LEVO

A level
Chemistry
For Edexcel exam board

The ultimate active recall guide

 ABOUT THIS GUIDE

This guide focuses largely on the art of ‘Active recall’ and how to
utilise your brain at its fullest capacity. Active recall is essentially
the opposite of traditional revision methods. Rather than inputting
information by reading, highlighting, and trying to retain it; this
method teaches you to output information instead by consistently
testing yourself and forcing your brain to recall it- until it moves
over to the long-term memory store.

Think of when you passively memorise a song. You don’t read the
lyrics and highlight them hoping they will stick in your brain. You
sing the lyrics either in your head or out loud, and eventually they
stick in your head for years. This is because you are forcing your
brain to actively utilise that information, which it will then
choose to store long term as it is used often.

The structure of this guide, although it may seem odd, will largely
just be questions. These are short and simple questions that you
need to answer to trigger the process of active recall. That’s it.

*These are NOT exam questions and shouldn’t be treated as

such. These are simply questions surrounding the compulsory
topics that you must do, with the intent to allow you to
memorise key information needed for the exams.*
USING THE ACTIVE RECALL METHOD

Answer your questions 3 times

Attempt 1: Answer from memory, mark when finished

Attempt 2: Answer open book

Attempt 3: Answer from memory again, mark when finished

Comparison

Compare attempts 1 and 3 and see if there are any improvements

Identify
Highlight all the questions you got wrong in BOTH attempts 1&3.
Repeat process until all questions are answered correctly
 ACTIVE RECALL QUESTIONS

This section will be the main body of this guide. Below, you
will find active recall questions that will cover every single
compulsory topic for Year 1/AS and Year 2 A level.
 Topic 1- Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

The Atom
1. What are the three subatomic particles of an atom?
2. What is the relative charge of a proton, neutron, and electron?
3. Which subatomic particle is responsible for determining the element's identity?
4. What is the mass of a proton and neutron in atomic mass units (amu)?
5. What is the mass of an electron compared to a proton or neutron?
6. Define atomic number and mass number.
7. How do you calculate the number of neutrons in an atom?
8. What is the electronic configuration of an element?
9. What are isotopes? Provide an example.
10. Explain the significance of the nucleus in an atom.

Relative Mass
1. What is relative atomic mass?
2. How is relative atomic mass determined?
3. Define relative isotopic mass.
4. What is the difference between relative atomic mass and relative isotopic mass?
5. Explain how to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given its isotopes.
6. Define relative molecular mass.
7. How is relative molecular mass calculated?
8. What is the significance of relative formula mass?
9. Explain how to calculate the relative formula mass of a compound.
10. What unit is used to express relative masses in chemistry?

Electronic Structure
1. What is the electronic structure of an atom?
2. Define the term "electron shell."
3. How many electron shells are typically found in an atom?
4. What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the first electron shell?
5. Describe the energy levels of electron shells.
6. What is the significance of the electron configuration of an atom?
7. How many electrons can the second electron shell hold?
8. Explain the concept of sub-levels within electron shells.
9. What are the possible sub-levels in the second electron shell?
10. How does electron configuration relate to an atom's chemical behavior?
 Topic 1- Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Atomic Emission Spectra

1. What is an atomic emission spectrum?
2. Describe the process that leads to the formation of atomic emission spectra.
3. What does each line in an emission spectrum represent?
4. Explain why different elements have different emission spectra.
5. How does the energy of emitted light relate to the transitions of electrons in an atom?
6. What is the significance of atomic emission spectra in identifying elements?
7. Describe the appearance of an emission spectrum for a single element.
8. How is the emission spectrum of an element related to its electron configuration?
9. What is the relationship between the number of spectral lines and the complexity of an
atom?
10. How are atomic emission spectra used in analytical chemistry?

Ionisation Energies
1. What is ionization energy?
2. Define the first ionization energy.
3. Explain the trend in ionization energy across a period.
4. Describe the trend in ionization energy down a group.
5. What factors influence the ionization energy of an atom?
6. How is ionization energy measured?
7. What happens to the ionization energy as you move from left to right across a period?
8. Why does ionization energy generally increase across a period?
9. Why does ionization energy generally decrease down a group?
10. What is the significance of ionization energy in chemical reactions?

Periodicity
1. What is periodicity in chemistry?
2. Describe the periodic trend of atomic radius.
3. Explain how atomic radius changes across a period.
4. Describe the trend in atomic radius down a group.
5. What factors contribute to the trend in atomic radius?
6. Define the term "electronegativity."
7. Describe the trend in electronegativity across a period.
8. Explain the trend in electronegativity down a group.
9. What factors influence electronegativity?
10. How does ionization energy vary across a period and down a group?
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Ionic Bonding
1. What is ionic bonding?
2. Describe how ionic bonds form.
3. Explain the role of valence electrons in ionic bonding.
4. What types of elements typically form ionic bonds?
5. Define cation and anion.
6. Describe the charge of ions in an ionic compound.
7. How do you determine the formula of an ionic compound?
8. What is lattice energy?
9. Explain the properties of ionic compounds.
10. How do you predict the stability of an ionic compound?

Covalent Bonding
1. What is covalent bonding?
2. Describe how covalent bonds form.
3. Explain the sharing of electrons in a covalent bond.
4. What types of elements typically form covalent bonds?
5. Define molecule.
6. Differentiate between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
7. How do you determine the number of bonds formed by an atom in a molecule?
8. What is a double bond?
9. Explain the concept of bond length.
10. How does bond polarity affect the properties of a molecule?

Shapes of Molecules
1. What is the VSEPR theory?
2. Define electron pair repulsion.
3. How does VSEPR theory explain the shapes of molecules?
4. Describe the shape of a molecule with two bonding pairs.
5. What is the shape of a molecule with three bonding pairs and no lone pairs?
6. Explain the shape of a molecule with four bonding pairs and no lone pairs.
7. Describe the shape of a molecule with three bonding pairs and one lone pair.
8. What is the shape of a molecule with two bonding pairs and two lone pairs?
9. How does the presence of lone pairs affect molecular shape?
10. Why is predicting molecular shape important in chemistry?
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Giant Covalent and Metallic Structures

1. What are giant covalent structures?
2. Provide examples of giant covalent structures.
3. Describe the bonding in giant covalent structures.
4. What properties are associated with giant covalent structures?
5. What is a metallic structure?
6. Describe the bonding in metallic structures.
7. What properties are associated with metallic structures?
8. Compare the properties of giant covalent structures and metallic structures.
9. How does the bonding in diamond differ from that in graphite?
10. Explain the differences in properties between diamond and graphite.

Electronegativity and Polarisation

1. What is electronegativity?
2. How does electronegativity vary across the periodic table?
3. Describe the trend in electronegativity across a period.
4. Explain the trend in electronegativity down a group.
5. What is a polar covalent bond?
6. How is electronegativity difference used to determine bond polarity?
7. Define polarisation in chemistry.
8. How does polarisation occur in ionic compounds?
9. Explain polarisation in covalent compounds.
10. What role does polarisation play in chemical reactions?

Intermolecular Forces
1. What are intermolecular forces?
2. Describe the types of intermolecular forces.
3. How do London dispersion forces arise?
4. Explain dipole-dipole interactions.
5. Define hydrogen bonding.
6. What factors affect the strength of intermolecular forces?
7. Compare the strength of intermolecular forces in different substances.
8. How do intermolecular forces affect physical properties like boiling and melting points?
9. What is the significance of intermolecular forces in determining solubility?
10. How do intermolecular forces influence the behavior of molecules in the gas, liquid, and
solid phases?
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Hydrogen Bonding
1. What is hydrogen bonding?
2. Explain why hydrogen bonding occurs.
3. What types of molecules can participate in hydrogen bonding?
4. Describe the structure of a molecule that can engage in hydrogen bonding.
5. How does hydrogen bonding compare to other types of intermolecular forces?
6. Provide examples of molecules that exhibit hydrogen bonding.
7. What role does hydrogen bonding play in the properties of water?
8. How does hydrogen bonding affect the boiling and melting points of substances?
9. Discuss the importance of hydrogen bonding in biological systems.
10. How does hydrogen bonding contribute to the unusual properties of ice?

Solubility
1. What is solubility?
2. Define the terms "solute" and "solvent."
3. Describe the factors that affect solubility.
4. How does temperature affect solubility?
5. Explain how pressure affects the solubility of gases.
6. Define saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions.
7. What is meant by the phrase "like dissolves like"?
8. How does polarity influence solubility?
9. Explain how the structure of a solute affects its solubility.
10. Describe the process of dissolving a solid solute in a liquid solvent.

Predicting Structures and Properties

1. What factors influence molecular structure?
2. How does molecular shape affect polarity?
3. Describe how intermolecular forces influence boiling and melting points.
4. How does the strength of intermolecular forces relate to volatility?
5. Explain how the size of molecules affects their physical properties.
6. What role do hydrogen bonds play in determining the properties of substances?
7. How can you predict the solubility of a substance based on its structure?
8. Describe the relationship between molecular polarity and solubility.
9. How does the presence of functional groups affect chemical properties?
10. Why is predicting molecular structure and properties important in chemistry?
 Topic 3- Redox 1

Oxidation Numbers
1. What is an oxidation number?
2. How do you determine the oxidation number of an element in a compound?
3. What is the oxidation number of an atom in its elemental form?
4. Describe the oxidation numbers for hydrogen and oxygen in most compounds.
5. Explain the rules for assigning oxidation numbers in a compound.
6. How do you determine the oxidation number of a polyatomic ion?
7. What is the oxidation number of an ion in a compound?
8. How do oxidation numbers relate to the concept of oxidation and reduction?
9. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation numbers.
10. How do you use oxidation numbers to balance redox equations?

Redox Reactions
1. What is a redox reaction?
2. Describe the difference between oxidation and reduction.
3. Explain how to identify oxidizing and reducing agents in a reaction.
4. How do you determine oxidation numbers in a redox reaction?
5. Define oxidation state.
6. Describe the process of oxidation in terms of electron loss.
7. Explain the process of reduction in terms of electron gain.
8. Provide examples of redox reactions.
9. How do you balance a redox equation using the half-reaction method?
10. Why are redox reactions important in everyday life and industry?
 Topic 4- Inorganic Chemistry and
the Periodic Table

Group 2
1. What is Group 2 in the periodic table?
2. How many elements are in Group 2?
3. Describe the general electronic configuration of Group 2 elements.
4. What is the common name for Group 2 elements?
5. What are the physical properties of Group 2 elements?
6. Explain the trend in atomic radius down Group 2.
7. Describe the trend in ionization energy down Group 2.
8. What type of bonding do Group 2 elements typically form?
9. How do Group 2 elements react with water?
10. What are some common uses of Group 2 elements?

Group 1 and 2 Compounds

1. What are the common compounds formed by Group 1 elements?
2. Describe the general properties of Group 1 compounds.
3. How do Group 1 compounds typically react with water?
4. Explain the trend in solubility of Group 1 compounds.
5. What are some common uses of Group 1 compounds?
6. What are the common compounds formed by Group 2 elements?
7. Describe the general properties of Group 2 compounds.
8. How do Group 2 compounds typically react with water?
9. Explain the trend in solubility of Group 2 compounds.
10. What are some common uses of Group 2 compounds?

