COMPUTER NETWORK

MODULE-2
Analog & Digital Data
1. Analog Data: Analog data is continuous in nature, representing real-world phenomena. It
can take any value within a given range.
• Characteristics:
o Continuous: Analog data varies smoothly over time and does not have
discrete steps.
o Real-world Representation: Analog data is commonly used to represent
natural phenomena like sound, temperature, and light.
Example:
▪ Sound waves: When someone speaks, the sound waves vary
continuously and can be captured as analog data.
▪ Temperature readings: The gradual change in temperature over time
can be represented by continuous data.
2. Digital Data: Digital data consists of discrete values, typically represented using binary
numbers (0s and 1s). Unlike analog data, it does not have a continuous range.
• Characteristics:
o Discrete: Digital data exists in finite steps or distinct states.
o Efficient Storage and Transmission: Digital data can be easily stored and
transmitted over computer systems and networks.
o Error Detection and Correction: Digital data systems allow for more robust
error detection and correction mechanisms, which makes them less prone to
degradation from noise compared to analog data.
Example:
▪ Text: When typing text on a computer, the letters are stored as digital
data, represented by binary codes.
▪ Images: Digital cameras capture images in a series of pixels, each of
which has a binary value to represent color.
Analog & Digital Signal
1. Analog Signal: An analog signal is a continuous wave that varies smoothly over time in
amplitude, frequency, or phase, representing analog data.
• Characteristics:
o Continuous: The signal varies continuously, with an infinite number of
possible values between any two points in time.
 o Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase:
▪ Amplitude refers to the height of the wave, which correlates to the
strength or intensity of the signal.
▪ Frequency is the number of cycles the signal completes in a second,
measured in Hertz (Hz).
▪ Phase refers to the position of the waveform at a given point in time.
o Vulnerable to Noise: Analog signals can degrade over long distances due to
noise and interference, leading to a loss in signal quality.
Example:
o Sound Waves: When speaking into a microphone, the sound is converted into
a continuously varying electrical signal, representing the analog nature of
sound.
o Radio Waves: Radio stations broadcast analog signals using various
modulation techniques such as AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM
(Frequency Modulation).
2. Digital Signal: A digital signal is a discrete signal that represents digital data, often in the
form of binary (0s and 1s).
• Characteristics:
o Discrete: The signal only takes on specific values, usually two distinct levels,
such as 0 (low) and 1 (high).
o Pulse-like Form: The signal is composed of square waves or pulses that
switch between two voltage levels, representing the binary nature of digital
data.
o Robust to Noise: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and can be
regenerated accurately at intervals during transmission, ensuring data integrity
over long distances.
o Bandwidth Efficient: Due to their discrete nature, digital signals can often
carry more data using techniques like compression and multiplexing.
Example:
o Ethernet Signals: In networking, data is transmitted using digital signals over
Ethernet cables, carrying binary information across computers.
o Digital Audio: Music stored in MP3 format on a computer is a digital signal,
consisting of a sequence of binary numbers representing the audio.
Key Differences Between Analog and Digital Signals:

Feature Analog Signal Digital Signal

Nature Continuous and smooth variations Discrete, binary values (0s and 1s)

Amplitude, frequency, or phase Signal switches between fixed

Representation
varies smoothly levels (high/low)

Highly sensitive to noise and Less affected by noise, can be

Noise Sensitivity
interference easily corrected

Transmission Can maintain quality over long

Degrades over long distances
Quality distances

Ethernet, digital audio (MP3,

Example Sound waves, radio signals
WAV)

