Class 8 Biology Section ______ Name___________ File#______

Microscopy
The use of microscope to observe very minute living organisms is known as microscopy.

Microscope
It is an instrument which is used for the observation of those things which cannot be seen with
naked eyes.

Discovery
Zacharias Janssen and his son Hans Janssen were two eye glass makers in Holland. They
discovered first microscope in 1595. It was simply a tube with lenses at each end and its
magnification from 3x to 9x.
Anton van leeuwenhoek (1632-1723):
Anton van leeuwenhoek was Dutch scientist made much better microscope and observed small
organism under it. The magnification power of leeuwenhoek’s microscope was more than 250x. He
is considered to be the first microscopist.

Magnification
The capacity of microscope to enlarge the apparent size of a small object is called magnification.
The magnification power of light microscope is 1500x.

Resolution
The capacity of microscope to differentiate between two close objects is called Resolution.
The human eye can differentiate between two points, which are at least o.1 mm apart. This is known
as resolution of human eye. The resolution power of light microscope is o.2μm.

Light microscope
Those microscopes which uses light to make the image of an object is called light microscope.
Light pathway
Light passes through the sample and then through two glass lenses.
Image formation
Lens produces an enlarge image of the sample and the second lens magnifies the image more. After
passing through the object and lenses, the light is projected into the viewer’s eye when an enlarge
and clear image is formed.
Magnification: The magnification of a light microscope is 1500x. It can magnify objects only
about 1500 times.
Resolution: The resolution of light microscope is 0.2μm.
 Electron microscope
It is the most advance form of microscope which use beam of electron to make the image of an
object.
Image formation
In electron microscope, the object and the lenses are placed in a vacuum chamber and a beam of
electron is passed through object. Electrons pass through or are reflected from the object and make
the image.
Magnetic lenses
Magnetic lenses focus the electron beam on a screen and make much enlarge image.
Resolution
Resolution of electron microscope is 0.2mm.

Types of Electron Microscope

There are two types of electron microscope.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
 It uses an electron beam to scan the surface that has been coated with metal.
 The SEM does not have great magnifying power.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
 It is used for the study of internal structure of cell or any other object.
 It can magnify objects about 250,000 times.

Comparison between light and electron microscope

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Radiation source Light Beams of Electron

Lenses Optical Magnetic

Magnification 10,000 times greater than thenaked eye 100 times greater than light
microscope
Resolution 500 times of the naked eye 400 times of the lightmicroscope
Images 2 D images TEM show 2D While SEM
Shows 3D Images

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Class 8 Biology Section ______ Name___________ File#______
History of cell theory
Robert Hook
Robert Hook was an English scientist who discovered cell in 1665. He observed piece of cork under
his self-made microscope. He observed small chambers like honey comb structures and he named it
cell.

Anton van Leeuwen Hook

Leeuwen Hook was a Dutch scientist. He studied a drop of pond water under his own made
microscope. The magnification power of his microscope was 300x. He noticed tiny creature
swimming in the drop of pond water. Leeuwen Hook was the first man to observe single celled
organisms called unicellular organisms.

Jean Baptist de-Lamarck

In 1809, jean Baptist de-Lamarck proposed that “Nobody can have life if its constituent parts are
not formed by cellular tissues.”

Dolland
Dolland in 1827 improved the quality of lenses. After that all the scientist were interested in
microscopy.

Robert Brown
In 1831, a British botanist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the plant cell.

Mathias Schleiden
In 1839 a German Botanist Mathias schleiden studied plant tissues and made the first statement of
the cell theory. He stated that “all plants are made up of cells”

Theodor Schwann
In 1839 a German Zoologist Schwann found that all the animals are made from cells.
Thus, schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory that “all living things are composed of living
Cells”.

Evangelista Purkyne
Purkyne was an English scientist. In 1840 he proposed that all the cellular contents are living
materials and gave them the name of “Protoplasm”.

