Research Trends in Agriculture Science Volume I

(ISBN: 978-93-88901-65-9)

Editors
Ms. Sangeeta Dash Dr. A. L. Yadav
Department of Agri. Entomology, Department of Plant Pathology,

ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, College of Agriculture, SKRAU,

New Delhi Bikaner, Rajasthan

Dr. Reema Bora Dr. Amit Kumar Pandey

Department of Home Science, Department of Soil Science and

Barpeta Girls College, Agricultural Chemistry,

Barpeta, Assam Bihar Agricultural University,

Sabour, Bhagalpur

July 2023
First Edition: July, 2023
ISBN: 978-93-88901-65-9

© Copyright reserved by the Editor

Publication, Distribution and Promotion Rights reserved by Bhumi Publishing, Nigave Khalasa,
Kolhapur
Despite every effort, there may still be chances for some errors and omissions to have crept in
inadvertently.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,
mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
publishers.
The views and results expressed in various articles are those of the authors and not of editors or
publisher of the book.

Published by:
Bhumi Publishing,
Nigave Khalasa, Kolhapur 416207, Maharashtra, India
Website: www.bhumipublishing.com
E-mail: [email protected]
Book Available online at:
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 PREFACE

We are delighted to publish our book entitled "Research Trends in

Agricultural Science Volume I". This book is the compilation of esteemed articles of

acknowledged experts in the fields of basic and applied agricultural science.

The Indian as well as world population is ever increasing. Hence, it is

imperative to boost up agriculture production. This problem can be turned into

opportunity by developing skilled manpower to utilize the available resources for food

security. Agricultural research can meet this challenge. New technologies have to be

evolved and taken from lab to land for sustained yield. The present book on agriculture

is to serve as a source of information covering maximum aspects, which can help

understand the topics with eagerness to study further research. We developed this

digital book with the goal of helping people achieve that feeling of accomplishment.

The articles in the book have been contributed by eminent scientists,

academicians. Our special thanks and appreciation go to experts and research workers

whose contributions have enriched this book. We thank our publisher Bhumi

Publishing, India for taking pains in bringing out the book.

Finally, we will always remain a debtor to all our well-wishers for their

blessings, without which this book would not have come into existence.

Editors
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

1. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING IN 1 – 16
AGRICULTURE: TRANSFORMING FARMING SYSTEMS
Harshit Mishra and Divyanshi Mishra
2. WEATHER HAZARDS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPS 17 – 21
Devi Lal and Ram Niwas
3. GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION WITH RESPECT 22 – 35
TO VARIETAL STABILITY IN SUGARCANE
Divya Chaudhary, Anand Singh Jeena and Tabassum
4. CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA PLANT AND ITS USE IN THE 36 – 46
TEXTILE SECTOR
Reema Bora and Bulbul Baruah
5. CLIMATE CHANGE AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE 47 – 50
Devi Lal and Ram Niwas
6. CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON INDIAN AGRICULTURE 51 – 61
Rahul, M. L. Khichar, Amit Singh and Rohit Kumar
7. RESEARCH TRENDS IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE: 62 – 65
A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Praimathi A
8. ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA: ENVISION FOR A HEALTHY 66 – 75
NATION
Kadapa Sreenivasareddy, Kalwala Srikanth Reddy,
Gundreddy Rajareddy and Peace Raising Longshang
9. RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANISATION OF PRE-COCOON 76 – 83
SERICULTURAL ACTIVITIES
Sangeeta Dash
10. A SUSTAINABLE AND ECO-FRIENDLY ALTERNATIVE TO 84 – 103
TRADITIONAL PESTICIDES IN AGRICULTURAL CROPS
Swapan Kumar Chowdhury
11. DIGITALIZATION IN AGRICULTURE FOR INNOVATIVE 104 – 112
TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA
Sneh Yadav, Karan Ahlawat, Poonam Yadav and Narender Singh
12. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR BASIS FOR SALINITY 113 – 124
TOLERANCE IN RICE
Anil Jadhav, Amaregouda A, M. K Meena and Channabasava
13. HORTICULTURAL BIOSTIMULANTS 125 – 131
Parveen, Chetna, Deepak Sangwan,
Om Prakash Jiterwal and Ravi
14. ROLE OF JASMONIC ACID IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND 132 – 142
DEFENSE RESPONSE
Anil Jadhav, Shruti, Channabasava and V. C. Raghavendra
15. SEED: THE SYMBOL OF BEGINNING; SEED PRODUCTION AND 143 – 154
CERTIFICATION IN INDIA
Richa Bora and Priyabrat Hazarika
16. ORGANIC AGRICULTURE: PROMOTING HEALTH IN INDIA 155 – 160
Rajanigandha V. Gawande
17. BIOCHAR MEDIATED HEAVY METAL REMEDIATION FROM 161 – 168
SOIL
Sangya Singh and Shubham Singh
 Research Trends in Agriculture Science Volume I
(ISBN: 978-93-88901-65-9)

