MET458

Advanced Energy Engineering

Module - II
5
 Solar Energy
➢ Sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of
electromagnetic waves and 99% of these waves have wavelength in
the range 0.2 to 4.0 µm.
➢ Energy consists of 8% ultraviolet radiation (short wave length
<0.39 µm), 46% visible light (0.39 to 0.78 µm), 46% infra red
radiation(long wave length > 0.78 µm).
➢ Variation in solar energy is due to absorption and Scattering
➢ Absorption – UV rays are absorbed by ozone and infra red waves by CO2
and moisture inatmosphere.
➢ Scattering – Solar radiation is scattered by components of the atmosphere
such as dust and watervapour.
➢ Solar energy has low power density from 0 to 1 KW/m2.
➢ It is available intermittent, uncertain and continuous but not steady
and changes direction during the day and seasons.
 So lar Power
Solar energy utilisation

Direct method Indirect method

Thermal Photovoltaic Biomass Wind Wave energy OTEC Water power

Methodsofsolarenergy utilisation
1. Direct method – The direct mea ns include ther mal (for
direct heating , cooking, drying an d power generation, etc.)
an d photovolta ic conversion (for direct electricity
generation)

2. Ind irect method – Indirect method mea ns power generation

from bioma ss , w ind , wave energy, OT E C an d wa te r
pow er.
3
 Direct a n d Indirect Ra diation
1. Direct radi at ion (beam radiation) is that part of
terrestrial solar radiation reaching the earth's sur fa ce
without a cha nge in the direction a s originated from
s u n . This radiation travels in straight parallel lines
a nd a s su c h , c an be easily reflected or concentrated
onto a small target area.

2. Di ff us e radi at ion is that part of the terrestrial solar

radiation reaching the earth's surface in all possible
directions du e to scattering by gase s a nd d ust in the
earth's atmosphere. Be ca use it comes from all
directions of the sky dome, diffuse solar radiation
ca nn ot be efficiently reflected onto a target or
concentra ted.
 Terms and definitions involved
• Irradiance – measure of power density of sunlight in W/m2.
• Irradiation - measure of energy density of sunlight in
KWh/m2
• Sun Diameter – 1.39 x 106 km
• Mean distance between sun and earth – 1.5 x 108 km
• Solar constant (1.367 KW/m2) – rate at which solar energy
reaches at the top of the atmosphere.
• Defined as the amount of energy received in unit time for
unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from sun.
 Terms and definitions involved
➢
➢ Solar insolation (incident solar radiation) – Solar
radiation received on a flat horizontal surface on
earth at a particular instant of time.

➢
➢ Concentration ratio – ratio of solar power per unit
area of the concentrator surface (KW/m2)to solar
power per unit area on point focus (KW/m2). ➢
➢ Flat plate collector = 1 CR,
➢ parabolic trough collector = 100 CR,
➢ heliostats with 2 planes = 1000 CR can beachieved.

➢
Passive & Active S ola r S ys te ms
1. Active solar syste ms – Active solar power setups rely on
external energy sources or backup systems, such as pumps,
valves, controllers to capture and circulate water or other heat-
transfer fluids through the collectors and th en convert solar
energy into electricity.
a) The components in active solar systems su ch as fans,
pumps, photovoltaic panels need some electrical input or
conversion for the system to function.
b) Active systems are usually more expensive than passive
systems, they are generally more efficient.
2. Passive solar syste ms – Passive solar technologies are means
of using su nligh t for useful energy without use of active
mechanical systems such as pumps to circulate water/fluid
between collector and storage medium. In passive thermo
sipho n sy stems, as shown in the figure, the storage medium is
mounted above the collector. This set-up makes it possible to
use gravity for circulation.
Passive & Active S ola r S ys te ms
Hot fluid out
Storage
Hot fluid out medium

Storage Cold fluid in

medium

Pump
Cold fluid in
Active solar thermal system Passive solar thermal system

Active solar systems Passive solar systems

Solar water heater Residual heating
PV cells Cooking, Water heating
Concentrated solar power Drying
 So lar Collectors
➢ Solar collec tors gather the su n's energy,
transform its radiation into h eat, then
Aperture
transfer that heat to a fluid. This heat is Rceiver
extracted by flowing fluid (usually air,
water or oil) in the tube of the collector for
further utilization in different applications.
➢ Solar collectors are classified as
1. Non concentrating collectors Concentratingratioofcollector
2. Concen trating (focusing) collectors
➢ The main reason for using concentrating collectors is that the
thermal energy is obtained at higher temperatures. This is done
by decreasing the area from which heat losses occur (called the
receiver area) with respect to the aperture area (i.e., the area
facing or intercepts the solarradiation).
➢ The ratio of the aperture to receiver area is called the
concent ration ratio.
 Non concentrating collectors
➢ In n on concentrating collectors, the aperture area
to intercept the solar radiation is equal to the
absorber plate a nd t hu s h a s the c onc entrati on
rati o eq ual to 1 .

➢ Fl at plate col lectors (FPC) a nd evac u ated tube

col lectors (ETC) are non-concentra ting type
collectors.
 Flat Plate Collector
Transparent covers
Diffuse solar radiation
Direct solar radiation

Air space
Insulation

Fluid tube
Absorber plate
Flat plate solar collector
1. Tr an spar en t cover – These are one or more sheets of sol ar radiati on
transmi tti ng materi als an d are pl aced above the absorber plate. They
allow sol ar energy to reach the absorber plate while redu ci ng
convection, condu ction an d re-radiation heat l osse s.
2. Absorber plate – It intercepts an d absorb s the solar energy. The
absorber plate is u su al ly m ade of copper, a l u m i n u m . The plate
absorbs the solar radiation in ci dent on it a nd tran sfers the h eat to
the tub es in con tact with it.
 Flat Plate Collector
Transparent covers
➢
Diffuse solar radiation
Direct solar radiation