Analog & Digital Transmission

1. Analog Transmission: Analog transmission is the process of sending analog signals
(continuous waveforms) over communication media.
• Characteristics:
o Continuous Signal: The signal varies smoothly over time, mirroring the
original analog data (such as voice or video).
o Modulation: To transmit analog signals over long distances, techniques such
as modulation are used to encode the signal onto a carrier wave. Common
modulation techniques include:
▪ Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier wave
varies according to the analog signal.
▪ Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave
varies in relation to the analog signal.
o Susceptibility to Noise: Analog transmission is highly sensitive to noise and
interference, which can degrade the quality of the signal as it travels over long
distances. Noise can introduce errors and distort the signal.
o Attenuation: As the signal travels, it may lose strength (attenuate), leading to
a decrease in quality over long distances. Amplifiers are often used to boost
the signal, but they can also amplify noise.
Example:
o Broadcast TV and Radio: AM and FM radio stations use analog transmission
to broadcast audio over the airwaves.
 o Analog Telephones: Early telephone systems used analog transmission to
carry voice signals.
2. Digital Transmission: Digital transmission involves sending data in the form of discrete
digital signals (0s and 1s) over a communication medium.
• Characteristics:
o Discrete Signal: The signal alternates between two states (high and low
voltage), representing binary data.
o Pulse Modulation: Techniques such as pulse-code modulation (PCM) convert
analog signals (like voice) into digital form for transmission. PCM involves
sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and converting it into a series of
binary values.
o Noise Resistance: Digital signals are far less susceptible to noise and
interference compared to analog signals. Even if a digital signal is slightly
distorted, as long as the difference between the high (1) and low (0) states is
discernible, the original data can be reconstructed accurately.
o Error Detection and Correction: Digital transmission allows for error
detection and correction techniques (such as parity checks, cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC), and forward error correction), ensuring data integrity.
o Signal Regeneration: Digital signals can be regenerated at intervals to
maintain signal strength, reducing attenuation effects over long distances.
Example:
o Ethernet and Fiber Optics: Modern computer networks, including the
internet, use digital transmission to transfer data across copper wires or fiber
optic cables.
o Digital Telephones (VoIP): Voice-over-IP (VoIP) services convert analog
voice signals into digital packets and transmit them over the internet.
o Satellite and Cellular Communication: Digital transmission is used to send
data for mobile phone networks and satellite communication.
Key Differences Between Analog and Digital Transmission:

Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Signal Type Continuous waveform Discrete pulses (binary 0s and 1s)

Noise Low; more resistant to noise and

High; easily affected by noise
Susceptibility interference

Limited without signal

Transmission Can be transmitted over long distances
degradation (requires
Distance with signal regeneration
amplifiers)
Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Robust error detection and correction

Error Detection Limited error detection
methods

PCM, Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Modulation AM, FM, PM (Phase
(PAM), Quadrature Amplitude
Techniques Modulation)
Modulation (QAM)