Halogens
1. What is the halogen group?
2. How many elements are in the halogen group?
3. Describe the general properties of halogens.
4. What is the trend in reactivity of halogens down the group?
5. Explain the trend in boiling points of halogens down the group.
6. How do halogens react with metals?
7. Describe the color of halogens in their elemental form.
8. What are the uses of halogens in everyday life?
9. How do halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides?
10. What are the characteristics of halogen compounds?
 Topic 4- Inorganic Chemistry and
the Periodic Table

Reactions to Halogens
1. How do halogens react with metals?
2. Describe the reaction of halogens with hydrogen.
3. What happens when halogens react with alkalis?
4. Explain displacement reactions involving halogens.
5. How can you test for halogens?
6. What is observed when halogens react with sulfuric acid?
7. What type of reaction occurs when halogens react with water?
8. How do halogens participate in organic synthesis?
9. What are the effects of halogenation on organic compounds?
10. Describe the reaction of halogens with ammonia.

Reactions to Halides
1. How do halogens react with metals to form metal halides?
2. Describe the reaction between halogens and hydrogen to form hydrogen halides.
3. What is the general equation for the reaction between a halogen and a metal?
4. How do halogens react with alkalis to form halides and halates?
5. Explain the displacement reactions of halogens with halide ions.
6. Describe the test for halide ions using silver nitrate solution.
7. How does the solubility of silver halides vary with halide ion size?
8. What are some common uses of halides in industry and everyday life?
9. How do halides participate in nucleophilic substitution reactions?
10. Describe the reaction of halides with concentrated sulfuric acid.

Tests for Ions

1. What is the purpose of tests for ions in chemistry?
2. Describe how to test for cations in solution.
3. How do you test for anions in solution?
4. Explain the test for carbonate ions.
5. Describe the test for sulfate ions.
6. What is the test for halide ions?
7. How do you identify nitrate ions?
8. Describe the test for ammonium ions.
9. Explain how to test for chloride ions.
10. What are the common indicators used in qualitative analysis?
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

The Mole
1. What is Avogadro's number?
2. Define molar mass.
3. How do you calculate the number of moles?
4. Explain the concept of molarity.
5. What is the relationship between mass, moles, and molar mass?
6. How do you convert between mass and moles?
7. Describe the use of the mole in stoichiometry.
8. What is the difference between atomic and formula mass?
9. How does the mole concept apply to gases?
10. What is the importance of the mole in chemistry?

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1. What is an empirical formula?
2. How do you determine empirical formulas?
3. Define molecular formula.
4. How is a molecular formula determined?
5. Explain the difference between empirical and molecular formulas.
6. What information does the empirical formula provide?
7. How can you convert between empirical and molecular formulas?
8. What is the relationship between molecular and empirical formulas?
9. How do you calculate the molecular formula from combustion data?
10. Describe the steps to find the empirical formula from percentage composition.

Chemical Equations
1. What is a chemical equation?
2. Describe the law of conservation of mass.
3. How do you balance chemical equations?
4. What are coefficients in chemical equations?
5. Explain the difference between reactants and products.
6. How do you represent states of matter in chemical equations?
7. What are reversible reactions?
8. Describe exothermic and endothermic reactions.
9. How are skeletal equations written?
10. What is the purpose of balancing chemical equations?
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

Calculations with Gases

1. What is Avogadro's Law?
2. How do you convert volume to moles?
3. Describe the ideal gas equation.
4. What is the molar volume of gas?
5. How do you calculate gas density?
6. Explain the relationship between pressure and volume.
7. What is Boyle's Law?
8. How does temperature affect gas volume?
9. Describe the conditions for standard temperature and pressure (STP).
10. How do you calculate the volume of a gas collected over water?

Acid-Base Titrations
1. What is an acid-base titration?
2. Describe the setup of a titration.
3. What is the purpose of an indicator?
4. How do you calculate the concentration of a solution from a titration?
5. Explain the equivalence point in a titration.
6. What is a standard solution?
7. How do you calculate the volume of a solution used in a titration?
8. What is the pH at the equivalence point in a strong acid-strong base titration?
9. How do you determine the concentration of an unknown acid or base using titration?
10. What are some common indicators used in acid-base titrations?

Titration Calculations
1. What is the purpose of titration calculations?
2. How do you calculate the concentration of a solution from a titration?
3. Describe the process of finding the concentration of an unknown solution.
4. What is the stoichiometry in titration calculations?
5. How do you calculate the number of moles of the unknown substance?
6. What information do you need to perform titration calculations?
7. Explain how to calculate the volume of solution required for titration.
8. What is the mole ratio used in titration calculations?
9. Describe the role of indicators in titration calculations.
10. How do you determine the equivalence point in titration calculations?
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

Uncertainty and Errors

1. What is uncertainty in chemistry?
2. How do you calculate percentage uncertainty?
3. What are random errors?
4. Describe systematic errors.
5. How do you minimize errors?
6. What is precision in measurements?
7. Define accuracy in measurements.
8. Explain the difference between precision and accuracy.
9. How do you calculate mean value?
10. What is the significance of uncertainty in scientific measurements?

Atom Economy and Percentage Yield

1. What is atom economy?
2. How do you calculate atom economy?
3. Describe the significance of atom economy.
4. What is percentage yield?
5. How do you calculate percentage yield?
6. Explain the significance of percentage yield.
7. What factors affect atom economy?
8. What factors affect percentage yield?
9. How can you improve atom economy?
10. How can you improve percentage yield?
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

The Basics
1. What is a chemical element?
2. Define a compound in chemistry.
3. Describe the structure of an atom.
4. What are isotopes?
5. Explain the difference between elements and compounds.
6. What is a chemical reaction?
7. How are chemical bonds formed?
8. Define the terms reactants and products.
9. What are the three states of matter?
10. What is the difference between physical and chemical changes?

Organic Reactions
1. What is an organic reaction?
2. How do you classify organic reactions?
3. Describe the process of substitution in organic reactions.
4. What is addition in organic reactions?
5. Explain the mechanism of elimination in organic reactions.
6. What is the role of oxidation in organic reactions?
7. Describe the process of reduction in organic reactions.
8. What are condensation reactions in organic chemistry?
9. How do you distinguish between substitution and addition reactions?
10. What are some common examples of organic reactions?

Isomerism
1. What is isomerism?
2. Describe structural isomerism.
3. Explain geometric (cis-trans) isomerism.
4. What is optical isomerism?
5. How do you identify functional group isomerism?
6. Describe chain isomerism.
7. What is tautomeric isomerism?
8. How do you distinguish positional isomerism?
9. Explain stereoisomerism.
10. What is the significance of isomerism in chemistry?
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Alkanes
1. What is the general formula for alkanes?
2. Describe the structure of alkanes.
3. How do you name alkanes?
4. What are the physical properties of alkanes?
5. Explain the process of combustion of alkanes.
6. How do you represent the combustion of alkanes?
7. What is the trend in boiling points of alkanes?
8. How do alkanes react with halogens?
9. Describe the solubility of alkanes.
10. What are some common uses of alkanes?

Crude Oil
1. What is crude oil?
2. Describe the composition of crude oil.
3. How is crude oil formed?
4. What are the main fractions obtained from crude oil distillation?
5. Explain the process of fractional distillation of crude oil.
6. How do you separate fractions in fractional distillation?
7. What are the uses of different fractions obtained from crude oil?
8. Describe the environmental impacts of crude oil usage.
9. How is crude oil refined?
10. What are some challenges associated with crude oil extraction and refining?

Fuels
1. What is a fuel?
2. Define combustion in fuels.
3. How do fuels release energy?
4. Explain the difference between fossil fuels and renewable fuels.
5. Describe the components of fossil fuels.
6. What is the significance of calorific value in fuels?
7. How do you calculate the energy released from a fuel?
8. What are some common properties of good fuels?
9. Describe the process of combustion of fuels.
10. How do fuels contribute to environmental issues?
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Alkenes
1. What are alkenes?
2. Describe the general formula of alkenes.
3. How do you name alkenes?
4. What is the structure of alkenes?
5. Explain the double bond in alkenes.
6. How do you distinguish alkenes from alkanes?
7. Describe the reactivity of alkenes.
8. What is the process of hydration of alkenes?
9. How do alkenes react with halogens?
10. What are some common uses of alkenes?

Stereoisomerism
1. What is stereoisomerism?
2. Describe geometric (cis-trans) isomerism.
3. Explain optical isomerism.
4. How do you identify stereoisomers?
5. What is the significance of chirality in optical isomerism?
6. Describe enantiomers in optical isomerism.
7. What is a chiral center?
8. How do you determine the number of stereoisomers?
9. What is the relationship between cis-trans isomers?
10. How do stereoisomers differ in physical properties?

Reactions of Alkenes
1. What is the general formula for the reaction of alkenes?
2. Describe the process of electrophilic addition.
3. How do alkenes react with halogens?
4. Explain the hydration of alkenes.
5. What is the purpose of a catalyst in the hydration of alkenes?
6. How do alkenes react with hydrogen halides?
7. Describe the process of halogenation of alkenes.
8. What is the role of a halogen carrier in halogenation?
9. How do alkenes react with sulfuric acid?
10. What is the mechanism of oxymercuration-demercuration?
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Polymers
1. What are polymers?
2. Describe the structure of polymers.
3. How are polymers classified?
4. What is addition polymerization?
5. Explain condensation polymerization.
6. What are some common examples of addition polymers?
7. Describe the properties of polymers.
8. How are polymer chains formed?
9. What is the significance of monomers in polymerization?
10. What are some environmental concerns related to polymers?

Halogenoalkanes
1. What are halogenoalkanes?
2. How are halogenoalkanes named?
3. Describe the structure of halogenoalkanes.
4. How do halogenoalkanes react with nucleophiles?
5. Explain the reactivity of halogenoalkanes.
6. What is the role of halogen in halogenoalkanes?
7. Describe the process of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes.
8. How do halogenoalkanes react with bases?
9. What are some common uses of halogenoalkanes?
10. What environmental concerns are associated with halogenoalkanes?

Alcohols
1. What are alcohols?
2. Describe the structure of alcohols.
3. How are alcohols named?
4. What is the functional group in alcohols?
5. Explain the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
6. How do you classify alcohols?
7. Describe the process of oxidation of alcohols.
8. How do alcohols react with acids?
9. What are some common uses of alcohols?
10. What are the physical properties of alcohols?
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Oxidation of Alcohols
1. What is oxidation of alcohols?
2. How do primary alcohols oxidize?
3. Describe the products of primary alcohol oxidation.
4. How do secondary alcohols oxidize?
5. Explain the products of secondary alcohol oxidation.
6. What is the oxidizing agent used?
7. Describe the conditions for oxidation.
8. How do you distinguish between alcohols?
9. What is the purpose of oxidation?
10. What are some common applications?

Organic Techniques
1. What are organic techniques?
2. Describe reflux in organic chemistry.
3. How is distillation used?
4. Explain extraction in organic chemistry.
5. What is recrystallization used for?
6. Describe chromatography in organic chemistry.
7. How is filtration used?
8. What is the purpose of drying agents?
9. How do you calculate percent yield?
10. What are some safety precautions?
 Topic 7- Modern Analytical Techniques 1

Mass Spectrometry
1. What is mass spectrometry?
2. Describe the process of ionization.
3. How are ions accelerated?
4. Explain ion detection in mass spectrometry.
5. What is the purpose of a mass spectrometer?
6. How are ions separated?
7. Describe the role of magnetic fields.
8. What information does mass spectrometry provide?
9. How is mass-to-charge ratio calculated?
10. What are some applications of mass spectrometry?