Air space
Insulation

Fluid tube
Absorber plate
Flat plate solar collector

3. Tubes – The absorber plate is attached to a series of parallel

tu bes through which water or other liquid passes. The tubes are ➢
usually made of copper, aluminum or steel.
4. Insulation beneath th e absorber plate – It minimises and
protects the absorbing surface from heat losses.
5. Box structure – It contains the above components and keeps ➢
them in position.
 Flat Plate Collector
Advantages of f lat plate collectors
1. Since flat-plate collectors absorb energy coming from all
directions above the absorber, tracking is not required and
hence it is simple in design and requires less maintenance.
2. It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for
heating.
Disadvantages of f lat plate collectors
1. As low temperature is achieved, flat plate collectors are not used
for power generation.
2. Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large
area.
Application s of f lat plate colle ctor
1. Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.
2. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
3. Drying applications.
4. Residence heating.
 Ev ac ua ted tube collectors
➢E va c u at ed tube collectors are made u p of rows of
parallel, glass tu bes linked to a common flow (and
return) manifold depending on the collector installed.
There are two ma in operating formats for evacuated
tube collectors.
1. Direct flow th ro ugh operation
2. He at pipe evac u ated tube collectors
 Direct flow evacuate d tube collector
➢ This type con si st of a Cold water in Solar radiation
grou p of evacu ated Seal Evacuated tube
Aluminum fin
glass tub es in sid e
ea c h of wh i ch is a
flat or cu rved
th erm a l con du c tin g
plate (alu mi ni um fin)
a tta c h ed to a m eta l
(u s u ally cop per) or
Direct flow evacuated tube solar collector
glass pi pe.
Hot water out
➢ The inner surface of the evacuated glass tube h as a selective
coating that absorbs solar radiation and prevents radiative loss.
The heat transfer fluid is water and circulates through the pipes,
one for inlet fluid and the other for outlet fluid.
➢ Since the heat transfer fluid flows into and out of each tube, direct
flow evacuated tube collectors are not as flexible as the heat pipe
types.
 Heat pipe evacuate d tube collector
Manifold Solarradiation

➢ In this type, a Condenser Vapourrises Copperplate Evacuated tube

copper coated
absorber plate is
bonded to a sealed Alcohol
copper heat pipe. liquid
Condensedliquidreturnsto the bottom

Fluidflow Heat pipe

Heatpipeevacuatedtubesolar collector

➢ The heat pipe contains a working fluid (alcohol) at low pressure. ➢

When the heat pipe is heated, the liquid turns into a vapour, rises
within the pipe to a condenser that is in contact with the heat
➢
transfer fluid in the manifold.
➢ At the condenser the vapour condenses back into a liquid, ➢
releasing the latent heat.
➢ The liqu id th en retu rns back down th e heat pipe where it is
heated, evaporates and once more repeats the cycle.
 Ev ac ua ted tube collector
Advantages of evacuated tube collectors
1. Unlike other solar collectors, the evacuated tube ones can collect the sun's
energy from multiple angles.
2. Comparatively, evacuated tube solar collectors require lesser space and the
collectors are easy to install.
3. They are the most efficient of all solar hot water systems when installed
correctly.
4. Evacuated tube collectors can operate at a mu ch higher temperatureand
as su ch are the preferred choice for heating applications.
5. When evacuated tubes break, which is quite rare, the tubes are cheap to
replace when compared to flat panels.
Disadvantages of evacuated tube collectors
1. They are expensive.
2. Evacuated tubes overheat tooeasily.
3 . Maintenance of evacu a ted tu be collectors is difficult.
Applications of evacuated tube collectors
1.Evacuated tube collectors are used for home heating applications as well
as space heati ng, process heati ng, solar air conditioning, and commercial
solar heating applications.
C om paring flat pla te c ollector
(F PC ) & Ev ac uate d tube
No. collector (ETC)
Sl.
Flat plate collector (FPC) Evacuated Tube Collector(ETC)
In flat plate collector an absorber plate
Evacuated tube collector a glass tube with
with a sheet of copper, painted or coated
1. vacuum inside it is surrounding an absorber
black is bonded to pipes of transfer fluid.
plate or area.

2. FPC has low cost. ETC has higher cost.

Flat plate collector is more efficient than
ETC is more efficient than FPC at lower
3. evacuated tube collector at ambient
working temperatures (conditions).
temperature.
The design of ETC is difficult because of
4. The design of FPC is easy. vacuum inside the tube.
FPCs are sensitive to sun angle and ETCs are less sensitive to sun angle and
5.
orientation. orientation.

6. FPCs have longer life. ETCs have less life than FPCs.
 Concentrating (focussing) collectors
R efle c t or A b s o r b er

F o c a l l i ne

P a r a b o l ic t r o u g h c o ll e c t o r P a r a b o l ic d i s h c o ll e c t o r

➢ In order that the su n's rays should always be focused on to the

absorber tu be, the concentrator h as to be rotated. This movement
is called tr acking .
Focussing collectors may be :-
1. Line fo cussin g ty pe – The collector pipe, through which
working fluid flows, may be considered as a line.
2. Point focu sin g type – In the case of point focusing, the point to
l be considered will be a small volume through which fluid flows.
C oncentrating (focussing) collectors
Refle ctor Absorbe r

Focal line

Parabolic tr ough colle cto r Parabolic dish colle cto r

➢ Concentrating collectors intercept direct radiation over a large area

and focus it onto a small absorber area.
➢ The collector in concentrating type consists of a conce ntrator and
a receiver.
➢ Receiver is a device th at is able to convert the solar radiation into a
different kind of energy. This can be either a he at absorber (to
harvest thermal energy) or a photovoltaic cell (to convert solar
radiation to electric energy).
 Parabolic trough collector
➢ The parabolic trough collector is of Reflector Absorber
line foc ussing type solar collector.
➢ It is having the shape of a Focal line
cylindrical parabola.
➢ It focuses the sunlight onto its axis
where it is absorbed on the surface
of the absorber tube an d
tran sferred to the fluid flowing
through it . Parabolic trough collector

➢ Cylindrical parabolic collector usua lly offer temperatures

between 150°C an d 400°C with concentra tion rat io
between 10 an d 80, an d are generally used for generating
steam for electricity generation.
 Parabolic dis h collector
➢ The paraboloic dish collector is of
point foc ussing type solar
collector. For point focussing type,
the receiver is placed at the focus
point of the concentrator.

