IST = GMT + 5 hours 30 minutes.
– IST and Tropic of Cancer intersect in Korea district, Chhattisgarh.
• Land Frontier: ~15,200 km.
– Shares borders with 7 countries (Mnemonic: BACHPAN MBA - Bangladesh, China,
Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, Afghanistan).
– Longest border: Bangladesh (4096 km).
– Shortest border: Afghanistan (106 km - PoK region).
– Border Lines:
• Radcliffe Line: India-Pakistan, India-Bangladesh.
• McMahon Line: India-China (Eastern sector).
• Durand Line: India-Afghanistan (PoK), Pakistan-Afghanistan.
• India-China Border Sectors: Western, Central, Eastern.
– State borders with neighbors:
 • Bangladesh (MamTA Water): Mizoram, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, West Bengal.
• Nepal (SUBBU): Sikkim, UP, Bihar, Bengal (West), Uttarakhand.
• Bhutan (BASA): Bengal (West), Arunachal, Sikkim, Assam.
• Myanmar (ArunA MaMi): Arunachal, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram.
• Coastline:
– Total: ~7516.6 km (including islands).
– Mainland: ~6100 km.
– States: 9 coastal states. UTs: 4 coastal UTs.
– Longest coastline (State): Gujarat (~1600 km).
– Longest coastline (Overall): Andaman & Nicobar Islands (~1962 km).
– Shortest coastline: Goa.
– Order of coastline length (States): Gujarat > Andhra Pradesh > Tamil Nadu.
• Maritime Zones (UNCLOS - United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea):
– Territorial Waters: Up to 12 nautical miles (NM) from baseline. Full sovereignty.
– Contiguous Zone: Up to 24 NM from baseline. Limited rights (customs, fiscal,
immigration, sanitary laws).
– Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Up to 200 NM from baseline. Sovereign rights for
exploring, exploiting, conserving, managing natural resources.
– 1 Nautical Mile ≈ 1.852 km.

B. Indian Seasons & Monsoon System

• Indian Seasons (Traditional):
– Vasant (Spring)
– Grishma (Summer)
– Varsha (Rainy/Monsoon)
– Sharad (Autumn)
– Hemant (Pre-winter)
– Shishir (Winter/Cold)
• Winter Season (December-February):
– Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian winds from entering India significantly.
– Western Disturbances: Temperate cyclones originating from Mediterranean Sea,
brought by subtropical westerly jet streams. Cause winter rainfall in North & NW India
(Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, W. UP), beneficial for Rabi crops. Known as ‘Mahawat’ in
Rajasthan. Snowfall in Himalayas.
• Summer Season (March-May): Hot and dry. Loo blows in North India.
• Pre-Monsoon Showers (April-May):
– Mango Showers: Kerala, Karnataka (help in ripening of mangoes).
– Blossom Showers/Cherry Blossoms: Kerala, Karnataka (coffee flowers blossom).
– Nor’westers (Kal Baisakhi - “Calamity of Baisakh”): West Bengal, Assam, Odisha.
Thunderstorms. Beneficial for tea (Assam), jute & rice (WB). Called ‘Bardoli Chheerha’
in Assam.
• South-West Monsoon (Rainy Season, June-September):
– “Monsoon” from Arabic “Mausim” (season) - seasonal reversal of winds.
– Mechanism/Factors:
1. Differential heating of land and sea (intense low pressure over NW India/Tibet).
2. Northward shift of ITCZ over Ganga plains.
3. High pressure cell over Mascarene High (SE of Madagascar).
4. Intense heating of Tibetan Plateau → Tropical Easterly Jet Stream.
5. Somali Jet.
 6. SE Trade winds cross equator, deflected right by Coriolis force, approach India as
SW Monsoon winds.
– Onset: Around 1st June in Kerala. Covers entire India by ~15th July.
– Branches:
1. Arabian Sea Branch:
– Strikes Western Ghats (orographic rainfall on windward side, rain
shadow on leeward).
– Enters Narmada-Tapi valleys.
– Moves parallel to Aravalis (Rajasthan gets little rain from this branch).
2. Bay of Bengal Branch:
– Strikes Myanmar coast & SE Bangladesh.
– Hits Garo-Khasi-Jaintia hills (Meghalaya) → heavy rainfall (Mawsynram
& Cherrapunji - highest rainfall).
– Deflected westwards by Himalayas, moves up Ganga plains.
– Both branches merge over NW India (Punjab plains).
– Break in Monsoon: Dry spells during monsoon season.
• Retreating Monsoon / North-East Monsoon (October-November):
– Monsoon starts withdrawing from NW India by early September.
– Winds blow from land to sea (NE direction) due to southward shift of ITCZ & pressure
changes.
– Picks up moisture from Bay of Bengal and causes rainfall primarily in Tamil Nadu
(Coromandel Coast), S. Andhra Pradesh, SE Karnataka.
• El Niño and La Niña:
– El Niño (“The Little Boy” / “Christ Child”): Anomalous warming of eastern/central
Pacific Ocean off Peru coast. Occurs every 3-7 years. Associated with weakened Indian
monsoon (droughts).
– La Niña (“The Little Girl”): Anomalous cooling of eastern/central Pacific. Associated
with stronger Indian monsoon (good rainfall).
– Southern Oscillation: See-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure between eastern
Pacific (Tahiti) and Indo-Pacific (Darwin, Australia).
• El Niño: Pressure difference (Tahiti - Darwin) is negative.
• La Niña: Pressure difference is positive.
– ENSO = El Niño Southern Oscillation.