Infrared Spectrometry
1. What is infrared spectrometry?
2. How does infrared spectrometry work?
3. What is the infrared region?
4. Describe the principle of absorption.
5. How are functional groups identified?
6. Explain the fingerprint region.
7. What is the purpose of baseline correction?
8. How do you interpret infrared spectra?
9. What are some common applications?
10. How does sample preparation affect results?
 Topic 8- Energetics 1

Enthalpy Changes
1. What is enthalpy change?
2. Describe exothermic reactions.
3. How are endothermic reactions characterized?
4. Explain the concept of enthalpy.
5. What is standard enthalpy change?
6. How do you calculate enthalpy change?
7. Describe Hess's Law.
8. What is bond enthalpy?
9. How does bond breaking affect enthalpy?
10. What is the enthalpy of combustion?

Hess’s Law
1. What is Hess's Law?
2. Describe the principle of Hess's Law.
3. How is Hess's Law applied?
4. Explain the concept of enthalpy change.
5. What is the significance of Hess's Law?
6. How do you calculate overall enthalpy?
7. Describe an example of Hess's Law.
8. What is the enthalpy cycle?
9. How does Hess's Law simplify calculations?
10. What are the limitations of Hess's Law?

Bond Enthalpy
1. What is bond enthalpy?
2. Describe the concept of bond enthalpy.
3. How is bond enthalpy measured?
4. Explain the relationship between bond length and bond enthalpy.
5. What factors affect bond enthalpy?
6. How do you calculate total bond enthalpy?
7. Describe an example of bond breaking.
8. What is the enthalpy change in bond formation?
9. How does bond enthalpy relate to reaction energy?
10. What are some applications of bond enthalpy?
 Topic 9- Kinetics 1

Collision Theory
1. What is collision theory?
2. Describe the basic principles.
3. How does collision frequency affect reaction rate?
4. What role do collision orientations play?
5. Explain the concept of activation energy.
6. What factors influence reaction rate?
7. How does temperature affect collisions?
8. Describe the significance of catalysts.
9. How does particle size affect collisions?
10. What is the relationship between concentration and collision frequency?

Reaction Rates
1. What are reaction rates?
2. Describe the factors affecting rates.
3. How is rate measured?
4. Explain the collision theory.
5. What is activation energy?
6. How does temperature affect rates?
7. Describe the role of catalysts.
8. How does concentration affect rates?
9. Explain the concept of order.
10. What are some common units?

Catalysts
1. What are catalysts?
2. How do catalysts affect reactions?
3. Describe homogeneous catalysts.
4. Explain heterogeneous catalysts.
5. What is the purpose of catalysts?
6. How do catalysts lower activation?
7. Describe enzyme catalysts in cells.
8. How do catalysts affect equilibrium?
9. What is the significance of enzymes?
10. How do catalysts impact reaction mechanisms?
 Topic 10- Equilibrium 1

Dynamic Equilibrium
1. What is dynamic equilibrium?
2. Describe reversible reactions in equilibrium.
3. How do forward and reverse rates compare?
4. Explain the concept of equilibrium constant.
5. What factors affect equilibrium position?
6. How does temperature affect equilibrium?
7. Describe Le Chatelier's Principle.
8. What is the significance of equilibrium?
9. How does pressure affect equilibrium?
10. What are some common equilibrium systems?

Le Chatelier’s Principle
1. What is Le Chatelier's Principle?
2. Describe the principle's application.
3. How does equilibrium respond to changes?
4. What happens when stress applied?
5. Explain effects on concentration changes.
6. Describe temperature changes effects.
7. How does pressure change affect?
8. What is the role of catalysts?
9. Explain equilibrium shift towards products.
10. Describe shift towards reactants.
 Topic 11- Equilibrium 2

Calculations involving Kc
1. What is Kc in chemistry?
2. Describe equilibrium constant expression.
3. How is Kc calculated?
4. Explain the significance of Kc.
5. What units does Kc have?
6. How is Kc affected by temperature?
7. Describe the relationship between Kc and reaction direction.
8. How do you interpret Kc values?
9. What happens when Qc equals Kc?
10. How is Kc used in calculations?

Gas Equilibria
1. What are gas equilibria?
2. Describe the equilibrium constant expression.
3. How are partial pressures calculated?
4. Explain the significance of Kp.
5. What units does Kp have?
6. How is Kp affected by temperature?
7. Describe the relationship between Kp and reaction direction.
8. How do you interpret Kp values?
9. What happens when Qp equals Kp?
10. How is Kp used in calculations?

Le Chatelier’s Principle and Equilibrium Constants

1. How does Le Chatelier's Principle apply?
2. Describe equilibrium constant calculations.
3. What factors affect equilibrium constants?
4. How do you interpret K values?
5. Explain the effects of temperature.
6. What happens when equilibrium disturbed?
7. Describe K changes with pressure.
8. How does concentration change affect?
9. What role do catalysts play?
10. How is equilibrium constant used?
 Topic 12- Acid-Base Equilibria

Acids and Bases

1. What defines an acid?
2. Describe properties of acids.
3. What characterizes a base?
4. Explain properties of bases.
5. How do acids ionize in water?
6. What ions do acids produce?
7. Describe neutralization reactions.
8. What is a salt?
9. How do you classify acids?
10. What is a pH scale?

pH
1. What is pH?
2. How is pH measured?
3. Describe the pH scale.
4. What pH value indicates acidity?
5. What pH value indicates neutrality?
6. How do you calculate pH?
7. What pH value indicates basicity?
8. How does pH relate to [H⁺]?
9. Explain the logarithmic nature of pH.
10. How does pH affect biological systems?

The Ionic Product of Water

1. What is the ionic product of water?
2. Describe the equilibrium equation.
3. How is Kw affected by temperature?
4. What is the value of Kw?
5. Explain the significance of Kw.
6. How does Kw relate to pH?
7. Describe the auto-ionization of water.
8. What ions are produced?
9. How is Kw calculated?
10. What is the role of Kw in solutions?
 Topic 12- Acid-Base Equilibria

Experiments Involving pH
1. What are pH indicators?
2. Describe universal indicator solution.
3. How does litmus paper work?
4. Explain phenolphthalein's color change.
5. What is the purpose of pH meters?
6. How do you use pH paper?
7. Describe the color changes.
8. What are the limitations?
9. How accurate are pH meters?
10. What is the pH range?

Titration Curves and Indicators

1. What is a titration curve?
2. Describe the shape of curves.
3. How are equivalence points determined?
4. What are the roles of indicators?
5. Explain the color changes.
6. What is the pH at equivalence?
7. Describe acid-base titration processes.
8. How does indicator selection affect?
9. What is the endpoint?
10. How do you choose indicators?

Buffers
1. What are buffers?
2. How do buffers resist pH?
3. Describe buffer solutions composition.
4. What is the buffer capacity?
5. Explain the buffer action.
6. How do buffers maintain pH?
7. What are common buffer components?
8. How are buffer solutions prepared?
9. Describe buffer range significance.
10. How do buffers affect equilibrium?
 Topic 13- Energetics 2

Lattice Energy
1. What is lattice energy?
2. How is lattice energy defined?
3. Describe factors affecting lattice energy.
4. What is the trend in lattice energy?
5. How does ion size affect lattice energy?
6. What is the significance of lattice energy?
7. Explain the Coulombic attraction concept.
8. How is lattice energy measured?
9. What ions have high lattice energies?
10. How does lattice energy affect stability?

Polarisation
1. What is polarisation?
2. Describe polarisation in ionic solids.
3. How does polarisation occur?
4. Explain polarisation in covalent bonds.
5. What is the effect of polarisation?
6. Describe polarisation in metallic bonds.
7. How does polarisation affect properties?
8. What factors influence polarisation?
9. Explain polarisation in molecules.
10. How does polarisation affect reactivity?

Dissolving
1. What is dissolving?
2. Describe the dissolution process.
3. How do solvents interact solutes?
4. Explain the role of solvent.
5. What is the solvation process?
6. How do temperature changes affect?
7. Describe factors influencing solubility.
8. What is the solubility product?
9. How does pressure affect solubility?
10. What are common solvents used?
 Topic 13- Energetics 2

Entropy
1. What is entropy?
2. Describe entropy changes in systems.
3. How does disorder affect entropy?
4. Explain entropy in physical changes.
5. What is the entropy trend?
6. Describe entropy in chemical reactions.
7. How does temperature affect entropy?
8. What is the standard entropy?
9. Explain entropy and spontaneity.
10. How is entropy calculated?

More on Entropy Change

1. What is entropy change?
2. Describe positive entropy change.
3. Explain negative entropy change.
4. How does phase change affect?
5. What is the entropy formula?
6. Describe entropy in chemical reactions.
7. How does temperature influence entropy?
8. What are units of entropy?
9. Explain entropy in phase changes.
10. How do reversible processes affect?

Free Energy
1. What is free energy?
2. Describe Gibbs free energy.
3. How is free energy calculated?
4. Explain spontaneity in terms.
5. What is the significance?
6. Describe ΔG and equilibrium.
7. How does temperature affect ΔG?
8. What are units of ΔG?
9. Explain positive ΔG values.
10. What is the ΔG trend?
 Topic 14- Redox 2

Electrochemical Cells
1. What are electrochemical cells?
2. Describe cell components and functions.
3. How does oxidation occur?
4. Explain reduction in cells.
5. What is the purpose of salt bridge?
6. Describe electrode potentials concept.
7. How is cell potential calculated?
8. What affects cell potential?
9. Explain cell notation significance.
10. What are common types?

Electrode Potentials
1. What are electrode potentials?
2. Describe standard electrode potential.
3. How are electrode potentials measured?
4. Explain the significance of signs.
5. What is the reference electrode?
6. Describe reduction potentials in cells.
7. How do electrode potentials relate?
8. What factors influence electrode potential?
9. Explain the Nernst equation use.
10. How do non-standard conditions affect?

The Electrochemical Series

1. What is the electrochemical series?
2. Describe its arrangement of elements.
3. How is reactivity determined?
4. Explain its significance in cells.
5. What does it predict?
6. How is it used in cells?
7. What elements are at extremes?
8. Describe noble metals' placement.
9. How is it organized?
10. What influences series placement?
 Topic 14- Redox 2

Storage and Fuel Cells

1. What are fuel cells?
2. Describe their operation principle.
3. How do fuel cells produce electricity?
4. Explain their advantages over batteries.
5. What fuels are commonly used?
6. Describe hydrogen fuel cell setup.
7. How do fuel cells impact environment?
8. What are common applications?
9. Explain their efficiency compared.
10. Describe challenges in widespread adoption.

Redox Titrations
1. What are redox titrations?
2. Describe the titration process.
3. How are endpoints determined?
4. Explain the role of indicators.
5. What is the typical setup?
6. Describe the standard solutions used.
7. How are redox reactions balanced?
8. What is the purpose of back titration?
9. How are titration curves interpreted?
10. What factors affect titration precision?
 Topic 15- Transition Metals

Transition Metals
1. What are transition metals?
2. Describe their electron configurations.
3. How do they form ions?
4. Explain their variable oxidation states.
5. What are their common properties?
6. Describe their complex formation.
7. How do they act as catalysts?
8. What are their color properties?
9. Explain their magnetic properties.
10. What is their importance in biology?

Complex Ions
1. What are complex ions?
2. Describe their structure.
3. How are they formed?
4. Explain ligand coordination.
5. What is the central metal?
6. Describe their color properties.
7. How do they affect solubility?
8. What is the stability trend?
9. Explain isomerism in complexes.
10. What is their significance in nature?