➢ In this ca se , the tracking system

is provided to track the s un
automatically for all times.

➢ These collectors ca n have concentra tion ratio ranging

from 100 to a few t housa nd.

➢ Around 2000°C temperature ca n be achieved by this

collector an d are used for generating steam for electricity
generation.
 C o m pare flat plate & foc u sing
solar collectors
1. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that
of a flat-plate system for the same solar energy collection.
2. Becau se less heat is lost in concentrated system, the working
fluid can attain higher temperatures than in a flat-plate collector
of the same collecting surface.
3. As h igh er tem peratu res can be achieved, focu sing collector is
used for power generation.
4. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a
concentrator system.
5. Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only
beam component is collected in focusing collectors as diffuse
component cannot be reflected and is lost.
6. Costly orienting systems have to be used to track the sun in
focusing collectors.
S ola r thermal electric sys tems
Solar direct thermal applications involve the direct use of heat
for various applications like,
➢ Solar water heater
➢ Solar Cooker
➢ Solar Crop dryer
➢ Solar Distillation or Solarstill
➢ Solar Pumping
➢ Solar Spaceheating
➢ Solar Spacecooling
➢ Solar furnace
 Solar Water Heater

s
y
 Solar Cooker
t

g
r

y
e

n
Solar Distillation or Solar still
Solar Space heating
Solar Space cooling

➢
Solar furnace
S ola r thermal power generation
➢ S olar t hermal electric power plan ts gen erally u se
concentrated sunlight obtained throu gh variou s m irror
configurations to focus the sun‟s energy to produce high
temperature heat .

➢ The heat energy is then transferred to a fluid or ga s, which

is used in a t yp ica l powe r p la nt c y cl e to convert the heat
energy to mechanical energy an d then electricity.
➢ Solar thermal power cycles ca n be broadly classified a s l ow ,
me d ium an d high tempe rature c yc les .

➢ Most of the solar thermal power generation works based on

Ra nk i ne c ycl e.
➢ The Ra nkine cycle sy ste m consists of a p ump , boiler,
turbine, an d condenser.
 Low temperature therm oelectric
power generation
Vapour generator
Turbine
Reflector
Storage tank

Condenser

Working fluid

Pump Pump
Low temperature solar power generation
➢ A low-temperature solar thermal installation consists of solar collectors,
two water circuits (primary and secondary), heat exchanger tu rbine,
generator and condenser.
➢ The energy of the su n is collected by the water flowing through an array of
flat-plate collectors.
➢ To get still higher temperature, booster mirrors which reflect radiation on
to the flat-plate collectors are sometimes u sed.
 Low temperature therm oelectric
power generation
Vapour generator
Turbine
Reflector Storage tank

Condenser

Working fluid

Pump Pump
Low temperature solar power generation

➢ The hot water at about 100°C is stored in a well-insulated thermal

storage tank. It then flows through a vapour generator/evaporator
where the organic working fluid is vapourized at about 90°C.
➢ The vapour then flows under pressure to the turbine where it expands
and work thus obtained run s an electric generator producing electricity.
 Medium temperature thermoelectric
power generation
➢ Tem peratu res aroun d 150°C to Reflector Absorber
300°C can be attained by u sing
array of parabolic trough Focal line
collectors (line focusing).
➢ Parabolic trough collectors
concentrate sunligh t onto a
receiver tube, placed along the
focal line.
Parabolic trough collector

➢ The fluid flowing th rough the absorber tu be absorbs the heat

and is then drawn through a heat-exchanger in which it
transfers heat to high pressure water which is converted to
steam which executes a Ran kin e cy cle.
 Central Receiver Sy st e ms
Receiver
Incident solar rays

Heliostat Tower

Central tower technology

➢ In th is system , the solar radiation reflected from heliostats
(arrays of large reflecting mirrors) is concentrated on a boiler
situated at the top of a supporting tower. ➢
➢
➢ The heliostats are steerable so that they can reflect the sun‟srays
at almost all times during the day light hou rs.
➢ This therm al input to the boiler is u sed to operate a high-
temperature Rankine cycle.
 S ola r photovoltaic systems
➢ Photovoltaic energy convers ion (PV) is a direct
conversion technology that produces electricity
without the u se of a thermodynamic cycle or a
working fluid.

➢ The basic un it of a photovol taic s ystem i s th e

photovoltaic c ell , also called sol ar cel l that directly
converts solar radiation into electricity. It is based on
the photoelectric (or photovoltaic) ef fe c t .

➢ This effect is exhibited by materials called

semi con ducto rs (such a s silicon).
 S ola r photovoltaic sys tems

Photovoltaic cell

s
r M odule/Panel A r ray

➢ A single cell typically produces a power of 1W at a voltage of 0.5V.

➢ Therefore photovoltaic cells are usually combined into
s photovoltaic modules (PV modules)/solar panels that in turn are
combined in series (to increase voltage) or parallel (to increase
- current) arrangement to form solar arrays to meet specific power
requirements.
Basic structure of a SOLAR CELL
➢

➢
 Photovoltaic conversion
➢ A metallic crystalline solid contains Ph otons

atoms that have nuclei surrounded Co nduction band

by electrons tightly bound to the

Electron energy
nucleus. The outer electrons which B an d gap Ban d gap

are weakly bound to the nucleus of ener gy

atom are called valence ele ctron s. Valance band

➢ The valence electrons have the
potential to create electric current. El ectron energy levels

➢ The free valence electrons act as carriers which causes electric

current. When they act as carriers of electric current, the valence
electrons sh ou ld be energized to a higher energy level. Th ese
higher energy levels combine to form con du ction band.
➢ An energy barrier called the band-gap energy exists (as shown in
above figure) between valence band and conduction ba nd . Valence
electrons which act as carriers of electric current should overcome
this band gap energy for jumping into the con ductio n band
(band formed by merging the energy levels of free electrons).
 Photovoltaic conversion
➢ B ut for the production of electricity, the act ua l solar cell
device mu st be made from two different types of so-called
„doped‟ s em icon d uctors .
➢ In a normal silicon crystal, there are four valence electrons in
every ato m. They are held in place by the positive charge
from the nuclei of the silicon ato ms. E a c h silicon atom
sha res ea ch of its four valence electrons with another
nearest silicon atom hence creating c ova len t bon d s
between the m.
➢ When a pentavalent impurity like phosphor us is added to
silicon, the 4 valence electrons of ea ch phosphorous atom is
shared through covalent bonds with 4 neighboring silicon
ato ms, an d 5 th valence electron does not get any cha nce to
create a covalent bond. This 5 th electron is then relatively
loosely bounded with its parent ato m.
 Photovoltaic conversion