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING IN

AGRICULTURE: TRANSFORMING FARMING SYSTEMS
Harshit Mishra* and Divyanshi Mishra
Department of Agricultural Economics,
Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kumarganj, Ayodhya (U.P.) – 224 229, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
The agricultural sector is crucial for sustaining human civilization by providing food,
fiber, and raw materials. Technological advancements have revolutionized agriculture, with
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) playing a key role. This article provides
an overview of the agricultural sector and emphasizes the importance of technological
advancements in agriculture. It explores how AI and ML have transformed farming systems. The
agricultural sector encompasses crop production, animal husbandry, aquaculture, forestry, and
agribusiness. Technological advancements have become crucial to address challenges such as
limited resources, climate change, and population growth. The importance of technology in
agriculture is evident in increased productivity, precision agriculture, efficient resource
management, disease and pest management, and supply chain optimization. AI and ML
technologies have emerged as powerful tools in agriculture. They enable crop and soil
monitoring, precision farming, agricultural robotics, predictive analytics, livestock management,
and the use of agricultural drones. The integration of AI and ML holds promise for enhancing
productivity, reducing resource waste, promoting sustainability, and enabling data-driven
decision-making in the agricultural sector.
Keywords: Agricultural sector, artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), sustainability
and technological advancements.
1. Introduction:
The agricultural sector plays a vital role in providing food, fiber, and raw materials to
sustain human civilization. Over the years, advancements in technology have revolutionized
agriculture, leading to increased productivity, efficiency, and sustainability. One of the key
drivers of this transformation is the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) techniques in agricultural practices. In this article, we will provide an overview
of the agricultural sector, discuss the importance of technological advancements in agriculture,
and delve into the role of AI and ML in transforming farming systems.
1.1 Overview of the agricultural sector
The agricultural sector encompasses a wide range of activities involved in cultivating
crops, raising livestock, and producing other agricultural commodities. It is a multifaceted
industry that contributes to the overall economic growth of a nation and is crucial for ensuring
food security and nutrition. The sector includes various sub-sectors such as crop production,
animal husbandry, aquaculture, forestry, and agribusiness.

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Crop production involves the cultivation of plants for food, feed, fiber, or industrial
purposes. This includes the production of staple crops like wheat, rice, maize, and soybeans, as
well as specialty crops such as fruits, vegetables, and herbs. Animal husbandry focuses on the
rearing of livestock for meat, milk, eggs, and other products. Aquaculture involves the farming
of fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants in freshwater or marine environments. Forestry deals with
the sustainable management of forests and the production of timber, pulp, and other forest
products. Agribusiness encompasses the entire value chain of agricultural production,
processing, distribution, and marketing.
The agricultural sector is influenced by a range of factors, including climate, soil
conditions, water availability, market dynamics, and government policies. It faces numerous
challenges such as limited natural resources, climate change, population growth, and the need for
sustainable practices. To address these challenges and meet the growing demand for food,
technological advancements have become crucial.
1.2 Importance of technological advancements in agriculture
Technological advancements have played a pivotal role in the development and
improvement of agriculture throughout history. From simple tools like plows and sickles to the
adoption of modern machinery and equipment, agriculture has witnessed significant
transformations. In recent years, advancements in information technology, data analytics, and AI
have brought about a new era of innovation in agriculture. The importance of technological
advancements in agriculture can be seen in several areas:
▪ Increased productivity: Technology has enabled farmers to increase their productivity
by improving cultivation techniques, crop varieties, and animal breeds. Mechanization
has reduced manual labour, increased efficiency, and allowed for larger scale operations.
▪ Precision agriculture: Technology has enabled precision agriculture, which involves the
use of sensors, drones, and satellite imagery to monitor and manage crops with precision.
Farmers can collect data on soil moisture, nutrient levels, and crop health to optimize
resource allocation, reduce waste, and increase yields.
▪ Efficient resource management: Technology has facilitated efficient management of
key resources such as water and fertilizers. Irrigation systems can be automated based on
real-time data, minimizing water usage. Similarly, smart fertilization techniques can
deliver nutrients precisely where and when they are needed, minimizing environmental
impact.
▪ Disease and pest management: AI and ML techniques can analyse large volumes of
data to detect and predict disease outbreaks and pest infestations. Early detection allows
farmers to take proactive measures, reducing crop losses and the need for excessive
pesticide use.
▪ Supply chain optimization: Technology has improved logistics and supply chain
management in agriculture. From farm to fork, digital systems can track and trace
products, ensuring quality, safety, and timely delivery. This transparency benefits both
farmers and consumers.

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1.3 Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in agriculture
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies have emerged as
powerful tools in the agricultural sector, transforming farming systems and revolutionizing
traditional practices. AI refers to the development of computer systems that can perform tasks
that typically require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, and
decision-making. ML, a subset of AI, focuses on algorithms and statistical models that enable
computers to learn and improve from experience without explicit programming.
The application of AI and ML in agriculture is diverse and encompasses various areas:
▪ Crop and soil monitoring: AI and ML algorithms can analyse satellite imagery, drone
data, and sensor inputs to monitor crop growth, identify nutrient deficiencies, detect
diseases, and predict yield potential. This information enables farmers to make data-
driven decisions and take proactive measures to optimize crop performance.
▪ Precision farming: AI and ML techniques can create precise field maps, guiding farmers
in optimizing inputs such as irrigation, fertilization, and pesticide application. By
tailoring these practices to specific crop needs and growth patterns, farmers can
maximize resource efficiency and minimize environmental impact.
▪ Agricultural robotics: AI-powered robots can perform tasks such as planting,
harvesting, weeding, and monitoring crop health. These robots can navigate fields
autonomously, collect data, and execute actions based on predefined algorithms. This
reduces labour costs, increases efficiency, and enables round-the-clock monitoring.
▪ Predictive analytics: AI and ML models can analyse historical and real-time data to
make predictions about weather patterns, market trends, and crop performance. Farmers
can use these insights to make informed decisions regarding planting schedules, market
timing, and crop diversification.
▪ Livestock management: AI and ML techniques can be used to monitor animal health,
behaviour, and productivity. Sensors and wearable devices can collect data on parameters
such as temperature, heart rate, and milk production, enabling early disease detection and
timely intervention.
▪ Agricultural drones: Drones equipped with AI and ML capabilities can capture high-
resolution imagery and perform aerial surveys. This data can be used for crop monitoring,
mapping, and identifying areas of concern, providing farmers with actionable insights.
The integration of AI and ML in agriculture holds great promise for addressing the
challenges faced by the sector. It enhances productivity, reduces resource waste, promotes
sustainable practices, and enables farmers to make informed decisions based on data-driven
insights.
2. Fundamentals of AI and ML
2.1 Definition and Basic Concepts of AI and ML:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that focuses on creating
intelligent machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. AI
systems aim to mimic human cognitive abilities such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving,