Complex Ions and Colour

1. How do complex ions form colors?
2. What determines complex ion colors?
3. Explain the role of ligands.
4. How do d-orbitals affect color?
5. What is the absorption spectrum?
6. Describe the color wheel concept.
7. What is the complementary color?
8. How does ligand field splitting occur?
9. Explain the difference between absorption and emission.
10. How does light affect color perception?
 Topic 15- Transition Metals

Chromium
1. What is chromium's atomic number?
2. Describe its electron configuration.
3. How many oxidation states?
4. Explain its role in stainless steel.
5. What are its common compounds?
6. Describe its color properties.
7. How does it form complexes?
8. What is its biological significance?
9. Explain its corrosion resistance.
10. How does it affect health?

Reactions of Ligands
1. What are ligands in complexes?
2. Describe their role in complexes.
3. How do ligands coordinate?
4. Explain their electron donation.
5. What determines ligand strength?
6. Describe chelation.
7. How do ligands affect color?
8. What are common ligands?
9. Explain the ligand substitution.
10. What is the ligand exchange?

Transition Metals and Catalysis

1. How do transition metals catalyze?
2. Describe their catalytic mechanisms.
3. What is homogeneous catalysis?
4. Explain heterogeneous catalysis.
5. What are common catalytic reactions?
6. Describe enzyme catalysis.
7. How do transition metals activate?
8. What is catalytic activity affected?
9. Explain catalytic converters in cars.
10. How are transition metals recycled?
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Reaction Rates
1. What is reaction rate?
2. How is rate measured?
3. Describe the collision theory.
4. What factors affect reaction rate?
5. Explain the role of catalysts.
6. What is activation energy?
7. How does temperature affect rate?
8. What is the rate equation?
9. Describe a rate constant.
10. How are reactions monitored?

Orders of Reactions
1. What determines order of reaction?
2. How is order determined experimentally?
3. Describe zero-order reactions.
4. Explain first-order reactions.
5. What characterizes second-order reactions?
6. How are reaction orders related?
7. What is overall reaction order?
8. How is reaction rate affected?
9. Describe integrated rate equations.
10. What are the units of rate constants?

The Initial Rates Method

1. What is the initial rates method?
2. How is it used?
3. Describe the procedure.
4. What does it determine?
5. Why is it useful?
6. Explain its application in kinetics.
7. What does it involve?
8. How are initial rates calculated?
9. Describe the data analysis.
10. What does it reveal about reactions?
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Rate Equations
1. What is a rate equation?
2. How is it derived?
3. Describe its components.
4. What does it express?
5. Explain the rate constant.
6. How is it determined?
7. What is the order?
8. How are units determined?
9. Describe integrated rate laws.
10. How are they applied?

The Rate-Determining Step

1. What is the rate-determining step?
2. Why is it significant?
3. Describe its role in kinetics.
4. How is it identified?
5. What does it control?
6. Explain its impact on reaction.
7. What determines overall reaction rate?
8. How does it affect mechanism?
9. Describe its relationship with intermediates.
10. Why is it crucial to understand?

Halogenoalkanes and Reaction Mechanisms

1. How do halogenoalkanes react?
2. What are common reaction mechanisms?
3. Describe nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes.
4. Explain SN1 mechanism briefly.
5. What characterizes SN2 mechanism?
6. Describe elimination reactions in halogenoalkanes.
7. What are the products of elimination?
8. Explain E1 mechanism briefly.
9. Describe E2 mechanism briefly.
10. How do reaction conditions affect mechanisms?
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Activation Energy
1. What is activation energy?
2. How is it defined?
3. What does it represent?
4. Explain its significance in reactions.
5. How does it affect reaction rate?
6. Describe its relationship with reaction progress.
7. What role does it play in collision theory?
8. How is it determined experimentally?
9. Explain its impact on reaction kinetics.
10. How can it be lowered?
 Topic 17- Organic Chemistry 2

Optical Isomerism
1. What is optical isomerism?
2. How do optical isomers differ?
3. What causes optical activity?
4. Describe chiral molecules briefly.
5. Explain enantiomers in optical isomerism.
6. What is specific rotation?
7. How is optical activity measured?
8. Describe polarimetry in optical isomerism.
9. What is a racemic mixture?
10. How can optical isomers be separated?

Aldehydes and Ketones

1. What functional groups do aldehydes and ketones have?
2. How do aldehydes and ketones differ?
3. Describe the carbonyl group in aldehydes.
4. Explain the carbonyl group in ketones.
5. What is the general formula for aldehydes?
6. Provide the general formula for ketones.
7. Describe the naming convention for aldehydes.
8. How are ketones named?
9. What is a characteristic reaction of aldehydes?
10. What reaction distinguishes ketones?

Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

1. What happens when aldehydes react?
2. How do aldehydes react with nucleophiles?
3. Describe the reaction with hydrogen cyanide.
4. How do aldehydes react with alcohols?
5. Explain the reaction with ammonia.
6. What happens when ketones react?
7. How do ketones react with nucleophiles?
8. Describe the reaction with Grignard reagents.
9. What is the reaction with phenylhydrazine?
10. How do aldehydes and ketones reduce?
 Topic 17- Organic Chemistry 2

Carboxylic Acids
1. What functional group do carboxylic acids have?
2. How do carboxylic acids ionize?
3. Describe the acidity of carboxylic acids.
4. What happens when carboxylic acids react with metals?
5. How do carboxylic acids react with bases?
6. What is the reaction with alcohols?
7. Describe the reaction with ammonia.
8. How do carboxylic acids react with carbonates?
9. What is the esterification reaction?
10. Explain the reaction with thionyl chloride.

Esters
1. What functional group do esters have?
2. How are esters formed?
3. Describe the reaction conditions for esterification.
4. What is the smell of esters?
5. How do esters react in alkaline hydrolysis?
6. What are the products of ester hydrolysis?
7. How are esters used in perfumes?
8. Explain the reaction with ammonia.
9. How are esters used as solvents?
10. What are the products of esterification?

Acyl Chlorides
1. What functional group do acyl chlorides have?
2. How are acyl chlorides formed?
3. Describe the reaction conditions for acyl chloride formation.
4. What is the reactivity of acyl chlorides compared to other carbonyl compounds?
5. How do acyl chlorides react with water?
6. What type of reaction do acyl chlorides undergo with alcohols?
7. How are acyl chlorides used in the synthesis of esters?
8. What happens when acyl chlorides react with ammonia or primary amines?
9. How do acyl chlorides react with phenols?
10. What are some common uses of acyl chlorides in industry?
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Aromatic Compounds
1. What is the defining feature of aromatic compounds?
2. How many pi electrons in benzene?
3. Describe the structure of benzene.
4. What is resonance in benzene?
5. How does benzene react with bromine?
6. Name a common aromatic compound.
7. How do substituents affect benzene's reactivity?
8. What are the properties of aromatic compounds?
9. What is the stability of benzene?
10. How does benzene react with electrophiles?

Electrophilic Substitution Reactions

1. What type of reaction is electrophilic substitution?
2. What is the role of electrophiles?
3. Describe the mechanism of electrophilic substitution.
4. What happens to the aromatic ring?
5. How do substituents influence reactivity?
6. What is the major product?
7. What determines regioselectivity?
8. How does halogenation occur?
9. How does nitration occur?
10. What are the common electrophiles?

Phenols
1. What functional group characterizes phenols?
2. How does the hydroxyl group affect acidity?
3. What is the general structure of phenols?
4. How do phenols react with bases?
5. What is the color of phenolphthalein?
6. What is the role of phenols in disinfectants?
7. How do phenols react with metals?
8. What is the phenoxide ion?
9. How do phenols react with bromine water?
10. What is the characteristic smell of phenols?
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Amines
1. What functional group characterizes amines?
2. How do you classify amines?
3. What is the general structure of primary amines?
4. How do amines react with acids?
5. What is the role of amines in biological systems?
6. What is the smell of primary amines?
7. How do you prepare amines from halogenoalkanes?
8. What is the characteristic of secondary amines?
9. What is the basicity trend in amines?
10. How do you distinguish amines from amides?

Amides
1. What functional group characterizes amides?
2. How do you prepare amides?
3. What is the general structure of amides?
4. What is the difference between primary and secondary amides?
5. What is the product when amides react with acids?
6. How do you hydrolyze amides?
7. What is the boiling point trend in amides?
8. How are amides used in pharmaceuticals?
9. What is the characteristic smell of some amides?
10. How do you distinguish amides from amines?

Condensation Polymers
1. What are condensation polymers formed from?
2. What bonds are formed in condensation polymers?
3. Give an example of a condensation polymer.
4. How are water molecules eliminated?
5. What is the repeating unit?
6. Name the monomers of nylon-6,6.
7. How is Terylene (PET) synthesized?
8. What is the main property of condensation polymers?
9. What is the general formula?
10. How do you reverse polymerization?
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Amino Acids
1. What are the building blocks?
2. How many amino acids exist?
3. What makes an amino acid?
4. Name the functional groups.
5. Define the term "zwitterion."
6. How are amino acids classified?
7. What is the isoelectric point?
8. How do amino acids polymerize?
9. What are essential amino acids?
10. What's the role of R-group?

Grignard Reagents
1. What are Grignard reagents?
2. How are they prepared?
3. What's their general formula?
4. What do they react with?
5. What type of reactions occur?
6. Describe their nucleophilic nature.
7. What's the role in synthesis?
8. What happens in hydrolysis?
9. How do they react with aldehydes?
10. How about with ketones?

Organic Synthesis
1. What is organic synthesis?
2. What's the aim of synthesis?
3. Name a common starting material.
4. What are key reagents used?
5. How do you plan synthesis?
6. What's the role of protecting groups?
7. How are reactions selected?
8. Describe retrosynthesis briefly.
9. What's the importance of yield?
10. What are some common challenges?
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Practical Techniques
1. What's the purpose of practical techniques?
2. Name some common lab equipment.
3. Describe the process of filtration.
4. How is simple distillation performed?
5. Explain the process of recrystallization.
6. What's the principle behind chromatography?
7. How is paper chromatography performed?
8. Describe the technique of titration.
9. What's the use of a burette?
10. How is a conical flask used?

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1. What does the empirical formula represent?
2. How is the empirical formula determined?
3. What's the difference between empirical and molecular formulas?
4. Describe the steps to find empirical formula.
5. How is the molecular formula calculated?
6. What information does the molecular formula provide?
7. Explain how to convert between empirical and molecular formulas.
8. What's the relationship between mass percent and empirical formula?
9. How do you calculate the empirical formula from combustion data?
10. What's the significance of molecular formula in organic compounds?
 Topic 19- Modern Analytical Techniques 2

High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

1. What does HRMS stand for?
2. How does HRMS differ from MS?
3. What's the main advantage of HRMS?
4. Describe the principle of HRMS.
5. How does HRMS achieve higher resolution?
6. What type of ions does HRMS detect?
7. Explain the role of a mass analyzer in HRMS.
8. How is mass accuracy improved in HRMS?
9. What's the significance of isotopic resolution?
10. How is HRMS used in compound identification?

NMR Spectroscopy
1. What does NMR stand for?
2. What property does NMR measure?
3. What type of nuclei does NMR spectroscopy study?
4. What's the principle behind NMR?
5. What does chemical shift indicate?
6. What's the role of shielding in NMR?
7. How does NMR provide structural information?
8. What's the purpose of spin-spin coupling?
9. How is integration used in NMR?
10. What's the significance of peak splitting?