Rudolf Virchow
In 1855, Rudolf Virchow, German physician gave his hypothesis that every cell comes from a pre-
existing cell.
Louis Pasteur
In 1862, a French scientist Louis Pasteur experimentally proved the hypothesis of Rudolf Virchow.
He experimented on bacteria and found that bacteria are produced from pre-existing bacteria.

Main points of cell theory

Cell Theory
Cell theory was first proposed by two German scientists, Botanist Matthias Schleiden and Zoologist
Theodor Schwan.

Main Points
 All living organisms are made from one or more cells.
 Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organism.
 New cells arise from pre-existing cells by cells division.

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Class 8 Biology Section ______ Name___________ File#______

Sub-cellular / acellular particles

According to first principle of the cell theory all organisms are composed of one or more cells.
Discovery of virus prions and viroid claims that the statement is not universal. They are not
composed of cells rather they are sub-cellular or acellular particles. As they show some
characteristics of living organisms i.e., they can increase in number and can transmit their
characteristics to the next generation.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL WALL

Cell Wall
It is nonliving structure present in bacteria, plants, fungi and some protists. Cell Wall is
located outside the cell membrane. The cell wall of plant cell is made from cellulose while the cell
wall of Fungi and prokaryotes are made from chitin and murein respectively.

Structural of Cell Wall

Cell Wall is mainly composed of three main layers.

i). Primary Wall

It is the outer layer of cell wall which is composed of cellulose. Cellulose molecules are
arranged in crisscross manner.
ii).Secondary wall
It is the second layer of cell wall which lies inner to the primary wall. It is comparatively
thick and rigid than the primary wall.
iii).Middle Lamella
It is the inner layer between primary walls of two adjacent cells.

Function of Cell Wall:-

 It protects the cellular contents from the outer environment.
 It gives support to the plant cell.
 It gives proper shape to the cell.
 It provides rigidity to the cell.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane
All prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a thin and elastic cell membrane covering the cytoplasm.
It is the outermost layer of the animal cell. In the cells of bacteria plants fungi and some protists,
cell membrane lies beneath cell wall.

Chemical Composition
Chemically cell membrane is composed of 20-40% lipids and 60-80% proteins and also contains
some carbohydrates.

Structure of Cell Membrane

Many scientists presented different models for the structure of cell membrane. Among them the
most acceptable model is Fluid mosaic model.

Fluid Mosaic Model

In 1972 singer and Nicolson presented a model about the structure of cell membrane which is
known as fluid mosaic model. According to this model, lipids bilayer is a sea and the protein are
floating over it while some stay embedded in the bilayer. Carbohydrates molecules are joined with
proteins or with lipids.

Cell membrane as semi permeable membrane:-

Cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane because it controls the inflow and outflow of
material of cell. It is thin delicate and elastic. It controls the movement of the molecule passing
through it. It allow only the passage of water and other small molecules such as gases while other
substances such as glucose, amino acids etc. can slowly diffuse through it.

Function
 It protects the inner parts of cell.
 It gives proper shape to the cell.
 It regulates the inflow and outflow of substances.
 It provides binding sites for ATP and other biological molecule.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CYTOPLASM

Cytoplasm
The portion of the cell which lies between the nuclear membrane and cell membrane is called
cytoplasm. It contains a variety of cell organelles and other substances.It is translucent, living and
viscous substances. It consists of two main parts.

Soluble Part
Soluble Parts contain about 70% Water and 30% organic and inorganic substances.

Insoluble Part
Cell organelles are the insoluble part of cytoplasm.
Portion
Cytoplasm is divided into two portions.
i).Ectoplasm: The outer clear portion is called ectoplasm.
ii).Endoplasm: The inner granular portion is called endoplasm.
Function
 The cytoplasm of the cell provides space for the proper functioning of the organelles.
 It also acts as the site for various metabolic reactions for example Glycolysis
(breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration)
 Cytoplasm store useful substance like protein, lipid, vitamin, carbohydrates.

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of interconnected channels present throughout cytoplasm. These membranes
enclosed flattened sacs called Cisternae.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

There are two type of endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum which has small granules called Ribosome present on its surface is
called rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is attached with nuclear membrane.