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and decision-making. Machine Learning (ML) is a subset of AI that focuses on the development
of algorithms and models that enable computers to learn from data and make predictions or
decisions without being explicitly programmed. In AI and ML, the key concepts include:
▪ Data: Data is the foundation of AI and ML. It can be in various forms such as text,
images, audio, video, or structured data. The quality and quantity of data greatly impact
the performance and accuracy of AI and ML models.
▪ Training: ML models are trained on labeled or unlabeled data to learn patterns and
relationships. Training involves feeding the model with input data and corresponding
output or target values. The model then adjusts its internal parameters to minimize the
difference between predicted and actual values.
▪ Algorithms: ML algorithms are mathematical procedures that enable machines to learn
patterns from data. They provide the logic and rules for data processing, feature
extraction, pattern recognition, and prediction. Different types of algorithms are used
depending on the problem at hand.
▪ Supervised Learning: In supervised learning, the ML model learns from labeled data,
where the input data is associated with known output labels. The model generalizes from
this labeled data to make predictions on new, unseen data.
▪ Unsupervised Learning: Unsupervised learning involves training the model on
unlabeled data, where the input data does not have corresponding output labels. The
model explores the data to discover patterns, relationships, and structures on its own.
▪ Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement learning is an area of ML where an agent
learns to interact with an environment to maximize a reward signal. The agent learns by
trial and error, receiving feedback in the form of rewards or penalties based on its actions.
2.2. Types of Machine Learning Algorithms Commonly Used in Agriculture:
Machine learning algorithms have various applications in agriculture, contributing to
improved crop yield, disease detection, pest management, and precision agriculture. Some
commonly used ML algorithms in agriculture include:
▪ Decision Trees: Decision trees are tree-like structures that represent decisions and their
possible consequences. They are useful for tasks such as crop classification, disease
diagnosis, and yield prediction.
▪ Random Forests: Random forests combine multiple decision trees to create a more
robust and accurate model. They can handle large and complex datasets, making them
suitable for tasks like crop yield estimation and plant disease detection.
▪ Support Vector Machines (SVM): SVM is a powerful algorithm used for classification
and regression tasks. It separates data into different classes by finding an optimal
hyperplane in a high-dimensional space. SVMs can be applied to tasks such as weed
detection and crop classification.
▪ Neural Networks: Neural networks are computational models inspired by the human
brain. They consist of interconnected nodes (neurons) organized in layers. Deep

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Learning, a subset of neural networks, has been successful in image analysis tasks like
plant disease identification, yield prediction, and weed detection.
▪ K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN): KNN is a simple algorithm that classifies objects based
on their similarity to neighboring examples. It is useful for tasks such as crop disease
classification and weed identification.
▪ Gaussian Processes: Gaussian processes are probabilistic models that can be used for
regression and uncertainty estimation. They are beneficial in predicting crop yield, water
stress, and soil properties.
2.3. Data Collection and Preprocessing for AI and ML in Agriculture:
Data collection and preprocessing play a crucial role in the success of AI and ML
applications in agriculture. Here are the key steps involved:
1. Data Collection: Agricultural data can be collected from various sources such as sensors,
satellites, drones, and manual observations. This data may include climate information,
soil data, crop characteristics, disease symptoms, and yield records. Data collection
should ensure data quality, accuracy, and representativeness.
2. Data Cleaning: Raw agricultural data often contains errors, missing values, outliers, and
noise. Data cleaning involves removing or correcting errors, filling in missing values, and
handling outliers to ensure data integrity and consistency.
3. Feature Selection and Extraction: In many cases, the collected data may contain a large
number of features or variables. Feature selection involves identifying the most relevant
and informative features for the specific task at hand. Feature extraction techniques can
also be used to transform raw data into more meaningful representations.
4. Data Normalization: Data normalization involves scaling numerical features to a
standard range, such as between 0 and 1. This step is necessary to ensure that features
with different scales do not dominate the learning process.
5. Data Splitting: To evaluate the performance of ML models, the collected data is
typically divided into training, validation, and testing sets. The training set is used to train
the model, the validation set helps in tuning hyperparameters, and the testing set is used
to assess the model's performance on unseen data.
6. Handling Imbalanced Data: In agricultural datasets, class imbalances may exist, where
certain classes or conditions are underrepresented. Techniques like oversampling,
undersampling, or generating synthetic samples can be employed to address this issue
and prevent bias in the models.
7. Data Augmentation: Data augmentation techniques, such as image flipping, rotation, or
adding noise, can be used to artificially increase the size of the dataset. This helps to
improve the generalization and robustness of ML models, especially in image-based
tasks.
By following these steps, researchers and practitioners can ensure that the data used for
AI and ML in agriculture is of high quality, properly processed, and ready for training accurate
and reliable models.