C. Physiographic Divisions of India (6 Major Divisions)

1. The Northern Mountains (Himalayan Mountains):
– Young fold mountains, geologically active. Formed by collision of Indian and Eurasian
plates.
– Stretch from Indus gorge (W) to Brahmaputra gorge (E).
– Series of parallel ranges:
• Trans-Himalayas: North of Great Himalayas. Ranges: Karakoram (K2/Godwin
Austen - 8611m, highest peak in India - PoK), Ladakh, Zanskar, Kailash.
Glaciers: Siachen (longest), Baltoro, Biafo, Hispar.
• Greater Himalayas (Himadri / Inner Himalayas): Highest, most continuous
range. Average height ~6000m. Core made of granite. Asymmetrical folds.
Syntaxial bends at Nanga Parbat (W) and Namcha Barwa (E).
– Peaks: Mt. Everest (8848.86m, Nepal - highest in world), Kanchenjunga
(8598m, Sikkim - highest in India undisputed), Nanda Devi
(Uttarakhand), Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Makalu (all in Nepal).
• Lesser Himalayas (Himachal / Middle Himalayas): South of Himadri. Average
height 3700-4500m.
 – Ranges: Pir Panjal (J&K - longest), Dhauladhar (HP), Mussoorie/Nag Tibba
(Uttarakhand), Mahabharat Lekh (Nepal).
– Famous valleys: Kashmir, Kangra, Kullu. Hill stations.
• Outer Himalayas (Shivaliks): Southernmost range. Average height 900-1100m.
Discontinuous. Formed of unconsolidated river sediments.
– Duns: Longitudinal valleys between Lesser Himalayas and Shivaliks. E.g.,
Dehradun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun.
– Duars: Alluvial floodplains in Eastern Himalayas, good for tea.
– Purvanchal (Eastern Hills): Southward extension of Himalayas in NE India.
• Patkai Bum (Arunachal), Naga Hills (Nagaland), Manipur Hills, Mizo (Lushai)
Hills.
• Meghalaya Plateau (Shillong Plateau) / Karbi-Anglong Plateau: Part of
Peninsular Plateau, separated by Malda Gap. Hills: Garo, Khasi, Jaintia. Not part of
Himalayas.
• Other NE Hills (Arunachal): Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi.
– Important Passes: Zoji La (Srinagar-Leh), Banihal (Jawahar Tunnel, Jammu-Srinagar),
Shipki La (HP-Tibet, Sutlej enters), Bara Lacha La (HP, connects Lahaul-Spiti to Ladakh),
Rohtang (HP, Kullu-Lahaul/Spiti, Atal Tunnel), Mana, Niti, Lipulekh (Uttarakhand-Tibet,
Kailash-Mansarovar route), Nathu La, Jelep La (Sikkim-Tibet), Bomdi La (Arunachal-
Tibet), Dihang, Diphu (Arunachal-Myanmar). Umling La (Ladakh, one of highest
motorable).
– Regional Divisions (West to East):
• Punjab Himalayas: Between Indus and Sutlej.
• Kumaon Himalayas: Between Sutlej and Kali.
• Nepal Himalayas: Between Kali and Teesta.
• Assam Himalayas: Between Teesta and Dihang (Brahmaputra).
– Karewas: Thick deposits of glacial clay and moraines in Kashmir Valley, good for
Saffron (Zafran) cultivation.
2. The Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains):
– Formed by alluvial deposits of Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Highly
fertile.
– Divisions (North to South):
• Bhabar: Narrow belt (8-16 km) south of Shivaliks. Porous, pebbles & boulders.
Streams disappear underground.
• Terai: South of Bhabar (15-30 km wide). Marshy, swampy. Streams reappear.
Dense forests, rich wildlife. (Dudhwa NP here).
• Alluvial Plains:
– Bhangar: Older alluvium. Forms terraces above flood level. Contains
‘kankar’ (calcareous nodules). Less fertile than Khadar.
– Khadar: Newer alluvium. Forms floodplains. Highly fertile, replenished
annually.
– Regional Divisions: Punjab Plains, Ganga Plains (Upper, Middle, Lower), Brahmaputra
Plains (Assam Valley).
3. The Peninsular Plateau:
– Oldest, most stable landmass. Tableland of crystalline, igneous, metamorphic rocks.
Inverted triangular shape.
– General slope: West to East. Height increases from North to South.
– Broad Divisions:
• Central Highlands: North of Narmada river.
 – Aravali Range: Oldest fold mountains. NW boundary. Guru Shikhar (Mt.
Abu) is highest peak.