Function
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis.
 Transport of materials from nuclear membrane to cytoplasm.
 They give support to the cell.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum which has no ribosome’s present on its surface is called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. It is attached with cell membrane.

Function
 It plays an important role in the formation of lipids.
 They transfer materials from one part of cytoplasm to another.
 Detoxification of toxic materials.
 They give support to the cell.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the important organelle of a eukaryotic cell but absent in
prokaryotes.
Shape
Mitochondria are oval, rod shaped or filamentous shape bodies.
Discovery
They were discovered by Albert Von Kolliker in 1857 in muscle cell by electron
microscope.
Structure
Mitochondrion is bounded by double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth and
the inner membrane is inwardly folded these folds are called cristae. Cristae increase
the surface area of respiratory process.
Power House
Mitochondria are energy producing organelles therefore they are called powerhouse
of the cell.
Replication
Mitochondria are the self-replicating organelle.
Function
 Mitochondria play a role in cellular respiration. They produce energy rich ATP
molecules.
 Most of the enzymatic activities of the cell are carried out by mitochondria.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF GOLGI BODIES
Golgi Bodies
Golgi Bodies were first discovered by an Italian Scientist Camillo Golgi in
1898.

Shape
Golgi bodies are in the form of granules, rods, threads or canals.

Structure
Golgi bodies consist of stacks of flattened sacs made of membrane which
are arranged parallel to each other called cisternae.

Other Name
They are also known as Golgi apparatus. In plants it is generally known by
the name of Dictyosomes.

Function
 Golgi bodies store the secretory product.
 Golgi bodies modify and pack the secretory products at their margins
into small rounded sacs called Golgi vesicles or lysosomes.
 They also synthesize complex carbohydrates from simple sugar.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF RIBOSOME
Ribosomes
Ribosomes were discovered by Palade in 1955.Ribosomes are the
only organelles found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They
are either freely dispersed in cytoplasm or attached with
ER(endoplasmic reticulum).
Structure
Ribosomes have large subunit and small subunit. Small and large
subunit combines to form ribosome.
Formation
They are produced in nucleolus.
Composition: A ribosomes is made of almost equal amount of
protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Size
Eukaryotic Ribosomes
 Ribosome present in eukaryotes is of 80s.
Prokaryotic Ribosome
 Ribosome of prokaryotic cell is of 70s,
Group of Ribosome: Group of ribosome is called polysomes.
Function: Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.

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Class 8 Biology Section ______ Name___________ File#______

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLASTIDS

Plastids
Plastids are also membrane bounded organelles that only occur in plant and
photosynthetic protist (algae).
Types of Plastids
There are three types of Plastids.
i). Chloroplast
It is the most important and abundant type of plastids. It is bounded by double
membrane. The outer membrane is smooth while inner one give rise to membranous
sac called thylakoids. The stack of thylakoids is known as granum (plural. grana).
Position: These are present in green parts of plants particularly in leaves.
Color: Chloroplast is green in color due to green pigment called chlorophyll.
Structure of chloroplast
Chloroplast is bounded by double membranes. A smooth outer membrane and an
inner folded membrane which is modified into stack / pile of coins.
Granum: Each coin of the granum is called thylakoid. They combine to form
granum.
Intergrana: Granum is attached with each other by intergrana.
Stroma: The semi fluid and gelatinous matrix present inside the chloroplast is called
stroma.
Function
Chloroplast is the sites of photosynthesis in eukaryotes contain chlorophyll, the green
pigment necessary for the photosynthesis and associated accessory pigment. These
pigments are present in the thylakoid of the grana.
ii). Chromoplast
Location
It is present in the petal of flowers and in the skin of ripened fruits.

Colour
In plants, colors other than green are due to Chromoplasts.

Function
Its bright color attracts insects for pollination.

iii). Leucoplast
Leucoplast is colorless plastids. They are present in underground parts of the plants
particularly in roots.

Position
They are present in underground part of the plant called roots.
Color
Leucoplast is colorless.