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3. AI and ML Applications in Crop Production

3.1. Precision farming and site-specific crop management:
AI and machine learning (ML) are revolutionizing crop production through precision
farming and site-specific crop management techniques. These technologies enable farmers to
optimize their agricultural practices by collecting and analysing vast amounts of data about their
fields. AI and ML algorithms can process data obtained from various sources, such as satellite
imagery, drones, weather stations, soil sensors, and crop sensors. By integrating this data,
farmers can gain insights into the variability of their fields, including soil composition, moisture
levels, and nutrient content.
With this information, AI algorithms can generate precise and customized
recommendations for farmers, such as optimal planting times, seed varieties, fertilizer
application rates, and irrigation schedules. By tailoring these practices to specific areas within a
field, farmers can maximize yields while minimizing resource wastage.
3.2. Crop yield prediction and optimization:
AI and ML techniques play a crucial role in predicting and optimizing crop yields. By
analysing historical and real-time data, including weather patterns, soil conditions, and crop
growth stages, algorithms can generate accurate predictions of crop yields. These predictive
models take into account various factors that influence crop productivity, such as temperature,
rainfall, sunlight, nutrient availability, and pest infestations. By understanding these
relationships, farmers can make informed decisions regarding the application of fertilizers,
pesticides, and other inputs to maximize yields.
Additionally, AI algorithms can optimize crop yield by recommending optimal planting
densities, crop rotations, and intercropping strategies. By analysing large datasets and
considering multiple variables, such as soil health, climate patterns, and market demand,
algorithms can identify the most effective cultivation techniques for specific crops.
3.3. Weed detection and management:
Weed control is a critical aspect of crop production, as weeds compete with crops for
nutrients, water, and sunlight. AI and ML applications offer efficient and accurate methods for
weed detection and management. Using computer vision techniques, AI algorithms can analyse
images of fields captured by drones or cameras mounted on agricultural machinery. These
algorithms can identify and differentiate between crops and weeds, enabling farmers to target
weed-infested areas precisely.
Once weeds are detected, AI-powered robotic systems can autonomously apply
herbicides or use non-chemical methods, such as mechanical weeding or targeted laser treatment,
to eliminate them. This reduces the reliance on broad-spectrum herbicides and minimizes their
impact on the environment.
3.4. Disease and pest detection and control:
Early detection and control of diseases and pests are crucial for preventing significant
crop losses. AI and ML technologies assist farmers in identifying and managing these threats
efficiently. Using image recognition algorithms, AI can detect visual symptoms of diseases or

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pest infestations by analysing images of leaves, stems, or fruits. ML models trained on extensive
datasets can accurately identify specific pathogens or pests and provide recommendations for
appropriate treatments.
Moreover, AI algorithms can integrate data from various sources, such as weather
conditions, historical disease patterns, and pest life cycles, to predict disease outbreaks or pest
infestations. This enables farmers to take proactive measures, such as targeted spraying or the
release of beneficial insects, to prevent or control the spread of diseases and pests.
3.5. Crop quality assessment and grading:
AI and ML technologies contribute to assessing and grading crop quality, ensuring
consistency and efficiency in the agricultural supply chain. Computer vision algorithms can
analyse images of harvested crops, grading them based on parameters such as size, colour, shape,
and defects. By automating this process, AI systems eliminate human subjectivity and increase
the speed and accuracy of crop quality assessment.
Crop quality assessment also extends to factors like sugar content, moisture levels, and
nutritional value. ML models can correlate these parameters with environmental and cultivation
data, providing insights into the factors that impact crop quality. This information enables
farmers to adjust in their cultivation practices to improve the quality of their crops.
3.6. Irrigation and water management:
Efficient water management is essential for sustainable crop production, particularly in
water-scarce regions. AI and ML applications aid in optimizing irrigation practices and
conserving water resources. By analysing data from soil moisture sensors, weather forecasts, and
crop water requirements, AI algorithms can generate precise irrigation schedules tailored to
specific field conditions. These schedules ensure that crops receive adequate water without
excessive usage, preventing water stress and optimizing water usage efficiency.
ML models can also learn from historical data and identify patterns to predict water
demand accurately. This enables farmers to plan irrigation activities, optimize water allocation,
and reduce water wastage.
3.7. Harvesting and post-harvest handling:
AI and ML technologies are transforming the harvesting and post-harvest handling
processes by improving efficiency and reducing losses. Robotic systems equipped with AI vision
algorithms can autonomously identify and harvest mature crops with precision and speed. These
systems can assess factors such as colour, size, and ripeness to determine the optimal time for
harvest, minimizing yield losses and ensuring consistent crop quality.
Furthermore, AI algorithms can optimize the logistics of post-harvest handling, including
sorting, grading, and packaging. Computer vision systems can rapidly analyse the quality of
harvested crops, sort them according to predetermined criteria, and facilitate appropriate
packaging and storage methods. This streamlines the supply chain, reduces post-harvest losses,
and enhances the shelf life and market value of crops.