– Malwa Plateau: Between Aravalis and Vindhyas. Drained by Chambal,
Betwa, Ken.
– Bundelkhand Plateau: UP & MP.
– Baghelkhand Plateau: MP & Chhattisgarh.
– Vindhyan Range: South of Malwa. Sadbhavana Shikhar (Goodwill Peak)
highest.
– Chotanagpur Plateau: Jharkhand, Odisha, WB, Chhattisgarh. Mineral-rich
(“Ruhr of India”). Rajmahal hills are eastern extension.
• Deccan Plateau: South of Narmada river. Triangular. Bounded by Satpura (N),
Western Ghats (W), Eastern Ghats (E).
– Satpura Range: Between Narmada and Tapi. Dhupgarh (Pachmarhi)
highest peak.
– Western Ghats (Sahyadris): Continuous, run parallel to west coast.
Higher than Eastern Ghats. Rich biodiversity, orographic rainfall. North-
South height increases.
• Highest Peak: Anaimudi (2695m) in Anamalai Hills (Kerala).
Highest peak of South India.
• Other Peaks: Doddabetta (Nilgiris), Kalsubai (Maharashtra).
• Passes (N to S): Thalghat, Bhorghat, Palghat (connects Kerala-TN),
Senkota Gap.
• Temperate grasslands called Sholas in higher reaches of Nilgiris,
Anaimalai, Palani.
– Eastern Ghats: Discontinuous, lower. Eroded by east-flowing rivers.
• Highest Peak: Jindhagada Peak / Arma Konda (Andhra Pradesh).
Mahendragiri (Odisha) is another significant peak.
• Hills (N to S): Nallamala, Velikonda, Palkonda, Nagari, Javadi,
Shevaroy, Panchaimalai, Sirumalai, Palni Hills.
– Nilgiri Hills: Meeting point of Western and Eastern Ghats. Doddabetta is
highest peak.
– North-East Extension: Meghalaya Plateau / Karbi-Anglong Plateau, separated by Malda
Fault/Gap.
4. The Indian Desert (Thar Desert):
– West of Aravali hills (in Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab).
– Arid climate, sandy plains, shifting sand dunes (barchans).
– Luni is the only significant river (ephemeral, ends in Rann of Kutch).
– High diurnal temperature range. Most densely populated desert in the world.
5. The Coastal Plains:
– West Coastal Plains: Between Western Ghats and Arabian Sea. Narrower.
• Kutch Plain (Gujarat)
• Kathiawar Plain (Gujarat)
• Konkan Coast (Maharashtra, Goa)
• Kanara/Kannada Coast (Karnataka)
• Malabar Coast (Kerala) - famous for Kayals (backwaters/lagoons) like
Vembanad Lake.
– East Coastal Plains: Between Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal. Broader, more fertile
due to deltas.
• Utkal Coast (Odisha) - Chilika Lake (largest lagoon).
 • Northern Circars (Andhra Pradesh) - Deltas of Godavari, Krishna (Kolleru Lake
between them).
• Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu) - Pulicat Lake (lagoon on AP-TN border). Kaveri
delta. Receives rain from NE monsoon.
6. The Islands:
– Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal):
• Submerged mountain range (extension of Arakan Yoma of Myanmar). Some
volcanic origin.
• Archipelago of ~572 islands. Divided by 10 Degree Channel (Andaman N,
Nicobar S).
• Andaman Group: North, Middle, South (Capital: Port Blair in South Andaman),
Little Andaman.
– Highest Peak: Saddle Peak (North Andaman).
– Duncan Passage: Between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
• Nicobar Group: Car Nicobar, Little Nicobar, Great Nicobar.
– Southernmost point of India: Indira Point (Great Nicobar).
– Highest Peak (Nicobar): Mt. Thullier (Great Nicobar).
• Volcanoes: Barren Island (India’s only active volcano), Narcondam Island
(dormant).
• Tribes: Jarawa, Onge, Sentinelese, Shompen (PVTG, voted for first time recently),
Great Andamanese, Nicobarese.
– Lakshadweep Islands (Arabian Sea):
• Group of ~36 coral islands (atolls).
• Capital: Kavaratti.
• Minicoy Island: Largest and southernmost.
• 8 Degree Channel: Separates Minicoy from Maldives.
• 9 Degree Channel: Separates Minicoy from rest of Lakshadweep.
• Andrott Island is the largest single island of the group.
• Pitti Island: Bird sanctuary.

D. River Systems of India

• Two major groups: Himalayan Rivers and Peninsular Rivers.

