Chapter – 8

Database Concepts (New Syllabus - NCERT)

Q1. Why is manual record-keeping challenging in a school?
A: Manual record-keeping is tedious and error-prone due to:
• Rewriting student details every year.
• Inconsistencies like incorrect or skipped names.
• Risk of data loss if registers are lost or damaged.
• Errors in manual calculations.
• Difficulty in searching, modifying, or deleting records.
Q2. How can a computerized system improve data management in schools?
A: A computerized system allows:
• Easy promotion of student records to the next class.
• Quick searching of student and guardian details.
• Effortless addition, modification, and deletion of records.
• Secure and efficient data storage.
Q3. What is a file in a computer system, and how is it used for data management?
A: A file is a container used to store data on a computer’s storage device. It can store text,
program code, CSV data, images, audio, and videos.
• Files can be accessed directly or through software programs, such as retrieving
attendance records for a school website.
Q4. How is student and attendance data stored in a school’s file system, and what are its
advantages over manual record-keeping?
A:
• STUDENT File (maintained by office staff) stores: Roll Number, Student Name,
Date of Birth, Guardian Name, Guardian Phone, and Guardian Address.
• ATTENDANCE File (maintained by the class teacher) stores: Attendance Date, Roll
Number, Student Name, and Attendance Status (P for Present, A for Absent).
B) Advantages of a computerized file system:
1. Faster access, searching, and retrieval of records.
2. Easy modification, addition, and deletion of data.
3. Prevention of data loss and errors in manual calculations.
4. Efficient and structured data storage without redundancy.

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

Q5. What are the limitations of a file system?
A: As the number of files and data volume increase, managing a file system becomes
difficult. The key limitations are:
1. Difficulty in Access: Files do not provide built-in mechanisms for retrieving data.
Accessing specific data often requires writing new application programs.
2. Data Redundancy: The same data may be duplicated in multiple files (e.g., student
names in both STUDENT and ATTENDANCE files), leading to excess storage use
and possible inconsistency.
3. Data Inconsistency: If the same data exists in multiple files and one is updated but
not the other, inconsistencies occur (e.g., name spelling corrections not reflected in all
files).
4. Data Isolation: There is no direct link between related files (e.g., STUDENT and
ATTENDANCE files), requiring separate programs to retrieve related data, making
integration difficult.
5. Data Dependence: Files are stored in specific formats, so any format change requires
modifications to all related application programs, making updates complex.
6. Controlled Data Sharing: A file system lacks efficient access control, making it
difficult to restrict users to specific permissions (e.g., teachers updating attendance
while parents only view it).
Q6. What is a Database Management System (DBMS), and how does it overcome file
system limitations?
A: A DBMS is software used to create, manage, and retrieve data efficiently, overcoming file
system limitations.
Advantages of DBMS over File System:
1. Organized Data Storage: Stores logically related data, reducing redundancy and
inconsistency.
2. Efficient Data Management: Allows structured storage, easy updates, and retrieval.
3. Data Integrity & Security: Controls user access, preventing unauthorized
modifications.
4. Querying Support: Enables data retrieval using specialized commands.
Examples of DBMS:
• Open-source: MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB
• Commercial: Oracle, SQL Server, Microsoft Access

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

Q7. What are the real-life applications of databases?
A: Databases are widely used in various fields:
• Banking: Customer details, accounts, loans, transactions.
• Crop Loans: Farmer’s data, land details, loan history.
• Inventory Management: Product details, customer orders, delivery tracking.
• Organizational Management: Employee records, salaries, department details.
• Online Shopping: Product descriptions, user login details, preferences.
Q8. How can we convert a file system into a database system?
A: To convert a file system into a database system, we need to organize related data in
structured tables and establish relationships.
Example:
Consider a school where attendance and student details are maintained in separate files:
1. Existing File System:
o The STUDENT file contains: Roll Number, Name, Date of Birth, Guardian
Name, Guardian Phone, and Address.
o The ATTENDANCE file contains: Date, Roll Number, Name, and Attendance
Status (P/A).
2. Issues with File System:
o Redundancy: The same student name appears in both files. If a student’s
name changes, both files must be updated separately.
o Inconsistency: If a student’s details are updated in one file but not in the
other, data becomes unreliable.
3. Converting to a Database:
o Create three tables:
▪ STUDENT Table: Stores Roll Number, Name, Date of Birth, and
Guardian ID (GUID).
▪ GUARDIAN Table: Stores unique Guardian ID (GUID), Guardian
Name, Phone, and Address.
▪ ATTENDANCE Table: Stores Date, Roll Number, and Attendance
Status.
4. How the Database Solves Problems:
o No Redundancy: Student name is stored only once in the STUDENT table.
o Consistency: Changes made in one place reflect everywhere.

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

 o Efficient Data Retrieval: If a teacher wants to see attendance for a student,
they can search by Roll Number instead of scanning multiple files.

Q9. What are the Key Concepts in DBMS?