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4. AI and ML Applications in Livestock Production

AI and ML (Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning) applications have made
significant advancements in various industries, including livestock production. These
technologies offer valuable insights and innovative solutions to enhance animal health, improve
productivity, and optimize management practices. Let's explore in detail the applications of AI
and ML in livestock production.
4.1. Animal health monitoring and disease detection:
One of the crucial aspects of livestock production is ensuring the health and well-being of
the animals. AI and ML techniques have proven to be effective in monitoring animal health and
detecting diseases early on. By analysing large volumes of data, including sensor readings, vital
signs, and behavioural patterns, AI systems can identify abnormal patterns or symptoms that may
indicate the presence of a disease or health issue. This early detection enables timely intervention
and treatment, reducing the risk of spreading diseases within the herd and minimizing economic
losses.
AI and ML algorithms can also aid in diagnosing specific diseases. By training models on
extensive datasets of clinical records, labouratory results, and imaging data, these algorithms can
recognize patterns and indicators that human experts might miss. This capability can help
veterinarians make accurate diagnoses and develop appropriate treatment plans, improving
overall animal health outcomes.
4.2. Precision livestock farming and individual animal management:
Precision livestock farming aims to optimize management practices by treating animals
as individuals rather than a homogeneous group. AI and ML technologies play a crucial role in
this context by enabling individual animal management and personalized care.
Using wearable devices and sensors, such as GPS trackers, accelerometers, and
temperature sensors, data about each animal's behaviour, location, activity levels, and
physiological parameters can be collected in real-time. AI algorithms can then process this data
to generate insights about individual animals' needs and well-being. For example, they can detect
estrus or heat in breeding animals, monitor feeding behaviour and consumption patterns, identify
lameness or injury, and predict optimal times for insemination or medication administration.
Such information allows farmers to make data-driven decisions and take proactive
measures to address specific animal requirements promptly. This level of individualized
management not only improves animal welfare but also enhances production efficiency and
reduces costs.
4.3. Feed formulation and optimization:
Feed is a significant cost factor in livestock production. AI and ML techniques can help
optimize feed formulation to improve the nutritional balance, reduce waste, and enhance animal
performance. By analysing the nutritional requirements of different livestock species, growth
stages, and production goals, AI systems can suggest optimal feed compositions and ingredient
combinations. These systems consider factors such as energy content, protein content,
digestibility, and nutrient absorption rates to develop precise and cost-effective feed formulas.

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Furthermore, AI can leverage real-time data on animal health, growth rates, and
environmental conditions to dynamically adjust feed formulations. By continuously monitoring
and analysing data, these systems can fine-tune feed rations to ensure optimal nutrition for each
animal or group of animals. This approach maximizes feed efficiency, minimizes nutrient
wastage, and improves overall productivity.
4.4. Livestock behaviour analysis and welfare monitoring:
Understanding livestock behaviour and ensuring their welfare is essential for sustainable
and ethical livestock production. AI and ML techniques can analyse sensor data and video feeds
to monitor and interpret animal behaviour patterns. For instance, computer vision algorithms can
analyse video footage from barns or pastures to detect abnormal behaviour, such as aggression,
lameness, or signs of distress. By automatically flagging these behaviours, farmers or caretakers
can intervene promptly and address potential issues before they escalate.
Moreover, AI can analyse vocalizations or acoustic signals produced by animals to
identify distress calls, pain indicators, or signs of illness. By continuously monitoring these
signals, AI systems can provide early warnings and trigger appropriate actions, contributing to
improved animal welfare and reduced suffering.
5. AI and ML in Agricultural Robotics and Automation
5.1. Role of AI and ML in Agricultural Robotics:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have revolutionized various
industries, and agriculture is no exception. In the context of agricultural robotics, AI and ML
play crucial roles in enhancing automation, precision, and efficiency in farming operations.
These technologies enable robots and autonomous systems to perceive and interact with the
agricultural environment, make informed decisions, and perform tasks with minimal human
intervention.
AI and ML algorithms empower agricultural robots to analyse vast amounts of data
collected from sensors, cameras, and other sources, enabling them to identify and respond to
complex patterns and changes in the field. These technologies can process data related to soil
conditions, weather patterns, crop growth, and pest infestations, among others, to make real-time
decisions and optimize farming practices. By integrating AI and ML capabilities into agricultural
robotics, farmers can improve crop yields, reduce costs, minimize resource wastage, and make
data-driven decisions for sustainable and efficient farming.
5.2. Robotic Applications in Field Operations:
▪ Planting: AI and ML algorithms can analyse soil and weather data to determine optimal
planting patterns, seed spacing, and planting depth. Robots equipped with precision
planting mechanisms can autonomously plant seeds with high accuracy, ensuring
uniformity and maximizing crop yield.
▪ Spraying: Agricultural robots equipped with AI and ML capabilities can identify and
differentiate between crops and weeds. They can use this information to apply herbicides
or pesticides only where necessary, reducing chemical usage and minimizing
environmental impact.

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▪ Harvesting: Harvesting is a labour-intensive and time-sensitive task. AI and ML-enabled