Feature Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers

Origin Glaciers (snow-fed) Plateaus, hills (rain-fed)
Nature Perennial (water Seasonal/Ephemeral (flow
throughout year) reduces in dry season)
Course Long, deep valleys Shorter, shallower valleys,
(gorges), meandering in straighter course
plains
Catchment Very large Smaller
Area
Drainage Often antecedent (older Superimposed, radial, trellis
Type than Himalayas), dendritic
Erosional High (youthful stage in Lower (mostly mature/old stage)
Power mountains)
Navigability Navigable in plains Less navigable (except deltas)
Deltas Large deltas (e.g., Smaller deltas (east-flowing) or
Sundarbans) estuaries (west-flowing)
• Drainage Patterns:
 – Dendritic: Tree-branch like (e.g., Ganga plains).
– Radial: Streams flow in different directions from a central peak/dome (e.g.,
Amarkantak Plateau).
– Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel, secondary tributaries join at right angles (folded
terrain).
– Centripetal: Streams converge into a central depression/lake (e.g., Loktak Lake).
• Himalayan River Systems:

1. Indus River System:

• Indus (Sindhu): Origin - Bokhar Chu Glacier (Kailash Range, Tibet). Enters India
in Ladakh (Demchok). Flows through Ladakh & Baltistan (PoK) into Pakistan,
drains into Arabian Sea. National river of Pakistan. Ancient name: Sindhu.
Tibetan name: Singi Khamban (Lion’s Mouth).
• Left Bank Tributaries (Panch-nad):
– Jhelum (Vitasta): Origin - Verinag Spring (Kashmir). Flows through
Srinagar (Wular Lake).
– Chenab (Askini/Chandrabhaga): Formed by Chandra & Bhaga streams
(Bara Lacha La Pass, HP). Largest tributary of Indus.
– Ravi (Parushni/Iravati): Origin - Rohtang Pass (HP).
– Beas (Vipasha): Origin - Rohtang Pass (Beas Kund, HP). Joins Sutlej at
Harike (Punjab). Entirely within India.
– Sutlej (Shatadru): Origin - Rakas Tal (Tibet, near Mansarovar). Enters
India at Shipki La Pass (HP). Antecedent. Bhakra-Nangal Dam.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Shyok (Nubra trib.), Gilgit, Zanskar, Kabul, Swat.
• Indus Water Treaty (1960): India-Pakistan. India gets control over Ravi, Beas,
Sutlej (Eastern rivers). Pakistan over Indus, Jhelum, Chenab (Western rivers).
India can use 20% of Western rivers’ water.
• Doabs (land between two rivers): Chaj (Chenab-Jhelum), Rechna (Ravi-
Chenab), Bari (Beas-Ravi), Bist (Beas-Sutlej), Sindh Sagar
(Indus-Jhelum/Chenab).
2. Ganga River System:
• Ganga: Originates as Bhagirathi from Gomukh Glacier (Uttarkashi, UK) and
Alaknanda from Satopanth Glacier (Badrinath, UK). They meet at Devprayag to
form Ganga.
• Panch Prayag (Confluences on Alaknanda):
– Vishnuprayag: Alaknanda + Dhauli Ganga
– Nandaprayag: Alaknanda + Nandakini
– Karnaprayag: Alaknanda + Pindar
– Rudraprayag: Alaknanda + Mandakini
– Devprayag: Alaknanda + Bhagirathi
• Flows through UP, Bihar, Jharkhand (briefly), West Bengal. Enters Bangladesh as
Padma.
• Left Bank Tributaries (W to E): Ramganga, Gomti (origin: Gomat Tal/Fulhar
Jhil, Pilibhit UP), Ghaghara (Saryu) (origin: Mapchachungo Glacier, Tibet;
Sharda/Kali is a trib.), Gandak (origin: Nepal Himalayas), Kosi (Sapt Kosi, Nepal;
“Sorrow of Bihar” - frequent floods, shifts course).
• Right Bank Tributaries:
– Yamuna: Longest and largest tributary. Origin - Yamunotri Glacier
(Bandarpoonch range, UK). Joins Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad).
 • Yamuna Tribs: Chambal (origin: Mhow, MP; badland
topography/ravines), Sindh, Betwa, Ken (RBTs); Hindon, Tons
(LBTs).
– Son: Origin - Amarkantak Plateau (MP). Joins Ganga near Patna. Trib:
Rihand (Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar reservoir - largest artificial lake in
India by volume).
• Hooghly: Distributary of Ganga in West Bengal. Kolkata Port on it. Farakka
Barrage diverts water. Damodar is its tributary.
• Ganga + Brahmaputra (as Meghna) form Sundarbans Delta (world’s largest).
3. Brahmaputra River System:
• Brahmaputra: Origin - Chemayungdung Glacier / Angsi Glacier (Kailash Range,
Tibet).
• Names: Tsangpo (Tibet - “Purifier”), Siang/Dihang (Arunachal Pradesh - enters
near Namcha Barwa making a U-turn/syntactic bend), Brahmaputra (Assam -
forms Majuli, largest riverine island), Jamuna (Bangladesh).
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dibang, Lohit (“River of Blood”), Dhansiri, Kapili.
(Mnemonic: LoDhaDi - Lohit, Dhansiri, Dibang).
• Right Bank Tributaries: Subansiri (antecedent), Kameng (Jia Bharali), Manas,
Sankosh, Teesta.
• Joins Padma (Ganga) in Bangladesh, then called Meghna, flows into Bay of
Bengal.
• Peninsular River Systems: Older than Himalayan rivers. Mostly rain-fed.