Extra Missing electron

or hole
electron

Phosphorus Boron

Silicon doped with phosphorus Silicon doped with boron

➢ If the silicon is doped (doping-introduction of impurities into the

semiconductor crystal to change its conductivity) with a small quantity of
an element that has five valence electrons in an atom and it can fit into
the silicon crystal structure (such as phosphorus/arsenic), some extra
electrons are created (as the fifth valence electron does not create a
covalent bond). S uc h a doped material is called an n-type
semiconductor, because the extra electrons carry a negative charge.
➢ Alternatively, if the semiconductor is doped with an element that has only
three valence electrons (such as boron/gallium) absence of an electron in
a covalent bond or holes, are created. This is a p-type semiconductor.
 Photovoltaic conversion
D e p l e t i o n l a ye r

n-type p-type

gap
y Fixe d imp u r it y c ha rg e s
p-n junction

➢ The pentavalent impurities which donate their fifth free electron to the
semiconductor crystal are known as donor s. The trivalent impurities are
generally known as acceptors as they continually accept extra or free
electrons.
c ➢ When these two types of ma teria l a re combined, a p/n junction is
e formed. This is what makes possible the production of electricity.
e B eca u se of the high concentration of electrons in the n-ty pe semi-
conductor, some of the extra electrons spill over into the holes of p-type
semiconductor. Near the junction, free electrons from the n-type side fill
n the holes from the p-type side. This makes the n-type material positively
charged in the vicinity of the junction.
➢ Conversely, the p-type material becomes negatively charged in the
d vicinity of the junction. This movement of electrons and holes across the
junction is known as diff usion .
 Photovoltaic conversion
ll Depletion layer
d

n-type p-type
n
Fixed impurity charges
m p-n junction
r ➢ An electric field is thus created with ion s, across the junction.
s Normally, however, there is equal flow of carriers(electrons from n
region to p region and holes from p region to n region) in both
directions across the junction and no electricity can be produced.
o
➢ This process continues until the electrical charge created at the
s
junction by the ions repel or prevent any more carriers from
n crossing the junction. Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically
o neutral situation) will occur producing a ‘potential barrier’ zone
y around the area of the junction a s the positive ions repel the holes
and the negative ions repel the electrons.
 Photovoltaic conversion
Depletion layer

n-type p-type

Fixed impurity charges

p-n junction
➢ Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is
a potential barrier it is therefore „depleted‟ of any free mobile
carriers, and this area around the junction is now called the
Depletion Layer. This region which is “stripped” of carriers is
called the depletion region
➢ When solar radiation strikes the solar cell, excess electrons flow
from the n-type material to the p-type material and excess holes
„flow‟ in the opposite direction. This, together with the existence of
the electric field across the junction, makes possible the flow of
electrons away from the junction and through an external circuit.
This flow of carriers causes electric current flow. T hus, solar
energy is converted into electricity.
 Types of solar pa nel

Mono-crystalline panel Polycrystalline panel Thin film solar panel

Th ere are 3 types of solar panels available on the

market today viz.,
1. Mono-crystall ine,
2. Pol yc ryst al li ne, an d
3. T h in fi lm amo rph ou s.
 Mono-crystalline cells
➢ Mono-crystalline ce lls are m ade
p
by slicing a single higher grade
silicon rod into waf ers.
➢ Cells are then made to fit into one
solar panel. B ecau se th e cell is
composed of a single crystal, the
electrons that generate a flow of Mono-crystalline panel
electricity have more room to move.

➢ As a result, mono-crystalline panels are more efficient than their

polycrystalline counterparts.
➢ Mono-crystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates
(around 20%) since they are made out of the highest-grade
silicon.
➢ They are distinguished by uniform dark colour with rounded
edges.
 Polycrystalline solar cells
➢ Polycrystalline solar cells are
made by pouring molten silicon
into square molds, where it cools
an d solidifies for use in a solar
panel.
is
le ➢ Be cause there are many crystals
e in ea ch cell, there is less freedom Polycrystalline panel
is for the electrons to move.

w ➢ As a result, polycrystalline solar panels have lower

s efficiency ratings t han mono-crystalline panels.
of
fo
➢ Polycrystalline solar cells have blue colour with square
t.
shape .
r
 Thi n film pa nels
➢Th in film panels are made by
depositing a photovoltaic substan ce
onto a solid surface like gla ss.

➢E xam ples of the most common

photovoltaic subst an ce s u s ed are
Amorphous Silicon, C a d miu m
Telluride (C d Te), C opper indiu m
e gallium selenide (C G IS) a nd D ye-
sensitized solar cell (DSC ). Thinfilmsolarpanel

➢ Thin film solar panels have efficiency ab ou t 1 1 % .

 Comp aring mono-crystalline,
polycrystalline & thin film solar panels
Aspect Mono-crystalline Polycrystalline Thin film

Efficiency More efficient. Less efficient. Less efficient.

Space Less space More space More space
requirement needed needed needed

Cost Costly Cheaper Cheaper

Efficiency in
Better Low efficiency Better.
warm low light

Life Longer life. Shorter life Shorter life

Dark surface with
Colour Black. Blue.
brown/black colour
Economics of Solar Power
Economics of Solar Power
Economics of Solar Power
Economics of Solar Power
Sustainability Attributes
Sustainability Attributes
 L-T-P-C

ME458 3-1-0-3

Advanced Energy
Engineering
Module – II
WIND ENERGY

https://sites.google.com/site/rejeeshcrfisat
Renewable Energy use in U.S.