robots can accurately detect ripeness indicators such as color, size, and texture, enabling
them to selectively harvest crops at the right time. This reduces waste and improves
efficiency in the harvesting process.
▪ Weeding: AI and ML algorithms can be used to identify and classify weeds in real-time.
Robots equipped with weed detection systems can precisely target and remove weeds,
reducing the need for herbicides and manual labour.
5.3. Automation in Farm Management and Monitoring Systems:
▪ Crop Monitoring: AI and ML technologies can analyse remote sensing data, satellite
imagery, and drone footage to monitor crop health, growth rates, and detect early signs of
diseases or nutrient deficiencies. This allows farmers to take proactive measures,
optimize irrigation and fertilization schedules, and improve overall crop management.
▪ Irrigation Management: AI and ML algorithms can analyse soil moisture data, weather
conditions, and crop water requirements to optimize irrigation scheduling. By automating
irrigation systems based on real-time data, farmers can ensure efficient water usage and
prevent under or over-irrigation.
▪ Pest and Disease Management: AI and ML can assist in early pest detection and disease
diagnosis. By analysing data from various sources, including images and sensor data,
robots can identify signs of pest infestations or diseases and alert farmers. This allows for
timely intervention and targeted treatment, minimizing crop losses.
▪ Equipment Monitoring and Maintenance: AI and ML can enable predictive
maintenance of farm machinery and equipment. By analysing sensor data and historical
performance, algorithms can predict equipment failures, schedule maintenance tasks, and
prevent breakdowns. This helps reduce downtime and increases the lifespan of the
machinery.
6. Challenges and Limitations
6.1. Data Quality and Availability:
One of the major challenges in the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) in agriculture is the quality and availability of data. Agriculture is a complex
domain with numerous variables and factors that influence crop growth, such as weather
conditions, soil composition, pest and disease prevalence, and crop management practices. In
order to build accurate and reliable AI and ML models, large volumes of high-quality data are
required.
However, obtaining such data can be challenging in agriculture. There may be limited
historical data available for certain regions or crops, making it difficult to train models
effectively. Additionally, data collection and storage infrastructure in rural areas can be
inadequate, resulting in data gaps and inconsistencies. The quality of the collected data may
vary, as it can be affected by measurement errors or biases. Moreover, data from different
sources may have varying formats and standards, making integration and analysis complex.

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6.2. Technical Barriers and Adoption Challenges:
The successful implementation of AI and ML in agriculture also faces several technical
barriers and adoption challenges. One of the primary technical barriers is the lack of
computational resources in many agricultural settings, particularly in remote or underdeveloped
regions. AI and ML algorithms often require substantial computing power and storage
capabilities, which may not be readily available in such areas.
Furthermore, the complexity of AI and ML algorithms can present a challenge for
farmers and agricultural professionals who may not have advanced technical knowledge or
access to experts in the field. Training and education initiatives are necessary to bridge this
knowledge gap and ensure effective utilization of AI and ML technologies. Moreover, the cost of
adopting AI and ML technologies can be a significant hurdle for small-scale farmers or resource-
constrained agricultural communities. The initial investment in hardware, software, and
infrastructure can be prohibitive, making it difficult for these stakeholders to adopt and benefit
from these technologies. It is crucial to develop affordable and accessible solutions that cater to
the needs of diverse farming communities.
6.3. Ethical Considerations and Data Privacy in AI and ML in Agriculture:
The deployment of AI and ML in agriculture raises ethical considerations and data privacy
concerns. Agriculture involves sensitive data, including farmers' personal information, farm
management practices, and proprietary agricultural knowledge. Collecting and analysing such
data using AI and ML technologies can raise questions about data ownership, consent, and
privacy. There is a need to establish robust frameworks and regulations to protect farmers' data
and ensure its responsible and ethical use. Data sharing agreements and policies should be
implemented to define the rights and responsibilities of stakeholders involved in data collection,
storage, and analysis. Safeguards must be put in place to prevent unauthorized access, data
breaches, or misuse of farmers' data.
Additionally, AI and ML algorithms should be transparent and explainable to build trust
among farmers and agricultural practitioners. It is essential to ensure that AI systems do not
perpetuate bias or discrimination and that decision-making processes are fair and accountable.
Ethical considerations, such as the potential impact on livelihoods and social equity, should also
be considered when designing and deploying AI and ML solutions in agriculture.
7. Future Perspectives and Emerging Trends
7.1. Advances in AI and ML for sustainable agriculture:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have the potential to
revolutionize the field of agriculture, making it more sustainable, efficient, and productive. Here
are some key advances in AI and ML that are shaping the future of agriculture:
▪ Precision Farming: AI and ML algorithms can analyse vast amounts of data from
various sources such as satellite imagery, weather patterns, soil conditions, and crop
health sensors. This enables farmers to make data-driven decisions about irrigation,
fertilization, pest control, and optimal planting and harvesting times. Precision farming
minimizes resource wastage, maximizes crop yields, and reduces environmental impact.

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▪ Crop Monitoring and Disease Detection: AI and ML can analyse images captured by
drones, satellites, or sensors to monitor crop health, detect diseases, pests, or nutrient
deficiencies. By identifying potential issues at an early stage, farmers can take preventive
measures, reducing crop losses and the need for excessive pesticide or fertilizer usage.
▪ Weed and Pest Control: AI-powered systems can distinguish between crops and weeds,
enabling precise targeting of herbicides. ML algorithms can identify patterns in pest
behaviour and help develop effective pest management strategies. This reduces the
reliance on harmful chemicals and promotes sustainable farming practices.
▪ Agricultural Robotics: AI and ML are transforming agriculture with the use of robots.
Autonomous robots equipped with computer vision and ML algorithms can perform tasks
such as seeding, planting, weeding, and harvesting with high precision and efficiency.
This reduces labour costs, increases productivity, and improves overall farm
management.
▪ Crop Yield Prediction: By analysing historical and real-time data, AI and ML
algorithms can predict crop yields with high accuracy. This information helps farmers in
planning logistics, estimating future production, and optimizing supply chains. Accurate
yield predictions contribute to better decision-making and resource allocation.
7.2. Integration of AI and ML with other emerging technologies:
To further enhance the potential of AI and ML in agriculture, integration with other emerging
technologies is gaining traction. Two such technologies are blockchain and edge computing:
▪ Blockchain: Blockchain technology provides transparency, immutability, and security in
data management. By integrating AI and ML with blockchain, farmers can securely store
and share agricultural data, including supply chain information, crop production history,
and quality certifications. This ensures traceability, prevents fraud, and builds trust
among consumers.
▪ Edge Computing: Edge computing involves processing data closer to its source,
reducing latency and dependence on cloud infrastructure. In agriculture, AI and ML
algorithms can be deployed on edge devices such as sensors, drones, and farm machinery.
This enables real-time analysis of data, facilitating prompt decision-making, and reducing
the need for continuous internet connectivity.
7.3. Potential impact of AI and ML on global food security:
AI and ML have the potential to address global food security challenges by improving
agricultural productivity and sustainability:
▪ Increased Crop Yields: AI and ML algorithms enable farmers to optimize inputs,
manage resources efficiently, and predict crop yields accurately. By maximizing
productivity, these technologies contribute to meeting the increasing demand for food due
to population growth.
▪ Resource Optimization: AI and ML algorithms aid in optimizing the use of resources
such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides. Precision farming techniques minimize resource
wastage, reduce environmental impact, and ensure sustainable agricultural practices.