Function
They store food materials such as starch, protein and lipid.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton
Meaning: Skeleton of cytoplasm.
Cytoskeleton is an important and complex cell component. It is
invisible under light microscope.
Structure
Two important types of filaments make up the cytoskeletons are,
i. Microtubules
ii. Microfilaments
Microtubules: - Microtubules are made up of a protein called
tubulin.
Microfilaments: - These microfilaments are approximately one-
third of the diameter of a microtubule. And it
is made up of protein called actin.

Function: -
 Microtubules are also the major component of cilia and
flagella.
 Microfilaments are often used by cells to change their shapes
and to hold the structure.
 It maintains the cell’s shape, anchors organelles in place and
moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and motility.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CENTRIOLES
Centriole
These are the cell organelles that are present in animals’ cell and in
unicellular organism. They are two in number and are collectively called
centrosomes.
Location
They are small rounded bodies present near the nucleus.
Structure
These are hollow cylindrical structures called microtubule. Each centriole
contains nine triplets of microtubules (27 microtubules).
Triplet
A group of three microtubules is called triplet. There are nine triplets in a
centriole. Each microtubule is composed of tubulin proteins.
Function
1. Animal Cell
In animal cell they help in the formation of spindle fibers which help
in the separation and movement of chromosomes during cell
division.
2. Unicellular organisms
In some unicellular organisms it helps in the formation of cilia and
flagella which are the locomotory organs of some unicellular
organisms.

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF VACUOLE
Vacuole
It is a single membrane bounded organelle present in the cytoplasm of both plants
and animal cells. In plant cell there is a single large vacuole present in the center
while in animal cell there are many small vacuoles.
In unicellular organisms there are two vacuoles.
 Food vacuole: Digestion of food occurs in food
vacuole.
 Contractile vacuole: Excretion (removal of metabolic
waste and toxic materials).

Function
 A plant vacuole store important material like water, amino acids, sugar and
some minerals.
 Many cells take in materials from outside in the form of food and then digest
the materials with the help of lysosomes.
 Some unicellular organisms use contractile vacuole for the elimination of
wastes from their body.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF LYSOSOME

Lysosome
These are single membrane bounded organelles. In the mid of 20th
century, the Belgian scientist Christian Rene de Duve discovered it.
Function
Lysosome contains strong digestive enzymes and work for the break
down (Digestion) of food and Waste materials within the cell. During its
function, a lysosome fuses with the vacuole that contains the targeted
material and its enzymes break down the material.

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 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NUCLEUS
Nucleus
It is the most important part of cell. It is also called brain of the cell because it
controls all the cellular activities.
Discovery
The nucleus of a cell was discovered by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in 1831
Shape:
Nucleus is spherical in shape.
Location
 In animals cell nucleus is present in the center.
 In plant cells, it is pushed to the side due to the presence of large central
vacuole.
Structure of Nucleus
Following are the main parts of the nucleus.
1.Nuclear Membrane
Nucleus is bounded by a double membrane called nuclear envelope. It is present in
eukaryotes but absent in prokaryotes.
Porous
Small pores are present on the surface of the nucleus. The pores allow the exchange
of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. Nucleoplasm
Inside the nucleus there is a granular matrix called nucleoplasm. It contains
chromosomes and round shape structures called nucleolus. (Plural-nucleoli).
3. Nucleoli
These are one or two rounded structures present in the nucleoplasm.
Function of Nucleoli
It is responsible for the formation of ribosomal RNA. Ribosomal RNA plays an
important role in the formation protein synthesis.
4.Chromosomes
Chromosomes are in the form of a network of fine threads present in Nucleoplasm.
Terminology
The word chromosomes have derived from two words.
 Chroma mean color.
 Soma mean bodies.

Chemical Composition
Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.

Structure
Each chromosome is composed of two main parts.
 Two chromatids.
 One centromere.

Function of chromosomes
It is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parents to off springs.

Number of Chromosomes
Members of same species having the same numbers of chromosomes. Chromosomes in different
species are given below.