5
 Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this course, students will be able to
Sl. PO
NO DESCRIPTION MAPPING
Discuss and compare the layout and working principles of steam,
1 PO1
hydro, nuclear, gas turbine and diesel power plants.
Describe the use of solar energy and the various components used in the
2 PO1
energy production.
Appreciate the need of wind energy and the various components
3 PO1
used in energy generation and know the classifications.
Acquire knowledge about the concept of power generation from
4 PO1
biomass energy resources and their future prospects and economics.
Describe the principles and applications of power generation from
5 PO1
various sources and Hydrogen energy conversion systems.
Understand energy scenario and the environmental effects of energy
6 conversion and become aware of different renewable energy sources PO1
and choose sustainable energy for future.

3
 Energy from the wind
Wind = air in motion;

-caused by the uneven heating of the earth‘s surface by the sun;

The large atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created
because the land near the earth's equator is heated more by the sun
than the land near the North and South Poles.

Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity.

Wind is called a renewable energy source because the wind will

blow as long as the sun shines.

3
 What Makes Wind?

Heat from sun causes convection in the

atmosphere, i.e., the heated air rises, which
create zones of high and low air pressure
within the atmosphere.
As the heated air rises, it creates a low pressure
zone near the ground. Air from surrounding
cooler areas rushes in to balance the pressure.
These horizontal pressure difference accounts for ambient wind and the more
intense storm wind
 Wind Power Plant
➢ Wind flow is created as an effect of solar heat, which creates
low and high-pressure regions on the earth due to heating.
➢ Thus wind energy is rightly an indirect form of solar energy.
The flowing wind is used to rotate the wind turbine, which is
also known as windmill.

➢ Wind turbines are usually located at the sea shore or in the

sea where there is availability of wind.
➢ For electric power generation, the average wind speed
required is 5 m/s.

ore
10
 Coriolis Force
Wind doesn't follow a straight path from high pressure systems to
low pressure systems.
When you stand with your back to the wind direction, wind is
deflected to the right on the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left on
the Southern Hemisphere.
d
1
2

This phenomenon is caused by the

rotation of the earth and is called the
Coriolis force, after the Frenchman
Gustave-Gaspard de Coriolis (1792-
1843) who discovered it in 1835 and
can be better explained through the
figure.
8
 Sources of Wind
Winds are natural phenomena in the atmosphere and have two different
origins viz., planetary winds and local winds.

1. Planetary winds – Planetary winds are caused by solar heating of the

earth's surface near the equator than near the north or south poles.

This causes warm tropical air to rise and flow through the upper
atmosphere towards the poles and cold air from the poles to flow back
to the equator nearer to the earth's surface.

The direction of motion of the planetary winds is affected by the

rotation of the earth.

2. Local winds – Local winds are caused by un-equal heating and cooling
of land and water, and also by hills and mountain sides.

During the day warmer air over land rises upwards and colder air from
lakes, ocean, forest areas, flows towards warmer zones.
11
 What is Wind Energy?
Differential heating of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere causes
vertical/horizontal air currents known as WIND.

A wind turbine then produces electricity by converting the force of

the wind ultimately charging a generator through the rotation of the
wind turbine’s rotor blades.

➢ Wind pushes blades

➢ Blades attached to a hub
– together called the rotor
➢ Rotor spins drive shaft
➢ Gearbox makes shaft faster
➢ Drive shaft turns generator to
make energy

9
 Why Wind Energy?
s
Wind is the renewable energy resource/technology of choice
“Free” resource
f
e A “clean” resource due to:
➢ Replacement of a “dirty” energy source (coal) and,
➢ No emissions associated with its use
Can be utilized on underutilized land or on lands currently in
commodity crop production (“harvest” on the surface and
“harvest” above the surface)

Will primarily be used for electricity generation for

immediate end-use or as a “driver” for hydrogen production.
12
 Why Wind Energy? •

• Clean, zero emissions

– NOx, SO2, CO, CO2 •

– Air quality, water quality

•
– Climate change •
• Reduce fossil fuel dependence
– Energy independence •
– Domestic energy—
national security
• Renewable
– No fuel-price volatility •
 History of Wind Energy
• 5000 BC - The history of wind energy is certainly long, beginning thousands of
years ago. It is estimated that as early as 5000 B.C. sail boats were in use on the
Nile as boatmen realized the power of the wind.
• 500-900 AD - The first windmills were developed in Persia for pumping water and
grinding grain.
• About 1300 - The first horizontal-axis windmills appeared in Western Europe.
• 1850s - Daniel Halladay and John Burnham worked to build and sell the Halladay
Windmill, which was designed for the American West. It had an open tower design
and thin wooden blades. They also started the U.S. Wind Engine Company.
• Late 1880s - Thomas O. Perry conducted over 5,000 wind experiments trying to
build a better windmill. He invented the mathematical windmill, which used gears
to reduce the rotational speed of the blades. This design had greater lifting power,
smoother pumping action, and could operate in lighter winds. Perry started the
Aermotor Company with LaVerne Noyes.
• The development of steel blades made windmills more efficient. 6 million
windmills sprang up across America as settlers moved west. Homesteaders
purchased windmills from traveling salesman, or they built their own. Mills were
used to pump water, shell corn, saw wood, and mill grain.
 Wind usage evolution
Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail
ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind wheat
and other grains.

The earliest known windmills were in Persia (Iran); they looked

like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of Holland
improved the basic design of the windmill; they gave it propeller-
type blades, still made with sails.
American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to
pump water and to cut wood at sawmills;
the oil shortages of the 1970s created an interest in alternative
energy sources, such as windmill to generate electricity.