– East-Flowing Rivers (drain into Bay of Bengal, form deltas):

• Subarnarekha: Origin - Chotanagpur Plateau.
• Brahmani & Baitarani: Odisha.
• Mahanadi: Origin - Sihawa Hills (Chhattisgarh). Hirakud Dam (longest dam in
India).
• Godavari (“Dakshin Ganga” / “Vriddha Ganga”): Longest Peninsular river.
Origin - Trimbakeshwar Plateau (Nashik, Maharashtra).
– Tribs: Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha (together form Pranhita), Indravati,
Manjira, Sabari, Purna.
• Krishna: Second longest Peninsular river. Origin - Mahabaleshwar
(Maharashtra).
– Tribs: Tungabhadra (largest trib.), Koyna (Koyna Dam), Bhima,
Ghatprabha, Malprabha, Musi (Hyderabad on its bank).
• Pennar: Independent river in AP. Somasila Dam.
• Kaveri (Cauvery - “Ganga of the South”): Origin - Brahmagiri Hills (Talakaveri,
Kogadu, Karnataka). Perennial (receives rain from SW & NE monsoons). Forms
Sivasamudram Falls. Krishnaraja Sagar Dam (Kar), Mettur Dam (TN).
– Tribs: Kabini, Bhavani, Hemavati, Amravati, Shimsha, Arkavathy,
Lakshmantirtha, Noyyal.
– West-Flowing Rivers (drain into Arabian Sea, mostly form estuaries, not deltas):
• Luni: Origin - Aravallis (Pushkar Valley). Ephemeral, saline. Drains into Rann of
Kutch (inland drainage).
• Sabarmati: Origin - Aravallis (Udaipur).
• Mahi: Origin - Vindhyas (MP). Cuts Tropic of Cancer twice.
• Narmada: Origin - Amarkantak Plateau (MP). Flows west through a rift valley
between Vindhyas and Satpuras. Forms Dhuandhar Falls (Jabalpur), Kapildhara
Falls. Sardar Sarovar Dam. Tribs: Tawa, Hiran, Barna, Kolar.
 • Tapi (Tapti): Origin - Betul Plateau (MP). Flows west through a rift valley south
of Satpuras. Surat city on its bank. Ukai Dam. Tribs: Purna, Girna, Panzara.
• Goa Rivers: Mandovi (Dudhsagar Falls), Zuari. Mormugao port at Zuari estuary.
• Karnataka Rivers: Sharavati (Jog/Gersoppa Falls - India’s 2nd highest plunge
waterfall after Nohkalikai), Netravati, Kalinadi.
• Kerala Rivers: Periyar (Idukki Dam), Bharathappuzha (Ponnani - longest in
Kerala), Pamba.
• Waterfalls (selected):

– Kunchikal Falls (Varahi River, Karnataka) - Highest tiered waterfall in India.

– Jog/Gersoppa Falls (Sharavati River, Karnataka).
– Dudhsagar Falls (Mandovi River, Goa).
– Dhuandhar & Kapildhara Falls (Narmada River, MP).
– Hundru Falls (Subarnarekha River, Jharkhand).
– Chitrakoot Falls (“Niagara of India”, Indravati River, Chhattisgarh).
• Important Dams (selected):

– Tehri Dam (Bhagirathi, UK) - Highest dam in India.

– Bhakra-Nangal Dam (Sutlej, HP/Punjab) - Highest gravity dam. Govind Sagar reservoir.
– Hirakud Dam (Mahanadi, Odisha) - Longest dam in India.
– Sardar Sarovar Dam (Narmada, Gujarat).
– Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (Krishna, AP/Telangana).
– Indira Sagar Dam (Narmada, MP).
– Gandhi Sagar (Chambal, MP), Rana Pratap Sagar (Chambal, Raj), Jawahar Sagar
(Chambal, Raj).
– Shahpur Kandi Barrage (Ravi, Punjab) - recent.
– Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar (Rihand River, UP) - Largest artificial lake by volume.
• National Waterways:

– NW-1: Prayagraj – Haldia (Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly system).