Key Concepts in DBMS

1. Database Schema – Structure of a database, including table names, columns, data
types, constraints, and relationships.
2. Data Constraint – Rules applied to columns to ensure valid data, e.g., mobile
number must be 10 digits, RollNumber must be unique and not null.
3. Meta-data (Data Dictionary) – Data about the database structure, stored in a catalog.
4. Database Instance – Snapshot of data at a specific time, which changes with updates.
5. Query – Request to retrieve or manipulate data, e.g., finding all students present on a
specific date.
6. Data Manipulation – Operations like:
o Insertion – Adding new records (e.g., a new student).
o Deletion – Removing records (e.g., a student leaving).
o Update – Modifying records (e.g., changing a guardian’s phone number).

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

 7. Database Engine – Software component that processes queries and manages data
storage and retrieval
Q10: What are the limitations of DBMS?
1. Increased Complexity – Managing security, consistency, sharing, and integrity
makes DBMS complex.
2. Higher Cost – Requires investment in hardware, software, and user training.
3. Performance Issues – Query processing and transactions may be slower due to
additional overhead.
4. Data Vulnerability – Centralized storage increases the risk of data loss due to
hardware/software failures.
5. Regular Maintenance – Requires periodic backups, recovery measures, and updates
to ensure smooth functioning.
Q11: What is the Relational Data Model?
Definition:
The Relational Data Model represents data in the form of tables (relations) where each table
consists of columns (attributes) and rows (tuples).
Key Features:
1. Tables as Relations – Data is stored in tables, each with unique column names.
2. Relationships – Tables are linked through common columns (e.g., RollNumber links
STUDENT and ATTENDANCE).
3. Flat File Structure – Each row contains a single value per column, and all rows
have the same number of columns.
Examples of Relations in Student Attendance Database:
• STUDENT(RollNumber, SName, SDateofBirth, GUID) – Stores student details.
• ATTENDANCE(AttendanceDate, RollNumber, AttendanceStatus) – Tracks
attendance records.
• GUARDIAN(GUID, GName, GPhone, GAddress) – Stores guardian information.
Key Terminologies in DBMS: (Important)
1. Attribute – Columns in a table (e.g., GUID, GName, GPhone, GAddress in
GUARDIAN).
2. Tuple – Each row in a table (e.g., each guardian’s details in GUARDIAN table).
3. Domain – Set of valid values for an attribute (e.g., RollNumber takes integer values).
4. Degree – Number of attributes in a table (e.g., GUARDIAN has 4 attributes, so its
degree is 4).

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

 5. Cardinality – Number of tuples (rows) in a table (e.g., GUARDIAN has 5 tuples).
Example Table (GUARDIAN Relation)

Q12: What are the Three Important Properties of a Relation in the Relational Data
Model?
In a relational data model, a relation (table) follows three key properties that make it
different from a simple data file or table.
Property 1: Rules for Attributes (Columns)
• Each attribute (column) must have a unique name (e.g., RollNumber, GPhone).
• The sequence of attributes does not matter (i.e., swapping columns does not change
the relation).
Property 2: Rules for Tuples (Rows)
• Each tuple (row) must be unique (i.e., no two rows can be identical).
• The sequence of tuples does not matter (i.e., order of rows does not affect data
integrity).
Property 3: Rules for Data Values
• Each attribute must have values from the same domain (e.g., GPhone only stores
numeric values).
• Values must be atomic (i.e., cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts, e.g.,
GPhone is a single value).
• No multi-valued attributes (e.g., a guardian cannot store multiple phone numbers in
GPhone).
• NULL values represent unknown or non-applicable data (e.g., if a guardian does
not provide a phone number, GPhone is set to NULL).
These properties ensure data consistency, integrity, and accuracy in a relational database.

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

Q13: What are Keys in a Relational Database?
In a relational database, keys are used to uniquely identify records in a table and establish
relationships between tables. These keys ensure data integrity, prevent duplication, and
maintain relationships in a relational database. Different types of keys are:
1. Candidate Key
• A candidate key is any attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely identify tuples
(rows) in a relation.
• A table can have multiple candidate keys.
• Example: In the GUARDIAN table, both GUID and GPhone are candidate keys
because they hold unique values.
2. Primary Key
• A primary key is the candidate key chosen by the database designer to uniquely
identify records in a table.
• The remaining candidate keys are called alternate keys.
• Example: If GUID is selected as the primary key in the GUARDIAN table, then
GPhone becomes an alternate key.
3. Composite Primary Key
• If a single attribute cannot uniquely identify records, a combination of attributes is
used as the primary key.
• Example: In the ATTENDANCE table, RollNumber and AttendanceDate together
form a composite primary key, as RollNumber alone is not unique across different
dates.
4. Foreign Key
• A foreign key is an attribute in one table that refers to the primary key of another
table, establishing a relationship between tables.
• Example: In the STUDENT table, GUID (guardian ID) is a foreign key because it
refers to GUID in the GUARDIAN table.

Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College

Key Markings in the Tables:
Primary Key (PK) → RollNumber in STUDENT, GUID in GUARDIAN,
{AttendanceDate, RollNumber} in ATTENDANCE.
Foreign Key (FK) → GUID in STUDENT (linked to GUID in GUARDIAN),
RollNumber in ATTENDANCE (linked to RollNumber in STUDENT).

Miscellaneous topic: Reference image for understanding:

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Chethan M B Arehalli | II PUC | Computer Science | Parikrma Junior College