14
• 1888 - Charles F. Brush used the 1st large windmill to generate electricity in Cleveland,
Ohio. Windmills that produce electricity started to be called wind turbines. Later, General
Electric acquired Brush's company, Brush Electric Co.
• 1893 - In Chicago, the World's Columbian Exposition (aka the Chicago World Fair)
highlighted 15 windmill companies who showcased their goods.
• Early 1900s – California windmills pumped saltwater to evaporate ponds to produce salt
• 1941 - On a hilltop in Rutland, Vermont, "Grandpa's Knob" wind turbine supplied power
to the local community for several months during World War II. It had 53-meter blades
and was the Smith-Putnam wind turbine.
• 1979 - The 1st wind turbine rated over 1 MW began operation. The cost of electricity from
wind generation was about 40 cents per kilowatt-hour.
• 1985 - Many wind turbines were installed in California in the early 1980s to help meet
growing electricity needs and take advantage of government incentives. By 1985,
California wind capacity exceeded 1000 megawatts, enough power to supply 250000
homes. These wind turbines were inefficient compared to today’s turbines.
• 1993 - U.S. WindPower developed one of the first commercially available variable-speed
wind turbines, the 33M-VS. The final prototype tests were completed in 1992.
• 2004 - Electricity from wind generation cost 3 - 4.5 cents per kilowatt-hour.
• 2011 - Wind power provided 12.8% of the renewable energy consumed in U.S. i.e., wind
power produced average electricity to power the equivalent of over 10 million homes.
 History of Wind Energy
5000 BC 500-900 AD 1300 AD 1850s Late 1880s
Sailboats used on First windmills First horizontal- Daniel Halladay and Thomas O. Perry
the Nile indicate developed in axis John Burnham build conducted 5,000
the power of wind Persia windmills in Halladay Windmill; wind experiments;
Europe start US Wind starts Aermotor
Engine Company Company

1888 Early 1900s 1941 1979

Charles F. Brush Windmills in CA In VT, Grandpa’s First wind turbine
used windmill to pumped saltwater Knob turbine rated over 1 MW
generate electricity to evaporate ponds supplies power to began operating
in Cleveland, OH town during WWII
B
ra
1985 1993 2004 2013
CA wind capacity US WindPower developed Electricity from Wind power provided in
exceeded 1,000 MW first commercial variable-speed wind generation over 17% of
renewable
wind turbine costs 3 to 4.5 cents energy used in US
per kWh
 Why Such Growth? …costs are low!
• Increased Turbine Size
• R&D Advances
• Manufacturing Improvements
The rapid growth in wind power can be
attributed to two things.
➢reduction in cost of electricity produced
➢more interest in renewable technologies.

Between 2004 to 2011, an increase in price can be attributed to higher

rates of demand than supply of turbines and rising commodity prices
including a rise in the price of steel.
1979 2000 2004 2011
40 cents/kWh 4-6 cents/kWh 3-4.5 cents/kWh < 5 cents/kWh
Is Wind Energy Truly Sustainable?
• Yes
– All you need is wind!
• There is no use for any fossil fuels to power a wind turbine.

Lifespan of New Wind Farms

➢ Industry predictions: 20-25 years
➢ Actual findings: No more than 12-15 years
The machinery needs to be replaced; there is wear and tear of
the turbines over time.

19
 Advantages of Wind Energy
• Wind blows day and night, which gives wind turbines the ability to produce
electricity at all hours of the day.
• Wind energy is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States and
the nation’s wind supply is abundant.
• Clean
– Wind energy is a renewable source of energy that generates no pollution.
– Unlike: fossil fuels such coal/natural gas
– Does not produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or
greenhouse gasses.
• Cheaper
– Wind energy is one of the lowest-prices renewable energy technologies
available today, costing between 4 and 6 cents per KWH
• As of 2013, farmers who host wind turbines are typically paid at least $10,000
per turbine per year by companies that run wind farms.
• Farmers can also still continue to use the land due to the turbines only taking
up a fraction of the land.
22
 d
Wind production •
United States ranks third in the world in wind power capacity, •
behind Germany and Spain and before India;

Denmark ranks number five in the world in wind power

•
capacity but generates 20% of its electricity from wind. •

The amount of electricity generated from wind

has been growing fast in recent years, tripling •
since 1998.

Most of the wind power plants in the world are •

located in Europe and in the United States
where government programs have supported
wind power development.
 Disadvantages of Wind Energy
• Efficiency of a wind turbine depends on the wind speed.
• Noise Problems
– Some people find it annoying, and if it is close to a house, it may lead to
sleeplessness and on to anxiety and stress for some individuals which could
lead to health issues.
• Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10
years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled
generators.
• Power density is very low.
- Needs a very large number of wind mills to produce modest amounts of power.
• Cannot meet large scale and transportation energy needs.
• Environmental Problems
– Wind turbines kill birds and bats
– Destruction of native vegetation
– Erosion problems
– Fires in wind turbines, while very rare, are extremely difficult to fight
23
Environmental benefits No fuel to mine, transport, or
No air emissions store
No fuel needed No cooling water

Distributed power No water pollution

Remote locations No wastes

21
 Merits an d demer its of w in d turbines
Adva nta ges of w in d power
1. Wind turbines c an be used for both distributed generation or grid interactive power
generation using on-shore or off shore technologies.
2. Ranges of power producing turbines are available. Micro-turbines are capable of producing
300 W to 1MW and large wind turbines have typical size of 35 kW –3 MW.
3. It c an be made available easily in m any off-shore, on-shore an d remote areas; t hus , helpful
in supplying electric power to remote and rural areas.
4. It is a non-polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
5. It is an im portant renewable and sustainabl e source of energy, available free of cost.
6. The scope of wind resource, globally, is enorm ous and is less dependent on latitude than
other solar based renewable energy technologies.
7. Power generation is cheaper as there is no shortage of input cost and recurring expenses
are alm ost nil .
Dis ad van ta ges of w in d power
r 1. It ha s low energy density.
2. Electricity production depends on- wind speed, location, season an d air temperature.
Hence various monitoring systems are needed and m ay cost expensive.
3. High percentage of the hardware cost (for large wind turbine) is spent on the tower
designed to support the turbine
4. It is variable, unsteady, irregular, intermittent, erratic and sometimes dangerous.
5. Wind turbine design, m anufact ure and install ation have proved to be com pl ex due to
widely varying atmospheric conditions in which they have to operate.
6. Wind farm s c an be located only in vast open areas in locations of favourable wind.
General ly, su ch locations are away from load centres.
7. The appearanc e of wind turbines on the lan dscape and their continual whirling and
24
whistling c an be irritating.
 Impacts of Wind Power: Noise
L
co
as
S
th
th
pi
To
se
bl
P
ar
L
st
ar
In the past, turbines have been perceived as noisy machines. While modern day on
turbines do produce some noise, when sited at a proper distance from homes and N
businesses, the noise level is less than many household appliances. ri
 Installation of Wind Turbines
Large scale turbines are brought to the
construction site in multiple pieces and
assembled on site.
Specialized trucks transport the components to
these often remote locations because, even
though the turbine is disassembled, individual
pieces are still very large.
Towers are transported in 65 to 100-foot long
sections. Blades are transported one or two
blades per truck.
Prior to erecting the tower, concrete foundations
are poured to hold the turbine securely in place.
Large cranes are used to assemble the pieces,
stacking the tower and nacelle first. The blades
are attached to the hub on the ground and lifted
ay on to the front of the nacelle.
d Note the size comparison to the barn in the upper
right hand corner.
 The Future of Wind Energy