– NW-2: Sadiya – Dhubri (Brahmaputra River).
– NW-3: Kollam – Kottapuram (West Coast Canal, Kerala).

E. Soils of India (ICAR classification)

• Alluvial Soils (Largest group, ~40% area):
– Found in Northern Plains, river valleys, deltas.
– Formed by deposition from rivers.
– Khadar (new alluvium, more fertile), Bhangar (old alluvium, kankar nodules).
– Rich in potash, poor in phosphorus, nitrogen, humus. Very fertile. Suited for rice, wheat,
sugarcane, jute.
• Black Soils (Regur / Black Cotton Soils, ~15%):
– Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, AP, TN). Volcanic origin (basalt).
– Clayey, high moisture retention, swells when wet, cracks when dry (self-ploughing).
– Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, alumina. Poor in phosphorus, nitrogen, organic matter.
– Ideal for cotton, also sugarcane, jowar.
• Red and Yellow Soils (~18.5%):
– Areas of low rainfall, on crystalline igneous rocks. Eastern & Southern Deccan.
– Red color due to ferric oxide (iron). Looks yellow when hydrated.
– Less fertile. Poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, humus. Suited for millets, pulses, tobacco.
• Laterite Soils:
– Areas of high temperature and high rainfall with alternate wet/dry periods (leaching).
 – Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, NE regions.
– Rich in iron and aluminum oxides (infertile for many crops).
– Used for bricks. Suitable for tea, coffee, cashew nuts, rubber with manuring.
• Arid/Desert Soils:
– NW India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana). Sandy, saline. Low organic matter, moisture.
– Suitable for drought-resistant crops (barley, millets) with irrigation.
• Forest/Mountain Soils:
– Himalayan region, Western/Eastern Ghats. Varies with altitude and vegetation.
– Often acidic, low humus content (if cold).
• Saline/Alkaline Soils (Usar):
– Arid/semi-arid regions (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan). Poor drainage,
excessive irrigation.
– High salt content, infertile. Reclamation possible.
• Peaty/Organic Soils:
– High rainfall, high humidity areas (Kerala, Odisha, WB). Rich in organic matter, humus.
Often acidic.
• Soil Horizons (Layers): O (Organic), A (Topsoil), E (Eluviation), B (Subsoil/Illuviation), C
(Parent Material/Weathered Rock), R (Bedrock).

F. Agriculture in India
• Types of Farming:
– Subsistence Farming: For own consumption.
• Primitive Subsistence: Uses traditional tools (hoe, dao), family labor. Includes
Shifting Cultivation.
• Intensive Subsistence: High output from small land, high population pressure.
Multiple cropping, high inputs (fertilizers, irrigation).
– Commercial Farming: For sale. High inputs (HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides).
• Plantation Agriculture: Single crop grown on large scale (e.g., tea, coffee,
rubber, sugarcane, banana, cotton, jute). Capital intensive, requires market
access.
• Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn / Jhumming):
– Tribal practice. Forest cleared, burnt, cultivated for few years, then abandoned.
– India: Jhum (NE India), Kumari (Western Ghats), Pama Dabi/Bringa (Odisha), Deepa
(Bastar-CG & A&N), Kuruwa (Jharkhand), Valre/Watra (SE Rajasthan), Podu/Penda
(Andhra Pradesh).
– World: Milpa (Mexico/Central America), Ladang (Indonesia/Malaysia), Roca (Brazil),
Ray (Vietnam), Chena (Sri Lanka).
– Environmentally detrimental (deforestation, soil erosion).
• Cropping Seasons:
1. Kharif (Monsoon Season):
• Sown: June-July (onset of monsoon).
• Harvested: September-October.
• Crops: Rice (paddy - main), Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Tur (Arhar), Moong, Urad,
Cotton, Jute, Groundnut, Soybean. (Aus, Aman, Boro are varieties of rice,
mainly WB).
2. Rabi (Winter Season):
• Sown: October-December.
• Harvested: April-June.
• Crops: Wheat (main), Barley, Peas, Gram, Mustard, Linseed, Rapeseed.
3. Zaid (Summer Season):
 • Short season between Rabi and Kharif (March-June).
• Crops: Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Vegetables, Fodder crops.
• Cotton requires ~210 frost-free days.