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▪ Early Disease Detection and Prevention: AI and ML systems can detect crop diseases,
pests, and nutrient deficiencies at early stages. Early detection allows farmers to take
timely action, preventing the spread of diseases and minimizing crop losses.
▪ Climate Resilience: AI and ML algorithms can analyse historical climate data and
predict weather patterns. This information helps farmers adapt their cultivation practices
and make informed decisions in the face of climate change, ensuring the resilience of
agricultural systems.
▪ Improved Supply Chain Management: By integrating AI and ML with supply chain
management systems, the traceability and transparency of food products can be
enhanced. This helps identify and address inefficiencies, reduce food waste, and improve
the overall efficiency of the food supply chain.
Conclusion:
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies
in agriculture has emerged as a transformative force, revolutionizing the way farming and related
practices are conducted. The advancements in AI and ML have enabled farmers and agricultural
stakeholders to make more informed decisions, optimize resource allocation, increase
productivity, and promote sustainable practices. One of the key benefits of AI and ML in
agriculture is the ability to gather, process, and analyse vast amounts of data from various
sources, such as weather patterns, soil conditions, crop health, and market trends. This data-
driven approach empowers farmers to make real-time decisions and take proactive measures to
mitigate risks, maximize yields, and minimize environmental impact. By leveraging AI and ML
algorithms, farmers can accurately predict weather patterns, identify disease outbreaks, optimize
irrigation schedules, and efficiently manage crop rotation strategies.
Furthermore, AI and ML have played a crucial role in precision agriculture, allowing
farmers to tailor their approaches to specific areas of their fields. Through the use of sensors,
drones, and satellite imagery, these technologies can provide detailed information on soil quality,
moisture levels, and nutrient deficiencies, enabling farmers to apply fertilizers and pesticides
with precision, reducing waste and costs. This targeted approach not only enhances crop health
but also reduces the environmental footprint associated with traditional agricultural practices.
The integration of AI and ML also extends to farm machinery and automation. Intelligent robots
and autonomous vehicles equipped with AI algorithms can perform a range of tasks, from
seeding and planting to harvesting and sorting crops. These advancements in automation not only
streamline labour-intensive processes but also increase efficiency and reduce the dependency on
manual labour. Farmers can focus on higher-value tasks such as data analysis, decision-making,
and innovation, ultimately leading to increased profitability and sustainability.
However, while the potential of AI and ML in agriculture is vast, there are still
challenges to overcome. Issues such as data privacy, access to reliable internet connectivity in
rural areas, and the digital divide must be addressed to ensure equitable adoption of these
technologies. Additionally, there is a need for continuous research and development to improve
algorithms, enhance data accuracy, and build trust among farmers and stakeholders. In short,

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Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning have the potential to revolutionize the agriculture
sector, promoting sustainable practices, optimizing resource utilization, and increasing
productivity. By harnessing the power of data-driven insights and automation, farmers can make
more informed decisions, mitigate risks, and contribute to a more efficient and environmentally
friendly food production system. With ongoing advancements and collaborative efforts, AI and
ML will continue to play a crucial role in shaping the future of agriculture, enabling us to address
global food security challenges and build a more sustainable future.
References:
1. Ahmad, L., & Nabi, F. (2021). Agriculture 5.0: Artificial Intelligence, IoT and Machine
Learning. CRC Press.
2. Ancín, M., Pindado, E., & Sánchez, M. (2022). New trends in the global digital
transformation process of the agri-food sector: An exploratory study based on
Twitter. Agricultural Systems, 203, 103520.
3. Benos, L., Tagarakis, A. C., Dolias, G., Berruto, R., Kateris, D., & Bochtis, D. (2021).
Machine learning in agriculture: A comprehensive updated review. Sensors, 21(11), 3758.
4. Bu, F., & Wang, X. (2019). A smart agriculture IoT system based on deep reinforcement
learning. Future Generation Computer Systems, 99, 500-507.
5. Camarena, S. (2020). Artificial intelligence in the design of the transitions to sustainable
food systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 271, 122574.
6. Chien, C. F., Dauzère-Pérès, S., Huh, W. T., Jang, Y. J., & Morrison, J. R. (2020).
Artificial intelligence in manufacturing and logistics systems: algorithms, applications, and
case studies. International Journal of Production Research, 58(9), 2730-2731.
7. Cioffi, R., Travaglioni, M., Piscitelli, G., Petrillo, A., & De Felice, F. (2020). Artificial
intelligence and machine learning applications in smart production: Progress, trends, and
directions. Sustainability, 12(2), 492.
8. Eli-Chukwu, N. C. (2019). Applications of artificial intelligence in agriculture: A
review. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, 9(4), 4377-4383.
9. Fountas, S., Espejo-Garcia, B., Kasimati, A., Mylonas, N., & Darra, N. (2020). The future
of digital agriculture: technologies and opportunities. IT professional, 22(1), 24-28.
10. Ganeshkumar, C., David, A., & Jebasingh, D. R. (2022). Digital transformation: artificial
intelligence based product benefits and problems of Agritech industry. In Agri-Food 4.0.
Emerald Publishing Limited.
11. Ganeshkumar, C., Jena, S. K., Sivakumar, A., & Nambirajan, T. (2023). Artificial
intelligence in agricultural value chain: review and future directions. Journal of
Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies, 13(3), 379-398.
12. Gwagwa, A., Kazim, E., Kachidza, P., Hilliard, A., Siminyu, K., Smith, M., & Shawe-
Taylor, J. (2021). Road map for research on responsible artificial intelligence for
development (AI4D) in African countries: The case study of agriculture. Patterns, 2(12),
100381.