Specie Chromosomes Pairs

Human 46 23

Radish 18 9
Onion 16 8

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 Class 8 Biology Section ______ Name___________
File#______
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
S.No Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
1 They have no true nucleus. They have true nucleus.
2 Due to the absence of nuclear membrane Due to the presence of nuclear membrane
chromosomes are dispersed in cytoplasm chromosomes are present in the nucleus.
3 Ribosome is small in size (70s) Ribosome is large in size (80s)
4 Cells are small in size 0.5nm indiameter. Cells are large in size from 10nm to 100nm in
diameter.
5 The cell wall is made of murein. The cell wall of plants is made of cellulose while in
fungi is made of chitin.
6 Example: Example:
Bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue green algae) Plants, Animal and Fungi.

CELL SPECIFICITY

The cell is the basic building block of all living things. Every living
organism is made up of different types of cells, and each type has a
specific job.

Examples

 Plants
 Xylem cells facilitate the conduction of water and dissolved minerals from
roots to leaves.
 Phloem cells are responsible for translocating food from leaves to various parts
of the plant.
 Root hair cells aid in the absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
 Photosynthetic cells contain chloroplasts for the process of photosynthesis.

 Animals

 In animals nerve cells are responsible for the transmission of impulses.

 Muscular cells are responsible for movement.
 Red blood cells carry oxygen and white blood cells kill foreign agents
 RELATION BETWEEN CELL FUNCTION AND CELL STRUCTURE

Cell of one type may differ from those of other types in following respects

Size and Shape  Nerve Cells are long for the transmission of nerve impulse.
 Xylem cells are tube like and have thick walls for conduction of water
and support.
 Red blood cells are round to accommodate globular haemoglobin.

Surface area tovolume ration  Roothair cells have large surface area for the maximum absorption of
water and salts.

Presence or absence of  Cell involved in making secretion have more complex ER and Golgi
organelles apparatus.
 Cells involved in photosynthesis have chloroplasts.

CELL AS AN OPEN SYSTEM

A cell works as an open system. That is

 It takes in substances needed for its metabolic activities through its

cell membrane.
 Then it performs the metabolic processes assigned to it.
 Products and by products are formed in metabolism.
 Cell either utilizes the products or transports them to other cells.
 The by products are either stored or are excreted out of the cell

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 SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
Cells are varying greatly in size. The smallest cells are mycoplasma
(bacteria) with diameter between 0.1 μm to 1μm. The bulkiest cells are
bird eggs, and the longest cells are muscle and nerve cells. Most cells are
small in size.

 Large cells have less surface area in relation to their volume while
small cells of the same shape have more surface area.
Volume: (L*B*H) 30μm x 30μm x 30μm = 27,000μm3

In contrast to total volume, the total surface areas are very different. Because the
cubical shape has 6 side, its surface area is 6 times the area of 1 side.

The total surface areas of the cubes are as follows.

Surface area of 1 large cube = 6 x (30μm x 30μm) = 5400μm2

Surface area of 1 small cube = 6 x (10μm x 10μm) = 600μm2
Surface area of 27 small cubes = 27 x 600μm2 = 16,200μm2

This relationship between cell size and surface area to volume ratio works to limits
cell size. As the size of a cell increases cell volume increases more rapidly than its
surface area.

The need of nutrients and rate of waste production are directly proportional to cell
volume. The cell takes up nutrients and excretes wastes through its surface cells
membrane. So, a large volume demands large surface area.

Hence it concluded that the membranes of small cells can serve their small volumes
more easily than the membrane of large cell.

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 PASSAGE OF MOLECULE INTO AND OUT OF CELL
The cell membrane is a semi-permeable membrane, it regulates material
flow to maintain equilibrium inside and outside the cell through the
following processes

There are two types of movement.

1. Active Transport

The movement of molecules across cell membrane from lower

concentration region to higher concentration with the expenditure of
metabolic energy is called active transport.

For the active transport of substances carrier proteins present in cell

membrane use energy and move them against concentration gradients. Na+
/K+ are actively transported across the requirement of the cell/body.

Example

Nerve impulse is carried when Na+ is actively transported across the

membrane from nerve cell to outside.