Proton NMR Spectroscopy

1. What type of nuclei does proton NMR spectroscopy study?
2. What's the common solvent used in proton NMR?
3. What's the typical frequency range for proton NMR?
4. What does TMS stand for in proton NMR?
5. How is chemical shift measured?
6. What's the purpose of referencing in proton NMR?
7. What's the effect of electronegative atoms on chemical shift?
8. What does integration represent in proton NMR?
9. How is splitting observed in proton NMR spectra?
10. What's the significance of peak multiplicity in proton NMR?
 Topic 19- Modern Analytical Techniques 2

Chromatography
1. What's the purpose of chromatography?
2. Name two phases in chromatography.
3. What does the stationary phase do?
4. What's the mobile phase in chromatography?
5. How does retention factor (Rf) relate to separation?
6. What's the principle behind thin-layer chromatography?
7. What type of compounds can gas chromatography analyze?
8. How does column chromatography separate compounds?
9. What's the key principle behind HPLC?
10. What's the main advantage of chromatography?

Combined Techniques
1. What's the aim of combined techniques?
2. Give an example of combined techniques.
3. How does GC-MS work?
4. What does LC-MS detect?
5. Explain the principle of FTIR-MS.
6. What does NMR-MS analyze?
7. How does LC-NMR work?
8. What's the advantage of GC-IR?
9. What's the purpose of LC-IR?
10. How does LC-MS-NMR work?
 ACTIVE RECALL ANSWERS

Please find the answers for your Active recall Questions

Below
 Topic 1- Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

The Atom
1. Proton, neutron, electron.
2. +1, 0, -1.
3. Proton.
4. 1 amu.
5. Much lighter than protons/neutrons.
6. Identity, total protons/neutrons.
7. Mass number - atomic number.
8. Arrangement of electrons.
9. Same element, different neutrons.
10. Dense, contains protons/neutrons.

Relative Mass
1. Average mass of isotopes.
2. From isotopic abundances.
3. Mass of specific isotope.
4. Same, different focus.
5. Weighted average of isotopes.
6. Sum of atomic masses.
7. Adding atomic masses.
8. Compound's mass calculation significance.
9. Sum of constituent masses.
10. Atomic mass unit (amu).

Electronic Structure
1. Arrangement of electrons in atom.
2. Region around nucleus containing electrons.
3. Usually 2 or more shells.
4. Maximum of 2 electrons.
5. Increase in energy level.
6. Determines chemical properties.
7. Up to 8 electrons.
8. Different orbital shapes within shells.
9. s, p, d.
10. Influences bonding and reactivity.
 Topic 1- Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

Atomic Emission Spectra

1. Light emitted by excited atoms.
2. Excitation, de-excitation of electrons.
3. Specific electron transition energy levels.
4. Different energy level transitions.
5. Energy change in electron transitions.
6. Element identification via line patterns.
7. Sharp, discrete colored lines.
8. Matches electron transition energies.
9. More lines, more complex atom.
10. Identify elements, analyze concentrations.

Ionisation Energies
1. Energy to remove electron.
2. Energy to remove first electron.
3. Increases from left to right.
4. Decreases from top to bottom.
5. Nuclear charge, electron shielding.
6. Energy needed to remove electron.
7. Increases due to nuclear charge.
8. Increased nuclear charge, same shielding.
9. Increased atomic size, shielding effect.
10. Determines reactivity and bonding.

Periodicity
1. Repeating trends in properties.
2. Decreases across a period.
3. Decreases across a period.
4. Increases down a group.
5. Nuclear charge, electron shielding.
6. Atom's attraction for electrons.
7. Increases across a period.
8. Decreases down a group.
9. Nuclear charge, electron shielding.
10. Increases across period, decreases down.
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Ionic Bonding
1. Transfer of electrons.
2. Electrons transferred from one atom.
3. Outermost electrons involved in bonding.
4. Metals and nonmetals.
5. Positive, negative ions.
6. Opposite charges attract.
7. Criss-cross method or charges.
8. Energy released in formation.
9. High melting and boiling points.
10. Balance of attraction-repulsion forces.

Covalent Bonding
1. Sharing of electrons.
2. Electrons shared between two atoms.
3. Electrons are shared equally.
4. Nonmetals.
5. Two or more atoms.
6. Unequal electron sharing.
7. Number of electron pairs.
8. Two shared electron pairs.
9. Distance between bonded nuclei.
10. Determines molecule's polarity.

Shapes of Molecules
1. Electron repulsion theory.
2. Electron pairs repel each other.
3. Based on electron pair arrangement.
4. Linear.
5. Trigonal planar.
6. Tetrahedral.
7. Pyramidal.
8. Bent.
9. Lone pairs distort shape.
10. Determines chemical properties and reactivity.
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Giant Covalent and Metallic Structures

1. Network of covalently bonded atoms.
2. Diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide.
3. Strong covalent bonds throughout.
4. Hard, high melting points.
5. Sea of delocalized electrons.
6. Positive metal ions and electrons.
7. Good conductors, malleable, ductile.
8. Covalent: hard, non-conducting; Metallic: malleable, conducting.
9. Diamond: tetrahedral, 3D network; Graphite: layers, delocalized electrons.
10. Diamond: hard, transparent; Graphite: soft, slippery.

Electronegativity and Polarisation

1. Atom's attraction for electrons.
2. Increases from left to right.
3. Decreases from top to bottom.
4. Unequal sharing of electrons.
5. Difference in electronegativity values.
6. Measure of bond electron sharing.
7. Distortion of electron cloud.
8. Cation distorts anion's electron.
9. Polarisation by nearby ions.
10. Influences reaction pathways and outcomes.

Intermolecular Forces
1. Forces between molecules.
2. London dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen.
3. Temporary induced dipoles.
4. Permanent molecular dipoles attract.
5. Strong dipole attraction with hydrogen.
6. Molecular size, polarity, shape.
7. Stronger in polar molecules.
8. Higher forces, higher boiling/melting points.
9. Like dissolves like principle.
10. Phase transition behavior differences.
 Topic 2- Bonding and Structure

Hydrogen Bonding
1. Strong dipole-dipole attraction.
2. Hydrogen bonded to electronegative atom.
3. Molecules with H-F, H-O, H-N.
4. Molecule with H attached to N, O, or F.
5. Stronger than dipole-dipole forces.
6. Water, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride.
7. High surface tension, cohesion.
8. Higher boiling and melting points.
9. Essential for biological molecule structures.
10. Open crystal lattice structure.

Solubility
1. Ability to dissolve in solvent.
2. Substance being dissolved, dissolver.
3. Temperature, pressure, nature of solute/solvent.
4. Generally increases with temperature.
5. Increases with increasing pressure.
6. Saturated, no more solute dissolves.
7. Polar dissolves polar, nonpolar dissolves nonpolar.
8. Polar dissolves in polar solvents.
9. Molecular size and polarity matter.
10. Particles separate and mix.

Predicting Structures and Properties

1. Electronegativity, molecular shape, size.
2. Determines molecule's attraction strength.
3. Higher forces, higher boiling points.
4. Weaker forces, higher volatility.
5. Larger molecules, stronger forces.
6. Influences boiling point, solubility.
7. Like dissolves like principle.
8. Polar molecules dissolve in polar.
9. Functional groups alter chemical reactivity.
10. Understand and manipulate chemical properties.
 Topic 3- Redox 1

Oxidation Numbers
1. Atom's apparent charge.
2. Rules based on electronegativity.
3. Zero.
4. Hydrogen: +1, oxygen: -2.
5. Rule-based assignment method.
6. Sum of oxidation numbers equals charge.
7. Charge of the ion.
8. Oxidation: increase in oxidation number; Reduction: decrease in oxidation number.
9. Loss, gain of electrons.
10. Balance increase, decrease of oxidation numbers.

Redox Reactions
1. Transfer of electrons.
2. Gain, loss of electrons.
3. Oxidizing: gains electrons; Reducing: loses electrons.
4. Assign oxidation numbers, balance charges.
5. Electron distribution around atoms.
6. Loss of electrons, increase oxidation.
7. Gain of electrons, decrease reduction.
8. Combustion, rusting, corrosion, metabolism.
9. Split into oxidation, reduction parts.
10. Essential for chemical transformations.
 Topic 4- Inorganic Chemistry and
the Periodic Table

Group 2
1. Alkaline earth metals.
2. Six elements.
3. ns^2 electronic configuration.
4. Alkaline earth metals.
5. Shiny, silvery-white, reactive metals.
6. Increases down the group.
7. Decreases down the group.
8. Typically form ionic bonds.
9. Form metal hydroxides, hydrogen gas.
10. Construction materials, pharmaceuticals, agriculture.

Group 1 and 2 Compounds

1. Oxides, hydroxides, halides, nitrates.
2. Soluble, colorless, alkaline, reactive.
3. React vigorously, forming metal hydroxides.
4. Solubility increases down the group.
5. Sodium compounds: food, industry. Potassium: fertilizers.
6. Oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulfates.
7. White, sparingly soluble, reactive compounds.
8. React with water, form hydroxides.
9. Solubility increases down the group.
10. Construction materials, agriculture, medicine.

Halogens
1. Group 17 in periodic table.
2. Seven elements.
3. Diatomic, colored, reactive nonmetals.
4. Decreases down the group.
5. Boiling points increase down.
6. Form metal halides, salts.
7. Fluorine: pale yellow gas. Chlorine: greenish-yellow gas. Bromine: red-brown liquid.
Iodine: purple-black solid.
8. Disinfectants, water treatment, photography.
9. Hydrogen halides: HCl, HBr, HI.
10. Covalent, colored, highly reactive.
 Topic 4- Inorganic Chemistry and
the Periodic Table

Reactions to Halogens
1. Form metal halides.
2. Form hydrogen halides.
3. Form halides and halates.
4. More reactive displaces less reactive.
5. Silver halide precipitate formation.
6. Hydrogen halide gas evolved.
7. Disproportionation into halide ions.
8. Substitution, addition reactions occur.
9. Alteration of chemical and physical.
10. Formation of halide salts.

Reactions to Halides
1. Form metal halides.
2. Form hydrogen halides.
3. Metal + Halogen -> Metal Halide.
4. Form halides and halates.
5. More reactive displaces less reactive.
6. Precipitate formation with silver ions.
7. Solubility decreases with size.
8. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals, photography, electronics.
9. Participate in substitution, elimination reactions.
10. Hydrogen halide gas evolved.

Tests for Ions

1. Identify presence of specific ions.
2. Precipitation, flame, gas formation.
3. Precipitation, acid-base reactions.
4. React with acid to fizz.
5. Precipitate with barium chloride solution.
6. Precipitate with silver nitrate solution.
7. React with sodium hydroxide solution.
8. Heat with sodium hydroxide solution.
9. Precipitate with silver nitrate solution.
10. Color change, formation of precipitate.
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

The Mole
1. 6.022×10^23
2. Mass of one mole.
3. Mass divided by molar mass.
4. Concentration of a solution.
5. n=m/M
6. n=m/M
7. Balancing chemical equations, calculations.
8. Atomic: single atom; Formula: molecule.
9. Molar volume of 22.4L.
10. Foundation of quantitative chemical analysis.

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1. Simplest whole number ratio.
2. Divide by greatest common divisor.
3. Actual number of atoms.
4. Compare to empirical formula.
5. Empirical: simplest ratio; Molecular: actual composition.
6. Relative ratios of elements.
7. Divide molecular mass by empirical.
8. Molecular is multiple of empirical.
9. Divide molecular mass by empirical.
10. Convert percentage to grams, moles.