G. Natural Vegetation (Forests) of India

• India State of Forest Report (ISFR): Biennial (every 2 years) by Forest Survey of India.
• Current Forest Cover (ISFR 2021): ~24.62% of total geographical area.
• National Forest Policy (1988) target: 33% forest cover.
• Distribution:
– Highest Forest Cover (Area): Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh.
– Highest Forest Cover (% of state area): Mizoram > Arunachal Pradesh.
– Highest Increase (2019-21): Andhra Pradesh.
– Highest Decrease (2019-21): Arunachal Pradesh.
– Lowest Forest Cover: Haryana.
• Types of Forests:
1. Tropical Evergreen Forests (Rainforests):
• Rainfall: >200 cm. High temp & humidity.
• Regions: Western Ghats, NE India (Meghalaya hills), Andaman & Nicobar,
Lakshadweep.
• Characteristics: Dense, multi-layered, tall trees (up to 60m). No definite shedding
time (appear green year-round).
• Species: Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood, Cinchona, Aini. Epiphytes common.
2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests): Most widespread in India.
• Rainfall: 70-200 cm. Shed leaves in dry season.
• Moist Deciduous (100-200 cm): NE states, foothills of Himalayas, Jharkhand,
WB, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, eastern slopes of W. Ghats.
– Species: Teak (dominant), Sal, Shisham, Sandalwood, Khair, Kusum,
Arjun, Mulberry.
• Dry Deciduous (70-100 cm): Rainier parts of Peninsular Plateau, plains of
Bihar & UP.
– Species: Teak, Sal, Tendu, Palas, Amaltas, Bel, Khair, Axlewood.
3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs:
• Rainfall: <70 cm (often <50 cm).
• Regions: NW India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, Chhattisgarh, UP, Haryana).
• Characteristics: Xerophytic vegetation. Trees scattered, long roots, small
leaves/thorns.
• Species: Acacia (Babul), Kikar, Palms, Euphorbias, Cacti, Khejri. Tendu leaves
(for bidis). Saki grass.
4. Montane Forests (Himalayan Vegetation): Varies with altitude.
• Wet Temperate (1000-2000m): Evergreen broad-leaf trees like Oaks,
Chestnuts.
• Temperate (1500-3000m): Coniferous trees - Pine, Deodar, Silver Fir,
Spruce, Cedar.
• Alpine Vegetation (>3600m): Silver fir, Junipers, Pines, Birches. Progresses
into Alpine grasslands, then Tundra vegetation (mosses, lichens) near snowline.
5. Mangrove Forests (Littoral and Swamp Forests / Tidal Forests):
• Found in coastal areas, deltas, estuaries influenced by tides.
• Roots adapted to saline water and anoxic soil (Pneumatophores - breathing
roots). Viviparous germination.
 • Regions: Deltas of Ganga (Sundarbans - largest, Sundari tree), Mahanadi, Krishna,
Godavari, Kaveri. Andaman & Nicobar.
• Most extensive in West Bengal (Sundarbans).

H. Minerals of India
• Coal (“Black Diamond” / “Buried Sunshine”):
– Types (Carbon %): Anthracite (>80-90%, best), Bituminous (60-80%), Lignite (40-60%,
“Brown Coal”), Peat (<40%, worst).
– Major Fields (Gondwana Coal):
• Jharkhand: Jharia (largest), Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.
• West Bengal: Raniganj (oldest).
• Odisha: Talcher, Ib valley.
• Chhattisgarh: Korba, Sonhat.
• Madhya Pradesh: Singrauli, Pench-Kanhan.
• Telangana: Singareni.
– Lignite: Neyveli (Tamil Nadu).
– Tertiary Coal: Assam, Arunachal, Meghalaya, Nagaland, J&K.
• Iron Ore:
– Types: Magnetite (best quality, >70% iron), Hematite (most important industrial ore,
60-70% iron), Limonite, Siderite.
– Major Belts:
• Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar (Mayurbhanj, Odi), Gua & Noamundi
(Singhbhum, Jhk). (Odisha has largest reserves).
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila (Bastar, Chh), Chandrapur (Mah).
• Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmagalur-Tumkur Belt (Karnataka): Kudremukh mines
(Chikmagalur).
• Maharashtra-Goa Belt.
• Manganese: Used in steel, alloys, batteries. Odisha is leading producer. Also MP, Karnataka.
• Bauxite (Aluminium Ore): Odisha (Panchpatmali, Koraput - largest reserves & producer),
Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Palamu), Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, MP.
• Mica: India is a leading producer. Andhra Pradesh (Nellore belt), Rajasthan, Jharkhand
(Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh belt), Bihar. Non-metallic.
• Copper: Khetri mines (Rajasthan), Malanjkhand (Balaghat, MP), Singhbhum (Jharkhand).
• Gold: Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), Hutti Gold Mines (Karnataka). Ramagiri (AP).
• Diamond: Panna (Madhya Pradesh). Golconda mines (Telangana - historically, Kohinoor).
• Major Industrial Regions (8): Mumbai-Pune, Hugli Region, Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
Region, Chotanagpur, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut, Kollam-
Thiruvananthapuram.

3. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

A. World Grasslands
• Temperate Grasslands:
– Prairies: North America (USA, Canada) - “Wheat Granaries of the World”.
– Pampas: Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil (South America). Alfalfa grass.
– Steppes: Eurasia (Europe & Central Asia).
– Velds (or Veldt): South Africa.
– Downs: Australia.
– Pustaz: Hungary.
– Canterbury Plains: New Zealand.
 • Tropical Grasslands (Savanna):
– Savanna: Africa, Australia, South America.
– Llanos: Venezuela, Colombia (Orinoco basin).
– Campos: Brazil.