d
Offshore wind energy is the best
alternative to fulfill the requirement
as the amount of energy generated
from these is good enough and there
is more aspect of increment in the
number of offshore wind farms.

▪ Wind energy will be more in use in the near future as the requirement of energy is
increasing diurnal. So to fulfill this requirement more and better resources are
required.
▪ Future of wind energy can be bright if government policies subsidize and
encourage its use.
La
▪ Technology improvements unlikely to have a major impact.
ac
▪ Can become cost competitive for electricity generation if fossil energy costs ou
skyrocket. 26
 Wind Turbine Perspective
Workers Blade
t 112’ long
d
e
e Nacelle
56 tons

is
re Tower
3 sections
nd

Large turbines have ladders or lift systems inside the tower so technicians can
sts
access the nacelle and perform maintenance. When work must be performed on the
outside of the nacelle, safety harnesses are worn.
 Offshore Wind Farms

Many developers would like to move wind farms offshore because wind is faster,
smoother and can be close to major population centers on the coast.
 Common Misunderstandings
Wind turbines are only
generating electricity
about one third of the
time.

Wind turbines generate

electricity essentially all the
time, but only at their rated
capacity about 30-40% of the
time.
r,
Turbines: Different sizes & Applications
Small (10 kW) Intermediate
• Homes (Grid-connected)
• Farms
(10-500 kW)
• Remote Applications • Village Power
(e.g. battery charging, water • Hybrid Systems
pumping, telecom sites)
• Distributed Power

Large (500 kW – 5 MW)

• Require 13-mph average wind sites
• Central Station Wind Farms
• Distributed Power
• Offshore Wind
31
er

34
Typical Turbine Size
1.3 to 1.8 MW rated capacity
Rotor diameter 60 to 80 meters
Tower height 60 to 80 meters
Turbine footprint 10 m x 10 m

245-330 ft. TIP

Lowest ground clearance is at least

165-220 ft TOWER
100 ft.

Apx. 100 ft.

32
 Different Types of Wind Turbines
• Windmills
– If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery,
such as a pump or grinding stones, the machine is usually
called a windmill.

35
 Modern Wind Turbines
Turbines can be categorized into two classes based on the
orientation of the rotor.

33
 Different Types of Wind Turbines
e – Wind Turbines
• If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity,
the machine is called a wind generator.

36
General Types of Wind Turbines
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine – Uncommon

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine – More Common

37
 Wind Energy Conversion
Principle of wind energy conversion
(i) Drag is in the direction of air flow

40
 Wind Turbine Power
For measurement of wind speed, the basic sensors used are
anemometers and for measurement of direction, wind vanes are used.
The most commonly used anemometer is rotating cup anemometer. In this
A
type, a vertical shaft supports a cup assembly. The cup rotates about the
vertical axis in proportion with the incoming wind speed.
The calcu lation of the power of th e Wind vane
wind energy (Pt) is based on the kinetic Cup anemometer
energy of moving air molecules.
According to Betz' law, wind power,

1
Pt = ρAV 3 N E

2
W S

Anemometer and wind vane

Therefore, wind speed (V) is the most important parameter, as wind energy
(Pt) is proportional to the cube of wind spee d.
38
 Aerodynamic principle of wind
turbines
Lift
All the wind turbines work on two
physical principles (or combination of
Drag
these two) in blade designs by which Wind
energy is extracted from the wind. These
principles are either (i) drag principle or
(ii) lift principle. Blade designs operate on
either the principle of drag or lift.
Lift and drag forces acting on a blade

1. Drag principle – Drag devices are simple wind machines that use flat, curved or cup-
shaped (unlike aerodynamic shapes of the lift devices) blades to run the rotor. In the drag
blade design, the wind pushes the blades out of the way. Drag powered wind turbines are
characterized by slower rotational speeds and high torque capabilities.

2. Lift principle – The lift devices employs the same principle that enables airplanes, kites
and birds to fly. The blade is essentially an airfoil, or wing. The top surface of a blade
aerofoil is more curved than the bottom surface. When air flows past the blade, a wind
speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade surfaces.41
 Wind Turbine Power
P = 0.5 × rho × A × Cp × V3 × Ng × Nb
P = power in watts (746 watts = 1 hp)
rho = air density (about 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level, less higher up)
A = rotor swept area, exposed to the wind (m2)
Cp = Coefficient of performance
(0.59 {Betz limit} is the maximum theoretically possible, 0.35 for a
good design)
V = wind speed in meters/sec (20 mph = 9 m/s)
Ng = generator efficiency
(50% for car alternator, 80% or possibly more for a permanent
magnet generator or grid-connected induction generator)
Nb = gearbox/bearings efficiency (could be as high as 95% if good)
39
42
Aerodynamics of wind turbines

43
46
 How wind machines work?
Like old fashioned windmills, today’s wind
machines use blades to collect the wind’s kinetic
energy.
Windmills work because they slow down the
speed of the wind. The wind flows over the airfoil
shaped blades causing lift, like the effect on airplane
wings, causing them to turn.
The blades are connected to a drive shaft that
turns an electric generator to produce electricity.