Chemical Equations
1. Representation of chemical reactions.
2. Mass is neither created nor destroyed.
3. Adjust coefficients to balance.
4. Whole numbers before formulas.
5. Substances before and after reaction.
6. (s), (l), (g), (aq).
7. Reaction can go both ways.
8. Heat released or absorbed.
9. Formula without coefficients.
10. Maintain law of conservation.
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

Calculations with Gases

1. Volume and moles proportional.
2. n=V/Vm
3. PV=nRT
4. 22.4 liters per mole.
5. Mass over volume.
6. Inversely proportional.
7. PV=constant
8. Volume increases with temperature.
9. 0°C, 1 atm pressure.
10. Subtract water vapor pressure.

Acid-Base Titrations
1. Determine concentration by neutralization.
2. Burette, flask, indicator setup.
3. Shows end of titration.
4. From volume and concentration.
5. Acid and base stoichiometry balanced.
6. Known concentration, prepared precisely.
7. Read from burette.
8. pH = 7.
9. Volume at equivalence point.
10. Phenolphthalein, methyl orange, bromothymol.

Titration Calculations
1. Determine unknown concentration from reaction.
2. C1 V1=C2 V2
3. Using balanced chemical equation.
4. Balanced reaction stoichiometry.
5. From titration volume and concentration.
6. Initial and final volumes.
7. Based on stoichiometry of reaction.
8. Ratio of moles in reaction.
9. Indicates end of titration.
10. Volume added when moles match.
 Topic 5- Formulae, Equations,
& Amounts of Substances

Uncertainty and Errors

1. Measure of measurement reliability.
2. Uncertainty divided by measurement value.
3. Unpredictable, inconsistent measurement variations.
4. Consistent, predictable measurement deviations.
5. Calibrate instruments, repeat measurements.
6. Measure's closeness to true value.
7. Measure's agreement with true value.
8. Precision: consistency; Accuracy: closeness.
9. Sum of values divided by count.
10. Indicates measurement reliability and accuracy.

Atom Economy and Percentage Yield

1. Measure of reaction efficiency.
2. (Mass of desired product / Total mass of reactants) × 100.
3. Maximizes use of reactants.
4. Measure of reaction efficiency.
5. (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) × 100.
6. Indicates reaction efficiency.
7. Reactant selection, reaction conditions.
8. Purity of reactants, reaction conditions.
9. Choose greener, more efficient reactions.
10. Optimize reaction conditions, purify product.
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

The Basics
1. Pure substance, cannot decompose further.
2. Two or more elements combined.
3. Protons, neutrons, electrons arrangement.
4. Same element, different neutrons.
5. Elements: pure substances; Compounds: mixtures.
6. Transformation of substances into another.
7. By sharing or transferring electrons.
8. Substances entering and exiting reaction.
9. Solid, liquid, gas.
10. Physical: no new substance; Chemical: new substance forms.

Organic Reactions
1. Reactions involving carbon compounds.
2. Substitution, addition, elimination, condensation.
3. Replacement of one atom/group.
4. Adding atoms/groups to molecule.
5. Removal of atoms/groups.
6. Loss of electrons, gain oxygen.
7. Gain of electrons, loss oxygen.
8. Formation of larger molecule.
9. Exchange vs. addition of atoms.
10. Combustion, fermentation, esterification, saponification.

Isomerism
1. Same molecular formula, different structure.
2. Different structural arrangements, same atoms.
3. Different spatial arrangement around double bond.
4. Non-superimposable mirror images.
5. Same functional group, different position.
6. Different arrangement of carbon chain.
7. Rapid interconversion between isomers.
8. Different position of functional groups.
9. Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement.
10. Explains diverse chemical properties.
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Alkanes
1. Cn​H2n+2​
2. Single bonds, saturated hydrocarbons.
3. Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4. Nonpolar, low boiling points.
5. Combustion forms carbon dioxide, water.
→
6. n alkane+(n+1)O2 nCO2+(n+1)H2O
7. Increases with increasing chain length.
8. Substitution reactions, forms halogenoalkanes.
9. Insoluble in water, soluble in nonpolar solvents.
10. Fuel, lubricants, solvents, plastics.

Crude Oil
1. Mixture of hydrocarbons.
2. Complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
3. From decayed marine organisms.
4. Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc.
5. Separation based on boiling points.
6. By temperature differences in column.
7. Fuel, plastics, chemicals, lubricants.
8. Air pollution, climate change.
9. Fractional distillation, cracking, reforming.
10. Pollution, resource depletion, spills.

Fuels
1. Substance burned for energy.
2. Reaction with oxygen producing heat.
3. Breaking chemical bonds releases energy.
4. Finite vs. sustainable energy sources.
5. Hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, impurities.
6. Measure of energy content.
7. Energy per unit mass.
8. High calorific value, low pollution.
9. Fuel + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water (+ other products).
10. Air pollution, climate change concerns.
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Alkenes
1. Hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds.
2. CnH2n
3. Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4. Carbon-carbon double bond present.
5. Two shared electrons between carbons.
6. Unsaturated, fewer hydrogens than alkanes.
7. Reactivity due to pi bond.
8. Addition of water across double bond.
9. Addition of halogens to double bond.
10. Polymer production, fuel production.

Stereoisomerism
1. Same connectivity, different arrangement.
2. Different spatial arrangement around double bond.
3. Non-superimposable mirror images.
4. Different 3D spatial arrangements.
5. Non-superimposable mirror images.
6. Mirror images, same properties.
7. Carbon atom with four different groups.
8. Formula 2n2n, where n is number of chiral centers.
9. Different spatial arrangements around bonds.
10. Identical except for optical.

Reactions of Alkenes
→
1. Cn​H2n​+X2​ Cn​H2n​X2​
2. Electrophile attacks double bond, forms bond.
3. Addition of halogens across double bond.
4. Addition of water across double bond.
5. Speeds up reaction rate.
6. Addition of hydrogen halides across double bond.
7. Addition of halogens across double bond.
8. Facilitates halogenation reaction.
9. Formation of alkyl hydrogen sulfates.
10. Markovnikov addition of alcohol.
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Polymers
1. Large molecules formed from monomers.
2. Long chains or networks.
3. Based on structure and source.
4. Monomers add without byproducts.
5. Monomers release small molecules.
6. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, etc.
7. Diverse, depends on structure.
8. Repeated addition of monomers.
9. Building blocks of polymers.
10. Waste, pollution, non-biodegradability.

Halogenoalkanes
1. Alkanes with halogen substituents.
2. Prefix for halogen, root alkane.
3. Alkane backbone with halogen.
4. Forming new covalent bonds.
5. Electrophilic substitution, weak nucleophiles.
6. Inductive effect, stabilizing reaction intermediates.
7. Nucleophile replaces halogen, forms.
8. Elimination reactions to form alkenes.
9. Solvents, refrigerants, pharmaceuticals, pesticides.
10. Persistence, toxicity, potential ozone depletion.

Alcohols
1. Hydroxyl functional group attached.
2. Carbon chain with hydroxyl group.
3. "-ol" suffix, number chain.
4. -OH (hydroxyl) group.
5. Number of carbon neighbors.
6. Primary, secondary, tertiary based.
7. Oxidation produces aldehydes, ketones, acids.
8. Form esters, water, salts.
9. Solvents, fuels, disinfectants, beverages.
10. Polar, soluble in water.
 Topic 6- Organic Chemistry 1

Oxidation of Alcohols
1. Removal of hydrogen, addition oxygen.
2. Primary alcohols to aldehydes, acids.
3. Aldehydes, then acids if continued.
4. Secondary alcohols to ketones.
5. Ketones without further oxidation.
6. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI).
7. Heat under reflux with acid.
8. Use of different oxidizing agents.
9. Produce useful organic compounds.
10. Synthesis, drug manufacturing, research.

Organic Techniques
1. Methods for organic compound manipulation.
2. Heating under continuous condensation.
3. Separates components based on boiling.
4. Separates substances based on solubility.
5. Purifies solid compounds.
6. Separates components based on affinity.
7. Separates solid-liquid mixtures.
8. Removes water or impurities.
9. (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) × 100.
10. Ventilation, eye protection, gloves.
 Topic 7- Modern Analytical Techniques 1

Mass Spectrometry
1. Analytical technique for molecules.
2. Electron impact or ionization.
3. Electric fields provide kinetic energy.
4. By mass-to-charge ratio measurement.
5. Identify and quantify molecules.
6. By mass-to-charge ratio differences.
7. Deflects ions based on mass.
8. Molecular mass, structural information.
9. Mass divided by charge value.
10. Analyzing chemicals, forensic analysis.

Infrared Spectrometry
1. Analytical technique for molecules.
2. Measures absorption of IR radiation.
3. Region between visible, microwave radiation.
4. Molecules absorb specific infrared frequencies.
5. Each group absorbs characteristic frequencies.
6. Region with complex, unique patterns.
7. Removes background noise for clarity.
8. Peaks correspond to functional groups.
9. Identifying compounds, determining structures.
10. Minimize interference, ensure accuracy.
 Topic 8- Energetics 1

Enthalpy Changes
1. Heat energy change.
2. Heat released, surroundings warmer.
3. Heat absorbed, surroundings cooler.
4. Energy stored in substances.
5. Enthalpy change under standard conditions.
6. Difference in reactants, products enthalpies.
7. Total enthalpy change is constant.
8. Energy needed to break bonds.
9. Endothermic, requires energy input.
10. Heat change in combustion reaction.

Hess’s Law
1. Total enthalpy change principle.
2. Enthalpy change is independent.
3. Sum of individual enthalpies.
4. Energy change in reaction.
5. Determines overall enthalpy change.
6. Sum of intermediate steps enthalpies.
7. Indirect method for enthalpy calculation.
8. Graphic representation of enthalpy change.
9. Summarizes complex reaction paths.
10. Assumes complete reactant conversion.

Bond Enthalpy
1. Energy required to break bonds.
2. Energy in chemical bonds strength.
3. By bond dissociation energy measurement.
4. Inversely proportional, shorter bonds stronger.
5. Bond type, environment, molecular structure.
6. Sum of bond energies broken.
7. Requires energy input.
8. Energy released when bonds form.
9. Higher bond enthalpy, higher energy.
10. Predicting reaction feasibility, thermodynamics.
 Topic 9- Kinetics 1

Collision Theory
1. Describes chemical reaction initiation.
2. Particles must collide effectively.
3. More collisions, faster reaction.
4. Proper alignment increases likelihood.
5. Minimum energy for reaction initiation.
6. Concentration, temperature, catalyst presence.
7. Higher temperature, more energetic collisions.
8. Lower activation energy barrier.
9. Smaller size, more frequent collisions.
10. Higher concentration, increased collisions.

Reaction Rates
1. Speed of chemical reaction.
2. Temperature, concentration, catalyst presence.
3. Change in concentration over time.
4. Successful collisions between particles.
5. Energy needed to initiate reaction.
6. Higher temp, faster reactions.
7. Speed up reactions, lower activation.
8. Higher concentration, faster reactions.
9. Determines reaction rate dependence.
10. moles per liter per second.