B. Cyclones
• Definition: Intense low-pressure systems with strong circulating winds.
• Eye of Cyclone: Calm center with no clouds.
• Rotation (Coriolis Effect):
– Northern Hemisphere: Anti-clockwise.
– Southern Hemisphere: Clockwise.
• Types:
1. Tropical Cyclones:
• Originate over warm tropical/subtropical oceans (sea surface temp > 26.5°C).
• Fueled by latent heat of condensation. Weaken over land.
• Associated with heavy rain, strong winds, storm surge. Cumulonimbus clouds.
• Names:
– Hurricanes: Atlantic, NE Pacific.
– Typhoons: NW Pacific (S. China Sea, Japan, Philippines).
– Cyclones: Indian Ocean, S. Pacific.
– Willy-willies: Australia.
2. Temperate Cyclones (Extra-tropical Cyclones / Depressions / Lows):
• Form in mid-latitudes (35°-65° N/S).
• Develop along fronts (boundary between cold and warm air masses -
frontogenesis).
• Cover larger area, winds less intense but widespread, longer duration.
• Move West to East (with Westerlies). Associated with nimbostratus, stratus
clouds, moderate, prolonged rainfall.
• Anticyclone: High-pressure system. Winds blow outwards. Clear skies, calm weather. Opposite
rotation to cyclones.

C. Important Lakes (Brief)

• Chilika Lake (Odisha): Largest brackish water lagoon in India.
• Wular Lake (J&K): Largest freshwater lake in India. Fed by Jhelum river. Tectonic origin.
• Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan): Largest inland saltwater lake in India.
• Loktak Lake (Manipur): Largest freshwater lake in NE India. Famous for Phumdis (floating
islands). Keibul Lamjao National Park (only floating NP in world) on it.
• Pulicat Lake (AP-TN border): Second largest brackish water lagoon. Sriharikota island
separates it from Bay of Bengal.
• Kolleru Lake (AP): Between Krishna and Godavari deltas. Freshwater.
• Vembanad Lake (Kerala): Longest lake in India. A backwater/lagoon.
• Dal Lake (Srinagar, J&K): “Jewel in the crown of Kashmir”.
• Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar (UP/MP border, on Rihand River): Largest artificial lake in
India by volume.
• Dhebar Lake / Jaisamand Lake (Rajasthan): Second largest artificial lake in India.
• Umiam Lake (Barapani Lake) (Meghalaya).
• Kabar Tal (Bihar): Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake.

D. Landforms
• Riverine Landforms (Fluvial):
 – Erosional: Gorges, Canyons, V-shaped valleys, Potholes, Plunge pools, Waterfalls, River
terraces, Meanders (mature/old stage).
– Depositional: Alluvial fans, Alluvial cones, Floodplains (Bhangar, Khadar), Natural
levees, Deltas (old stage), Oxbow Lakes (formed from cut-off meanders, e.g., Kabar Tal
in Bihar - largest in India).
• Glacial Landforms:
– Erosional: Cirque (Corrie), Tarn (lake in cirque), Arête (narrow ridge), Horn
(pyramidal peak), U-shaped valley, Hanging valley, Fjords.
– Depositional: Moraines (lateral, medial, terminal, ground), Eskers (sinuous ridges of
sand/gravel), Drumlins (oval/egg-shaped hills of till - “basket of eggs topography”),
Outwash plains.
• Aeolian Landforms (Wind-formed - deserts):
– Erosional: Pediments, Pediplains, Deflation hollows, Mushroom rocks (Gara), Yardangs,
Zeugen.
– Depositional: Sand dunes (Barchans - crescent-shaped, Seifs - longitudinal), Loess.
• Coastal Landforms:
– Erosional: Cliffs, Wave-cut platforms, Sea caves, Sea arches, Stacks, Stumps.
– Depositional: Beaches, Spits, Bars, Tombolos, Lagoons.
• Groundwater Landforms (Karst Topography - Limestone regions):
– Erosional: Sinkholes (Dolines), Uvalas, Poljes, Caves, Caverns, Limestone Pavements,
Lapis.
– Depositional (Speleothems): Stalactites (hang from ceiling), Stalagmites (rise from
floor), Pillars (when S’tite & S’mite meet).

E. Albedo
• Definition: Proportion of incident light or radiation that is reflected by a surface.
• Expressed as a percentage or decimal (0 to 1).
• High albedo = high reflectivity (e.g., fresh snow ~80-90%).
• Low albedo = low reflectivity, high absorption (e.g., asphalt, dark soil).
• Important for Earth’s energy balance.

This covers all the significant points from the lecture. The structure and formatting should aid in quick
revision. Good luck with your SSC CGL 2024 exams!