With the new wind machines, there is

still the problem of what to do when the wind isn’t
blowing. At those times, other types of power
plants must be used to make electricity.
44
47
How a Wind Turbine Operates
1
2

5
 Components of wind turbine
1. Hub – The blades are attached to the hub.
Blade Nacelle
2. Rotor – Blades and hub together is called Gear box
the rotor. Rotor is attached to the slow
speed shaft.
3. Nacelle – Nacelle is the cover housing that
houses all of the generating components in
Hub Generator
a wind turbine, including the generator,
gearbox, drive train, and brake assembly. Tower

4. Tower– The tower of the wind turbine

carries the nacelle and the rotor. Towers Horizontal axis wind power plant
may be made from steel or concrete. (Propeller type)

5. Gears– Gears connect the low-speed shaft attached to the hub to the high-
speed shaft attached to the generator and increase the rotational speed.

48
Upwind and downwind machines

Winddirection
Tail vane sensor

Shadowarea

Upwind with tail vane Upwindwithactive yaw control Downwind with free yaw
(passiveyaw control) (active yawfor largeturbines)
Yawcontrol in upwind and downwind machines

➢ Upwind machines are those machines that hav e rotor facing the
wind. In these machines the wind meets the rotor first an d then
S
leaves from the direction in which the nace lle is located. cr
➢ In a down wi nd machine , the rotor is located do wn wi nd of (behind) w
the tower a s sho wn in the figure. This m ea ns the nacelle co mes first cy
in the path of the wind an d then the blade s. b
49 g
s Vertical axis wind turbines
(VAWT)
The basic vertical axis designs are the Darrieus t ype, which ha s curved
blades and efficiency of 35%, and the Savonius type having the efficiency
of 30%.

e S avon iu s type Darrieus type

n S avonius ty pe u ses d rag forces to Darrieus ty pe uses lift forces to

create rotation of the shaft. Savonius create the rotation of the sha ft.
windmill consists of a hollow circular Darrieus type requires much less
)
cylinder sliced in hal f, the two halves surface area. It is shaped like an egg
t
being fixed to a vertical axis with a beater and ha s two or three blades
gap in between shap ed like aerofoils. 52
 d
Classification of wind turbines
Wind turbines

•
Horizontal axis type Vertical axis type •

Multi-blade type Sail type Propeller type Savonius type Darrieus type •
Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) –The horizontal axis machi nes have
to face the direction of the wind in order to generate power. In addition to
being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind
flow.
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) – In vertical-axis wind turbines, the
orientation of the spin axis is perpendicular to the ground. A vertical axis
wind turbine can catch wind in all directions. So , a vertical axis machine
nee d not be oriented with respect to wind direction. This means that unlike a V
HAWT, no yawing mechani sm (adjusting the nacelle about the vertical axis c
to bring the rotor facing the wind) is needed for a VAWT. Because the shaft e
is vertical, the transmission and generator can be mounted at ground level w
allowing easier servicing and a lighter weight, lower cost tower.
50
o
 Vertical-Axis Turbines
Advantages Disadvantages
• Omni-directional • Rotors generally near ground where wind
– accepts wind from any direction is poorer
• Components can be mounted at • Centrifugal force stresses blades
ground level • Poor self-starting capabilities
ve
to – ease of service • Requires support at top of turbine rotor
d – lighter weight towers • Requires entire rotor to be removed to
• Can theoretically use less materials to replace bearings
e capture the same amount of wind • Overall poor performance and reliability
is
e
Vertical-axis machines have blades that go from top to bottom and the most
a
is common type, the Darrieus wind turbine, looks like a giant, two-bladed
ft eggbeater. This type of vertical wind turbine typically is 100 feet tall and 50 feet
el wide. New design concepts come to market on a regular basis. They make up
only a very small percent of the wind turbines used today.
53
 Horizontal axis wind turbines
(HAWT)
Commonly found horizontal axis wind tu rbines are multi-blade
t ype, sail t ype and propeller t ype. Both the multi-blade and sail-
type wind turbines run at low speeds of 60 to 80 rpm. The
propeller type has two or three aerofoil blades and run at speeds of
300 to 400 rpm.

Multi blade type Sail type

51
 Comparing HWT and VWT
Param eter HW T VWT
e
- T ip s pe ed ratio Hig h a nd h enc e noi sy. Low a nd h enc e less noi sy.
e
f A ppli ca tio n
Large scale electricity
S m al l sca le electricity gene rat ion.
gene rat ion.

Yawing is required, a s Yawing is not required, a s HWTs

Yaw in g HWTs are de pend ent of are in depen dent of wind direction,
wind direction. bu t are affected by wind spe ed.

Torque Low. More at lower wind spe eds.

Easi er, a s heav y com pon en ts c an

Ma int en anc e Difficult . be located at th e groun d level.

More stable a nd h enc e

S tabi lity large sized t urbi nes c an be Less st able .
con stru ct ed.

54
 Performance of wind turbines
0.6
The tip-speed ratio is the ratio of
Propeller (2 blade)
the rotational spee d of the blade Cp 0.5
to the wind spe ed . The larger this Ideal rotor
0.4
ratio, the faster the rotation of
the wind turbine rotor at a given 0.3
Multi-blade
Darrieus
wind speed. Lift-type wind Savonius (3 blade)
turbines have ma ximum tip- 0.2
speed ratios of around 10, while 0.1
drag-type ratios are
approximately 1. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tip speed ratio
The coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of the power
delivered by the rotor, P, to the maximum power available, P t , in the
wind and is given by the following expression. P P
Cp = =
Pt 1
ρAV 3
2
It is seen that the values of tip speed for the multi-blade and Savo ni us
types are mu ch lower than the values for the propeller and the Darrieus
types. It is also seen that the highest values of C p are obtained with the
propeller type. 55
58
 Solar Wind Hybrid Energy
System s DC Load

d
Solar/Wind
Battery
controller
Solar panel
Inverter AC Load
(PV array)

Rectifier
Wind turbine
Solar-Wind hybrid energy systems

➢ S olar-wind hybrid energy system is the com bined power

generating system consisting of wind turbines and solar energy
panel. It also includes a battery which is used to store the energy
generated from both the sources.
➢ Using this system, power generation by wind turbines when wind
sou rce is available and generation from PV modu le when light
radiation is available can be achieved. B oth u nits can be
generated power when both sources are available. 56
 y
y

d
ht
e
59
57
60
61