Passive Transport

The movement of molecules from higher concentration region to lower

concentration region without the expenditure of energy is called passive
transport.

Example

i. Diffusion
ii. ii. Facilitate diffusion
iii. iii. Osmosis.
1.Diffusion
The movement of molecules from higher concentration region to lower
concentration region without the expenditure of energy is called diffusion.

It is a type of passive transport.

Explanation
Only small molecules can diffuse through cell membrane e.g. water,
carbon dioxide, oxygen and some other simple molecules. Diffusion is
slow process yet it is efficient and rapid enough to fulfil the requirement of
the cells.

Important
Substances such as glucose, O2 and CO2 can easily diffuse through the
membrane. Glucose is present in higher concentration after the food is
digested in small intestine. Therefore, glucose is transported to villi from
the inner space of small intestine through diffusion to be stored in the form
of glycogen.

Carbon dioxide and oxygen are among the few simple molecules that can
cross the cell membrane by diffusion. Gases exchange in gills and lungs
operates by this process.

2.Facilitated Diffusion
The movement of molecules from high to low concentration with the help
of transport proteins present in cell membrane.

Many molecules do not diffuse freely across cell membrane because of

their size or charge. Such molecules are taaken into or out of the cells with
facilitated diffusion are higher than simple diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion is also a type of passive transport because there is no

expenditure of energy in this process.
3. Osmosis
The movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower
concentration region through semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.

Example of Osmosis

Plant cell absorb water and store it in vacuole by osmosis.

 TURGIDITY AND PLASMOLYSIS
1.TURGIDITY
When a cell absorbs water and become swell is called turgid cell and this
phenomenon is called turgidity.
MECHANISM
When we place the plant cell in pure water or in dilute solution. The plant
absorbs water by osmosis and stores it in vacuole. Due to this storing of
water the plant cell will swell.
TURGOR PRESSURE
The internal pressure exerted on the cell wall is called turgor pressure.
IMPORTANCE
i. It keeps the herbaceous plants erect.
ii. Helps in opening and closing of stomata.
iii. Some flower open during day time and close at night time this is due
to change in turgor.
iv. It gives proper shape to the cell.
v. The upward movement of water and dissolved minerals is due to
turgor.

2.PLASMOLYSIS
The condition in which plant cell loose water and become shrink is called
plasmolysis. And the cell is also called plasmolyzed cell.
MECHANISM
When a plant cell is placed in a solution having lower water potential than
the cell contents, The Cell leaves the water by osmosis. In this way the cell
become shrink. This phenomenon is called plasmolysis and the cell is also
called plasmolyzed cell.
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 ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
1.ENDOCYTOSIS
The movement of materials from outside environment to inside the cell is called
endocytosis.
Endocytosis occurs in following steps.
i. A portion of cell membrane invaginates (depressed inward)
ii. The material from outside is taken inside the invagination.
iii. The open end of the invagination seal and form a small vesicle.
iv. The vesicle detaches from the cell membrane and moves into the cytoplasm.
There are two forms of endocytosis.
 PHAGOCYTOSIS
The endocytosis of solid objects is called phagocytosis. It is also called eating of cell.
 PINOCYTOSIS
The endocytosis of liquid substances is called Pinocytosis. It is called dinking of a
cell
2. EXOCYTOSIS
The movement of waste materials from inside of the cell to the outside environment
is called exocytosis.

Exocytosis occurs in following steps.

 The bulky materials are packed inside a membrane and a vesicle is formed.
 The vesicle moves to the cell membrane.
 The vesicle fuses with the membrane and releases its contents into the
extracellular environment.
This process adds new membrane which replaces the part of cell membrane
lost during endocytosis.
Filtration
Filtration is a process by which small molecules are forced
to move across semi-permeable membrane with the aid of
hydrostatic (water) pressure of blood pressure.
In filtration the pressure cannot force large molecules, such
as proteins to pass through membranes pores.
Example
In our body filtration occurs in the kidney and helps us
filter out harmful substances.

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