AM/FM radio, analog TV, Ethernet, fiber optics, digital telephony,

Example
early telephone systems Wi-Fi

Transmission Media: Guided & Unguided

Transmission media are the physical pathways that carry signals from one place to another.
These media are classified into two categories: guided (wired) and unguided (wireless).
1. Guided Media (Wired Communication): In guided media, signals travel through a
physical pathway, such as wires or cables. The data is confined to the medium and travels
along it from sender to receiver.
• Types of Guided Media:
1. Twisted-Pair Cable: Comprises two insulated copper wires twisted together
to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
▪ Types:
▪ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in telephone
lines and Ethernet networks (e.g., Cat5, Cat6 cables).
▪ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has an additional metallic
shield to further reduce interference, often used in industrial
settings.
▪ Applications: Used in local area networks (LANs), telecommunication
systems, and telephone wiring.
▪ Advantages: Low cost, easy to install.
▪ Limitations: Limited bandwidth and signal attenuation over long
distances.
2. Coaxial Cable: Consists of a central conductor (copper wire) surrounded by
an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. The
metallic shield reduces interference and allows for higher bandwidth.
▪ Applications: Used in cable television networks, internet broadband
connections, and some telephone systems.
▪ Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted-pair cables, less
interference.
 ▪ Limitations: More expensive than twisted-pair, bulkier.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable: Uses light pulses to transmit data. A core made of glass or
plastic fibers carries the light, and the signal is transmitted by total internal
reflection.
▪ Types:
▪ Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Carries light directly down the
fiber with little dispersion. Used for long-distance
communication (e.g., internet backbone).
▪ Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Has a larger core, allowing
multiple light paths; typically used for shorter distances.
▪ Applications: High-speed data transmission in backbone networks,
internet service providers, data centers, and undersea cables.
▪ Advantages: High bandwidth, longer transmission distances, immune
to electromagnetic interference.
▪ Limitations: Expensive to install and maintain, fragile (glass fibers).
2. Unguided Media (Wireless Communication): In unguided media, signals are transmitted
through the air, space, or vacuum without a physical medium, using electromagnetic waves.
Data is broadcast or transmitted via antennas, and the medium is not confined.
• Types of Unguided Media:
1. Radio Waves: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 30 kHz
to 300 GHz. Used for long-distance communication without requiring line-of-
sight.
▪ Applications: Broadcast radio, television, cellular communication, and
wireless LANs (Wi-Fi).
▪ Advantages: Can cover large areas, penetrates buildings and obstacles.
▪ Limitations: Susceptible to interference and signal degradation over
long distances.
2. Microwaves: Higher frequency waves, typically between 1 GHz and 300
GHz. They require line-of-sight transmission.
▪ Types:
▪ Terrestrial Microwaves: Used for point-to-point
communication, often for long-distance telephone and internet
services.
▪ Satellite Microwaves: Signals are sent from ground stations to
satellites and back to other ground stations, covering vast areas.
▪ Applications: Satellite TV, GPS, mobile communication, long-distance
telephone networks.
 ▪ Advantages: High bandwidth, capable of covering large geographical
areas.
▪ Limitations: Requires line-of-sight, affected by weather conditions
like rain or storms.
3. Infrared (IR): Electromagnetic waves with frequencies just below visible
light. Used for short-range communication.
▪ Applications: TV remote controls, short-range wireless
communication between devices, some types of wireless LANs.
▪ Advantages: Simple and inexpensive for short-distance
communication.
▪ Limitations: Requires line-of-sight, cannot penetrate walls or
obstacles, limited to very short distances.
4. Light Waves (Laser Communication): Uses visible or infrared light to
transmit data between two points in a highly focused beam, usually requiring
line-of-sight.
▪ Applications: Used in point-to-point communication over short
distances, such as between buildings.
▪ Advantages: High data transfer rates, secure since the beam is highly
directional.
▪ Limitations: Requires precise alignment between transmitter and
receiver, susceptible to environmental factors like fog or rain.
Key Differences Between Guided and Unguided Media:

Feature Guided Media Unguided Media

Transmission
Physical (wires, cables) Wireless (air, vacuum, space)
Medium

Broadcast over an open area (not

Signal Path Confined to a specific path
confined)

Radio waves, microwaves, infrared,

Types Twisted-pair, coaxial, fiber optics
light waves

Lower bandwidth compared to fiber

Bandwidth High (especially in fiber optics)
optics

Less interference in fiber optics,

Interference More prone to interference from
but more in twisted-pair and
Susceptibility environmental factors
coaxial
Feature Guided Media Unguided Media