Catalysts
1. Speed up chemical reactions.
2. Lower activation energy barrier.
3. Same phase as reactants.
4. Different phase than reactants.
5. Increase reaction rate without consuming.
6. By providing alternative reaction pathway.
7. Biological catalysts in living organisms.
8. Speed up forward, reverse reactions.
9. Specific, enhance biochemical reactions.
10. Change reaction pathway energetics.
 Topic 10- Equilibrium 1

Dynamic Equilibrium
1. Balanced forward and reverse processes.
2. Forward and reverse reactions occur.
3. Equal at equilibrium state.
4. Ratio of product to reactant.
5. Concentration, temperature, pressure changes.
6. Shifts with endothermic or exothermic.
7. System adjusts to changes.
8. Indicates completion of reaction.
9. Changes with gas volume alteration.
10. Acid-base, solubility, precipitation reactions.

Le Chatelier’s Principle
1. System adjusts to changes.
2. Predicts equilibrium position shifts.
3. To counteract imposed changes.
4. Equilibrium shifts to minimize.
5. Equilibrium shifts to restore balance.
6. Exothermic, endothermic reactions behave differently.
7. Volume change affects gas equilibrium.
8. Doesn't affect equilibrium position.
9. Increase in reactants or products.
10. Decrease in reactants or products.
 Topic 11- Equilibrium 2

Calculations involving Kc
1. Equilibrium constant based concentration.
2. Ratio of product to reactant.
3. Concentration products divided by reactants.
4. Indicates extent of reaction.
5. No units for Kc.
6. Temperature changes alter equilibrium position.
7. Determines favored forward or reverse.
8. Larger Kc, more product formation.
9. System at equilibrium state.
10. Plug concentrations into equation.

Gas Equilibria
1. Equilibrium involving gas substances.
2. Partial pressures product divided reactants.
3. Dalton's law of partial pressures.
4. Indicates extent of reaction.
5. No units for Kp.
6. Temperature changes alter equilibrium position.
7. Determines favored forward or reverse.
8. Larger Kp, more product formation.
9. System at equilibrium state.
10. Plug partial pressures into equation.

Le Chatelier’s Principle and Equilibrium Constants

1. System adjusts to changes.
2. Ratios of products to reactants.
3. Temperature, pressure, concentration changes.
4. Larger K, more products formed.
5. Shifts equilibrium to favor.
6. Equilibrium shifts to restore balance.
7. Changes only with gas.
8. Higher concentration, higher equilibrium.
9. Doesn't affect equilibrium constant.
10. Calculate reaction extent quantitatively.
 Topic 12- Acid-Base Equilibria

Acids and Bases

1. Donates proton in solution.
2. Sour taste, turn litmus red.
3. Accepts proton in solution.
4. Bitter taste, turn litmus blue.
5. Release H⁺ ions.
6. Produce H⁺ ions.
7. Acid and base react.
8. Ionic compound from reaction.
9. Strong, weak, polyprotic acids.
10. Measures acidity or basicity.

pH
1. Measure of acidity/basicity.
2. Using pH meter or indicators.
3. Ranges from 0 to 14.
4. pH less than 7.
5. pH of 7.
6. Negative logarithm of [H⁺].
7. pH greater than 7.
8. Inversely proportional, higher [H⁺].
9. Each unit is 10x change.
10. Affects enzyme activity, cell function.

The Iconic Product of Water

1. Equilibrium constant for water.
2. [H⁺][OH⁻] = Kw.
3. Increases with temperature rise.
4. 1.0 x 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C.
5. Indicates water's self-ionization.
6. Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻].
7. Water self-dissociates into ions.
8. H⁺ and OH⁻ ions.
9. Product of [H⁺] and [OH⁻].
10. Determines solution acidity/basicity.
 Topic 12- Acid-Base Equilibria

Experiments Involving pH
1. Indicate pH through color.
2. Wide pH range color display.
3. Red in acid, blue basic.
4. Pink in basic, colorless acid.
5. Measure pH electronically with accuracy.
6. Dip in solution, compare colors.
7. Corresponding to pH value changes.
8. Less precise than meters.
9. Provide precise pH readings.
10. 0 to 14.

Titration Curves and Indicators

1. Graph of pH changes.
2. S-shaped or V-shaped.
3. pH jumps or inflection points.
4. Signal endpoint of titration.
5. Reflect pH changes visually.
6. pH = 7 for neutralization.
7. Neutralization reaction completion indication.
8. Indicator color change pH range.
9. Point of indicator color change.
10. Based on pH change range.

Buffers
1. Resist pH changes effectively.
2. Through addition of acid/base.
3. Weak acid/base and conjugate.
4. Ability to resist pH changes.
5. Neutralizing added acid/base effects.
6. Accept or release H⁺ ions.
7. Weak acid and its salt.
8. Mixing weak acid/base solutions.
9. pH range for effectiveness.
10. Shift equilibrium towards components.
 Topic 13- Energetics 2

Lattice Energy
1. Energy to form crystal lattice.
2. Energy released during formation.
3. Ion size, charge, structure.
4. Increases with charge magnitude.
5. Smaller ions have higher energy.
6. Determines compound stability and properties.
7. Attraction between oppositely charged ions.
8. Through theoretical calculations or experiments.
9. Small, highly charged ions.
10. Higher lattice energy, greater stability.

Polarisation
1. Distortion of electron cloud.
2. Shift in electron distribution.
3. Attraction of ions towards charge.
4. Shift in electron density.
5. Alters chemical and physical properties.
6. Redistribution of electron density.
7. Impacts conductivity, solubility, reactivity.
8. Ion charge, size, electronic configuration.
9. Unequal sharing of electron pairs.
10. Increases or decreases reactivity.

Dissolving
1. Solute particles disperse in solvent.
2. Solute particles separate in solvent.
3. Surround and break solute.
4. Dissolves solute particles effectively.
5. Solvent molecules surround solute.
6. Increase dissolving rate, more solubility.
7. Temperature, pressure, nature solute/solvent.
8. Equilibrium constant for dissolution reaction.
9. Increases gas solubility proportionally.
10. Water, ethanol, acetone, etc.
 Topic 13- Energetics 2

Entropy
1. Measure of disorder/randomness.
2. Increases in spontaneous processes.
3. More disorder, higher entropy.
4. More phases, more entropy.
5. Increases with temperature rise.
6. Disorder of reactants/products differ.
7. Higher temperature, higher entropy.
8. Measure of system randomness.
9. Positive change leads spontaneity.
10. ΔS = S(final) - S(initial).

More on Entropy Change

1. Measure of disorder change.
2. More disorder, positive change.
3. Less disorder, negative change.
4. Solid to liquid, more entropy.
5. ΔS = S(final) - S(initial).
6. Disorder change in reactants/products.
7. Higher temp, higher entropy.
8. J/mol∙K.
9. Solid to liquid, higher entropy.
10. Reversible, no net change.

Free Energy
1. Energy available for work.
2. Measure of system spontaneity.
3. ΔG = ΔH - TΔS.
4. Negative ΔG, spontaneous reaction.
5. Predicts reaction spontaneity and direction.
6. ΔG = 0 at equilibrium.
7. Higher T, higher ΔG.
8. kJ/mol.
9. Non-spontaneous, requires energy input.
10. Negative, spontaneous; positive, non-spontaneous.
 Topic 14- Redox 2

Electrochemical Cells
1. Convert chemical energy electricity.
2. Anode, cathode, electrolyte, connections.
3. Loss of electrons at anode.
4. Gain of electrons at cathode.
5. Maintain electrical neutrality, complete circuit.
6. Measure of electrode reactivity.
7. Difference in standard potentials.
8. Concentration, temperature, pressure.
9. Describes cell components and reactions.
10. Galvanic, electrolytic, concentration, etc.

Electrode Potentials
1. Potential difference at electrode.
2. Electrode potential at standard conditions.
3. Voltmeter connected to electrodes.
4. Determines reaction directionality, spontaneity.
5. Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE).
6. Determines half-cell reactivity.
7. Reactivity, direction, spontaneity indicators.
8. Concentration, temperature, pressure.
9. Calculates cell potential under conditions.
10. Adjusts potential from standard.

The Electrochemical Series

1. Ranking of electrode potentials.
2. Descending order of reactivity.
3. By standard electrode potential.
4. Predicts cell reactivity and direction.
5. Cell potential and reactivity trends.
6. Determines direction of reactions.
7. Most reactive and least reactive.
8. Towards the bottom, least reactive.
9. Based on electrode potential values.
10. Reactivity and standard potential.
 Topic 14- Redox 2

Storage and Fuel Cells

1. Generate electricity from fuels.
2. Electrochemical reaction of fuel oxidation.
3. Through electrochemical reactions directly.
4. Higher efficiency, no charging needed.
5. Hydrogen, methane, ethanol, etc.
6. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen.
7. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
8. Vehicles, stationary power generation, etc.
9. More efficient than combustion engines.
10. Cost, infrastructure, fuel availability.

Redox Titrations
1. Oxidation-reduction reactions in titrations.
2. Reacting oxidizing and reducing agents.
3. By observing color change.
4. Detect endpoint in titrations.
5. Burette, flask, indicator solution.
6. Potassium dichromate, iodine solution.
7. By adjusting coefficients stoichiometrically.
8. Determine unknown concentration of substance.
9. Shape indicates equivalence point.
10. Concentration, temperature, choice indicator.
 Topic 15- Transition Metals

Transition Metals
1. Middle of periodic table.
2. D-block, incomplete d-orbitals.
3. Variable oxidation states, d-electrons.
4. Variable number of valence electrons.
5. High melting points, conductivity, etc.
6. Ligands form coordination complexes.
7. Speed up chemical reactions.
8. Transition metal ions absorb light.
9. Paramagnetic or diamagnetic behavior.
10. Essential for enzyme functions.

Complex Ions
1. Metal ions surrounded by ligands.
2. Central metal ion, surrounding ligands.
3. Metal-ligand coordination, ligand exchange.
4. Ligands coordinate around central metal.
5. Transition or d-block metals.
6. Absorb light, display color.
7. Enhance solubility of metal ions.
8. Higher coordination number, more stable.
9. Structural and stereo isomerism.
10. Essential for biological processes.

Complex Ions and Colour

1. Metal-ligand interactions absorb light.
2. Ligands and central metal ion.
3. Ligands cause d-orbital splitting.
4. Different d-orbital energy levels.
5. Range of absorbed wavelengths.
6. Opposite colors enhance contrast.
7. Color opposite to absorbed light.
8. Energy difference in d-orbitals.
9. Absorption absorbs light, emission emits.
10. Light source affects observed color.
 Topic 15- Transition Metals

Chromium
1. 24
2. [Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹
3. Multiple, including +2 and +3.
4. Provides corrosion resistance.
5. Chromium(III) oxide, chromium(VI) oxide.
6. Bright, shiny, silver-gray color.
7. Forms stable complex ions.
8. Essential for glucose metabolism.
9. Forms protective oxide layer.
10. Toxic in high concentrations.

Reactions of Ligands
1. Ligands bind to metal ions.
2. Provide electron pairs to metal.
3. Through lone pairs of electrons.
4. Donate electron pairs to metal.
5. Electron-donating ability, steric hindrance.
6. Ligands bind at multiple points.
7. Influence absorption of light.
8. Water, ammonia, chloride, etc.
9. One ligand replaces another.
10. Exchange between metal-ligand complexes.

Transition Metals and Catalysis

1. Activate reactants, stabilize intermediates.
2. Adsorption, surface reactions, desorption.
3. Same phase as reactants.
4. Different phase from reactants.
5. Hydrogenation, oxidation, hydration reactions.
6. Enzymes composed of proteins.
7. Surface atoms and surface vacancies.
8. By surface area and structure.
9. Convert harmful gases into harmless.
10. Recovered from spent catalysts.
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Reaction Rates
1. Rate of chemical change.
2. Change in concentration over time.
3. Particles must collide effectively.
4. Concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface area.
5. Speed up reaction without consuming.
6. Minimum energy to react.
7. Higher temp, faster reactions.
8. Rate = k[A]^m[B]^n.
9. Proportionality constant in rate equation.
10. Spectroscopy, changes in color.