Generally higher for installation Lower for short-range applications

Cost
and maintenance like Wi-Fi, but higher for satellites

Local networks (LAN), broadband Cellular networks, satellite

Applications
internet, long-distance phone lines communication, Wi-Fi

Circuit Switching: Time Division & Space Division Switch

Circuit Switching is a communication method used primarily in traditional telephone
networks, where a dedicated communication path is established between two endpoints for
the duration of the connection. In this method, a physical or logical circuit is created, and the
entire bandwidth is reserved for that connection until the session ends.
Circuit switching can be divided into two main types: Space Division Switching and Time
Division Switching.
1. Space Division Switching: In space division switching, separate physical paths (or
circuits) are established for each call or connection through the switch. Each connection is
allocated a unique physical path within the switch.
• Working Mechanism:
o A crossbar switch or matrix switch is commonly used for space division
switching. Each connection between the input and output lines is assigned a
different physical path through the switch, with the path remaining exclusive
to that connection.
o Space division switching was widely used in early telephone exchanges,
where a caller’s voice would travel over a dedicated circuit of copper wires.
• Advantages:
o Suitable for simultaneous, continuous data transmission.
o Simple switching design, especially in small networks.
• Disadvantages:
o Inefficient in terms of resource utilization, as the physical path remains
occupied for the entire call duration, even if no data is being transmitted.
o Expensive due to the need for dedicated circuits.
• Example: Traditional telephone exchanges, where each call gets a dedicated wire pair
to establish a connection.
2. Time Division Switching: Time division switching uses time slots to establish multiple
connections over a single physical communication path. It divides the time on the same
physical line into slots, where each connection is allocated a specific time slice.
 • Working Mechanism:
o In time division switching, a single physical path is shared by multiple
connections. Instead of giving each connection its own path, the available
bandwidth is divided into time slots.
o Each time slot is assigned to a different connection. Data from each
connection is transmitted in its respective time slot in a round-robin fashion.
This process is known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
o The switching equipment allocates time slots dynamically or in a fixed
manner, and each connection transmits its data only during its designated time
slot.
• Advantages:
o More efficient use of bandwidth, as the physical path is shared by multiple
connections.
o Flexible and scalable, as new connections can be added without needing
additional physical paths.
• Disadvantages:
o Time division switching introduces delays due to the sharing of time slots. If
too many connections share the same line, it can lead to increased latency.
o More complex compared to space division switching, as it requires precise
synchronization of time slots.
• Example:
o TDM Bus Switching: A common application of time division switching
where a central time-division multiplexed bus is used to carry data from
multiple sources. Each device connected to the bus is allocated a specific time
slot for communication.
o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): Uses time division switching
for voice, video, and data transmission.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Example:
In TDM, multiple data streams are transmitted over a single physical path by dividing the
transmission time into time slots. Each stream transmits its data in its own time slot, making
efficient use of the available bandwidth.
TDM Bus (Time Division Multiplexing Bus): A TDM bus is a communication system that
uses Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to allow multiple devices or connections to share a
common communication channel or data bus. In this system, each device or connection is
allocated a specific time slot during which it can send or receive data over the shared bus.
The TDM bus enables efficient use of the available bandwidth by interleaving data from
different sources in a time-sequential manner.
Applications of TDM Bus
1. Telecommunications: In traditional telephone systems, TDM buses are used to
transmit multiple voice calls over the same channel. Time slots are allocated for each
call, allowing several calls to share the same communication line.
2. Computer Systems: In multiprocessor systems, a TDM bus is used to coordinate
communication between multiple processors and memory units, ensuring that each
processor can access the memory without conflict.
3. Digital Switching Systems: TDM buses are used in digital switching systems, where
time slots are assigned to different incoming and outgoing lines, enabling efficient
switching of voice, data, or video traffic.
4. Multimedia Communication: In systems that transmit both voice and video, a TDM
bus can allocate separate time slots for each type of data, allowing them to be
transmitted over the same medium in an organized manner.
Advantages of TDM Bus
• Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Multiple devices share the same communication
channel, maximizing the utilization of the available bandwidth.
• Simplicity in Design: TDM buses provide a structured and predictable method of
data transmission, making it easier to design and manage.
• Scalability: More devices can be added to the system without needing additional
physical infrastructure, as new devices can be assigned time slots.
Disadvantages of TDM Bus
• Idle Time Slots: In Synchronous TDM, if a device has no data to transmit, its time
slot is wasted, leading to inefficient use of the channel.
• Latency: As devices must wait for their allocated time slot to transmit data, there can
be delays, especially if many devices are sharing the same bus.
• Complexity in Dynamic Allocation: In Asynchronous TDM, managing dynamic
time slot allocation and avoiding collisions can be complex, especially as the number
of devices increases.
Telephone Network: Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication.
Telephone Network uses Circuit Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred to as a
plain old telephone system (POTS) which uses analog signals. With the advancement of
technology, i.e. in the computer era, there comes a feature to carry data in addition to voice.
Today’s network is both analogous and digital.
Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major components of the
telephone network:
1. Local loops
2. Trunks
 3. Switching Offices
There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in the following figure:

Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber
telephone to the nearest end office or local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is
4000 Hz. It is very interesting to examine the telephone number that is associated with each
local loop. The office is defined by the first three digits and the local loop number is defined
by the next four digits defines.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between
offices. Through multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections.
Mainly transmission is performed through optical fibers or satellite links.
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To
avoid this, the telephone company uses switches that are located in switching offices. A
switch is able to connect various loops or trunks and allows a connection between different
subscribes.

Advantages of Telephone Network:

• It is a circuit-switched network.
 • There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages of Telephone Network:
• It requires a large time for connection.
• It has a low transmission speed.
Applications of Telephone Network:
• It helps to connect people.
• It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
• It is also used around the world for recreational purposes.