Orders of Reactions
1. Exponents in rate equation.
2. By plotting concentration vs time.
3. Rate independent of concentration.
4. Rate proportional to concentration.
5. Rate proportional to square concentration.
6. Sum of individual reaction orders.
7. Sum of individual reaction orders.
8. By changes in concentration.
9. Represent concentration vs time graph.
10. M⁻¹s⁻¹, M⁻¹s⁻², M⁻².

The Initial Rates Method

1. Determines rate from start.
2. Measure initial reaction rates.
3. Record initial concentration changes.
4. Reaction order and rate constant.
5. Provides accurate rate measurements.
6. Studying fast or complex reactions.
7. Multiple initial concentration experiments.
8. Slope of concentration vs time.
9. Plotting concentration vs time graph.
10. Reaction kinetics at beginning.
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Rate Equations
1. Relates rate to reactants.
2. From experimental rate data.
3. Concentration terms and rate constant.
4. Relationship between rate and concentration.
5. Proportionality constant in rate equation.
6. Experimentally from rate data.
7. Sum of reactant exponents.
8. By balancing rate equation terms.
9. Represent concentration vs time graph.
10. Determine reaction order and rate.

The Rate-Determining Step

1. Slowest step in mechanism.
2. Governs overall reaction rate.
3. Dictates rate of reaction.
4. By experiment or theory.
5. Rate of entire reaction.
6. Determines reaction progress.
7. Slowest step determines rate.
8. Influences reaction pathway profoundly.
9. Forms and consumes intermediates.
10. Defines reaction kinetics understanding.

Halogenoalkanes and Reaction Mechanisms

1. Various substitution and elimination reactions.
2. Nucleophilic substitution and elimination reactions.
3. Nucleophile replaces halogen atom.
4. Two-step, carbocation intermediate formation.
5. Single-step, concerted reaction mechanism.
6. Formation of alkene and byproducts.
7. Alkene and hydrogen halide.
8. Unimolecular elimination, carbocation intermediate.
9. Bimolecular elimination, concerted reaction.
10. Temperature, solvent polarity influence mechanisms.
 Topic 16- Kinetics 2

Activation Energy
1. Energy barrier to reaction.
2. Energy needed to start reaction.
3. Energy barrier for reaction.
4. Controls reaction rate.
5. Higher Eₐ, slower reaction.
6. Peaks at transition state.
7. Determines reaction feasibility.
8. By measuring rate constants.
9. Influences reaction rate significantly.
10. Catalysts lower activation energy.
 Topic 17- Organic Chemistry 2

Optical Isomerism
1. Mirror-image molecular asymmetry.
2. Non-superimposable mirror images.
3. Chirality or asymmetry presence.
4. Molecules with asymmetric carbon.
5. Non-superimposable mirror image pairs.
6. Angle of rotation measurement.
7. Using polarimeter or spectrometer.
8. Measurement of optical rotation angle.
9. Equal mix of enantiomers.
10. Via resolution or chromatography.

Aldehydes and Ketones

1. C=O in different positions.
2. Aldehyde has terminal carbonyl.
3. Carbonyl at end of chain.
4. Carbonyl in middle of chain.
5. RCHO (R = alkyl group).
6. R₂CO (R = alkyl group).
7. "-al" suffix for aldehydes.
8. "-one" suffix for ketones.
9. Oxidation to carboxylic acids.
10. No oxidation to carboxylic acids.

Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

1. Form carboxylic acids or alcohols.
2. Form addition products with nucleophiles.
3. Forms hydroxynitriles.
4. Forms hemiacetals then acetals.
5. Forms imines or hydroxylamines.
6. Forms addition products with nucleophiles.
7. Forms addition products with nucleophiles.
8. Forms tertiary alcohols.
9. Forms hydrazones or phenylhydrazones.
10. To alcohols with reducing agents.
 Topic 17- Organic Chemistry 2

Carboxylic Acids
1. Carboxyl functional group (-COOH).
2. Partially ionize in water.
3. Weak acids, partially dissociate.
4. Form salts and hydrogen.
5. Form carboxylate salts and water.
6. Form esters and water.
7. Forms amides and water.
8. Form carboxylate salts, CO2, and water.
9. Alcohol reacts with carboxylic acid.
10. Forms acyl chlorides and sulfur dioxide.

Esters
1. Ester functional group (R-COOR').
2. Through esterification reaction.
3. Acid catalyst and heat.
4. Often have pleasant odors.
5. Form carboxylate salts and alcohol.
6. Carboxylic acid and alcohol.
7. Provide fragrance and scent.
8. Form amides and alcohol.
9. Effective in paint thinners.
10. Ester and water.

Acyl Chlorides
1. Carbonyl functional group.
2. From carboxylic acids.
3. React with thionyl chloride.
4. Highly reactive towards nucleophiles.
5. Violently with water, forming HCl.
6. Form esters and HCl.
7. Intermediate in ester synthesis.
8. Form amides and HCl.
9. Form esters and phenyl esters.
10. In pharmaceutical and dye industries.
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Aromatic Compounds
1. Planar and cyclic.
2. 6 pi electrons.
3. Hexagonal ring of carbon.
4. Delocalized pi electrons.
5. Slow, without catalyst.
6. Toluene, phenol, aniline.
7. Directing and activating effects.
8. Aromaticity, resonance stabilization.
9. Exceptionally stable due to delocalization.
10. Forms substituted products.

Electrophilic Substitution Reactions

1. Aromatic ring substitution.
2. Attack the aromatic ring.
3. Electrophile attacks the ring.
4. Substituted with electrophile.
5. Ortho, para-directing or meta-directing.
6. Mono-substituted aromatic compound.
7. Position of the substituent.
8. Halogen replaces hydrogen atom.
9. Nitro group replaces hydrogen.
10. Halogens, nitronium ion, acyl group.

Phenols
1. Hydroxyl group (-OH).
2. Enhances acidity.
3. Benzene ring with -OH.
4. Form phenoxide ions.
5. Colorless in acidic, pink in alkaline.
6. Antiseptic and preservative.
7. To form phenoxide salts.
8. Deprotonated form of phenol.
9. Decolorize bromine water.
10. Medicinal, antiseptic, disinfectant odor.
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Amines
1. Amine functional group (–NH2).
2. Primary, secondary, tertiary.
3. R-NH2.
4. Form ammonium salts.
5. Found in proteins, DNA.
6. Fishy or ammonia-like.
7. Via nucleophilic substitution reactions.
8. Contain two alkyl groups.
9. Tertiary > secondary > primary.
10. React with acid to form salt.

Amides
1. Amide functional group (–CONH2).
2. From acid chlorides or anhydrides.
3. RCONH2.
4. Primary: H attached to N. Secondary: N attached to another alkyl group.
5. Form ammonium salts.
6. With strong acid or base.
7. Higher than corresponding amines.
8. Act as painkillers, antibiotics.
9. Fishy or ammonia-like.
10. No reaction with acid.

Condensation Polymers
1. Two different monomers.
2. Ester or amide bonds.
3. Nylon, polyester, polycarbonate.
4. During polymerization.
5. Diacid and diamine.
6. Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.
7. By reacting ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.
8. High melting and boiling points.
9. –[CO]-NH– or –[CO]–O–.
10. By hydrolysis or heating.
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Amino Acids
1. Amino and carboxyl groups.
2. 20 in living organisms.
3. Amino and carboxyl groups.
4. NH2 and COOH.
5. Neutral pH, positive and negative.
6. Polar, non-polar, acidic, basic.
7. pH at which net charge is zero.
8. Through peptide bonds.
9. Must be obtained from diet.
10. Determines properties and function.

Grignard Reagents
1. Organomagnesium compounds used extensively.
2. Reacting magnesium with alkyl halides.
3. RMgX, where R = alkyl.
4. Carbonyl compounds mainly.
5. Nucleophilic addition reactions primarily.
6. Strong electron donors, reactive.
7. Building blocks in organic synthesis.
8. Forms alcohols with magnesium hydroxide.
9. Forms secondary alcohols primarily.
10. Forms tertiary alcohols primarily.

Organic Synthesis
1. Creating complex molecules from simpler.
2. Constructing target molecules efficiently.
3. Commonly starting with functional groups.
4. Common reagents: Grignard, reagents.
5. Planning by working backward.
6. To prevent unwanted reactions.
7. Based on functional group compatibility.
8. Reverse engineering synthesis pathway.
9. High yield indicates efficient synthesis.
10. Selectivity, stereochemistry, side reactions.
 Topic 18- Organic Chemistry 3

Practical Techniques
1. To conduct experiments accurately.
2. Bunsen burner, beakers, pipettes.
3. Separating solids from liquids.
4. Separating liquids with different boiling points.
5. Purifying solid compounds.
6. Separating components based on affinity.
7. Separating pigments on paper.
8. Determining unknown concentration in solutions.
9. Accurately dispensing and measuring liquids.
10. For holding and mixing liquids.

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1. Simplest whole-number ratio.
2. By dividing by the GCD.
3. Empirical: simplest ratio; Molecular: actual.
4. Find moles, divide by smallest.
5. Using empirical formula and molar mass.
6. Exact number of atoms.
7. Multiply empirical by integer ratio.
8. Mass percent = empirical formula.
9. Divide by molar mass.
10. Indicates compound's exact composition.
 Topic 19- Modern Analytical Techniques 2

High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

1. High Resolution Mass Spectrometry.
2. Higher resolution and accuracy.
3. Better peak separation and accuracy.
4. Measure mass with precision.
5. By using higher magnetic fields.
6. High m/z ions.
7. Separates ions based on mass.
8. Calibration and internal standards.
9. Helps distinguish molecular formulas.
10. Identifying unknown compounds precisely.

NMR Spectroscopy
1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.
2. Nuclear magnetic moments.
3. Nuclei with odd mass.
4. Magnetic field interaction.
5. Chemical environment around nucleus.
6. Shields nuclei from external fields.
7. By analyzing peak patterns.
8. Helps determine neighboring atoms.
9. Quantifies number of protons.
10. Indicates neighboring hydrogen atoms.

Proton NMR Spectroscopy

1. Hydrogen nuclei.
2. Deuterated solvent (e.g., CDCl₃).
3. 0-12 ppm.
4. Tetramethylsilane.
5. Relative to TMS peak.
6. Establishes baseline for spectra.
7. Deshielding effect.
8. Number of equivalent protons.
9. By neighboring protons.
10. Indicates neighboring hydrogen atoms.
 Topic 19- Modern Analytical Techniques 2

Chromatography
1. Separating mixture components.
2. Stationary and mobile.
3. Retains analyte molecules.
4. Moves analyte through system.
5. Ratio of distance traveled.
6. Differential partitioning on surface.
7. Volatile or semi-volatile.
8. Based on differential adsorption.
9. High pressure and fine particles.
10. High specificity and sensitivity.

Combined Techniques
1. Enhance analysis accuracy and depth.
2. GC-MS, LC-MS, FTIR-MS, etc.
3. Gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry.
4. Mass spectra of liquid samples.
5. Identifies compounds via spectra.
6. Structure and composition of molecules.
7. Direct detection of LC-separated compounds.
8. Precise identification of compounds.
9. To analyze liquid samples thoroughly.
10. Simultaneous analysis of compounds.
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