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13. Javaid, M., Haleem, A., Khan, I. H., & Suman, R. (2023). Understanding the potential
applications of Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture Sector. Advanced Agrochem, 2(1), 15-
30.
14. Khan, N., Ray, R. L., Kassem, H. S., Hussain, S., Zhang, S., Khayyam, M., Ihtisham, M.,
& Asongu, S. A. (2021). Potential role of technology innovation in transformation of
sustainable food systems: A review. Agriculture, 11(10), 984.
15. Klerkx, L., & Rose, D. (2020). Dealing with the game-changing technologies of
Agriculture 4.0: How do we manage diversity and responsibility in food system transition
pathways?. Global Food Security, 24, 100347.
16. Liakos, K. G., Busato, P., Moshou, D., Pearson, S., & Bochtis, D. (2018). Machine
learning in agriculture: A review. Sensors, 18(8), 2674.
17. Mahmood, M. R., Matin, M. A., Sarigiannidis, P., & Goudos, S. K. (2022). A
comprehensive review on artificial intelligence/machine learning algorithms for
empowering the future IoT toward 6G era. IEEE Access, 10, 87535-87562.
18. Marinoudi, V., Sørensen, C. G., Pearson, S., & Bochtis, D. (2019). Robotics and labour in
agriculture. A context consideration. Biosystems Engineering, 184, 111-121.
19. Mhlanga, D. (2021). Financial inclusion in emerging economies: The application of
machine learning and artificial intelligence in credit risk assessment. International Journal
of Financial Studies, 9(3), 39.
20. Monteiro, J., & Barata, J. (2021). Artificial intelligence in extended agri-food supply chain:
A short review based on bibliometric analysis. Procedia Computer Science, 192, 3020-
3029.
21. Nakaguchi, V. M., & Ahamed, T. (2023). Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture:
Commitment to Establish Society 5.0: An Analytical Concepts Mapping for Deep Learning
Application. In IoT and AI in Agriculture: Self-sufficiency in Food Production to Achieve
Society 5.0 and SDG's Globally (pp. 133-152). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
22. Pallathadka, H., Mustafa, M., Sanchez, D. T., Sajja, G. S., Gour, S., & Naved, M. (2023).
Impact of machine learning on management, healthcare and agriculture. Materials Today:
Proceedings, 80, 2803-2806.
23. Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Zailani, S., Keogh, J. G., & Appolloni, A. (2022). Examining the
interplay between artificial intelligence and the agri-food industry. Artificial Intelligence in
Agriculture.
24. Ruiz-Real, J. L., Uribe-Toril, J., Torres Arriaza, J. A., & de Pablo Valenciano, J. (2020). A
look at the past, present and future research trends of artificial intelligence in
agriculture. Agronomy, 10(11), 1839.
25. Sanders, C. E., Mayfield-Smith, K. A., & Lamm, A. J. (2021). Exploring Twitter discourse
around the use of artificial intelligence to advance agricultural
sustainability. Sustainability, 13(21), 12033.

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26. Shaikh, T. A., Rasool, T., & Lone, F. R. (2022). Towards leveraging the role of machine
learning and artificial intelligence in precision agriculture and smart farming. Computers
and Electronics in Agriculture, 198, 107119.
27. Sharma, R., Kamble, S. S., Gunasekaran, A., Kumar, V., & Kumar, A. (2020). A
systematic literature review on machine learning applications for sustainable agriculture
supply chain performance. Computers & Operations Research, 119, 104926.
28. Singh, G., Singh, A., & Kaur, G. (2021). Role of artificial intelligence and the internet of
things in agriculture. In Artificial Intelligence to Solve Pervasive Internet of Things
Issues (pp. 317-330). Academic Press.
29. Smith, M. J. (2018). Getting value from artificial intelligence in agriculture. Animal
Production Science, 60(1), 46-54.
30. Subeesh, A., & Mehta, C. R. (2021). Automation and digitization of agriculture using
artificial intelligence and internet of things. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture, 5, 278-
291.
31. Talaviya, T., Shah, D., Patel, N., Yagnik, H., & Shah, M. (2020). Implementation of
artificial intelligence in agriculture for optimisation of irrigation and application of
pesticides and herbicides. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture, 4, 58-73.

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WEATHER HAZARDS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPS

Devi Lal*1 and Ram Niwas2
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Bhiwani, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
2
CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Weather Hazards has been subjected to natural disasters over which have little control.
The weather hazards i.e. frost, high temperature, droughts, storms, Tornadoes, lightning,
Blizzard, earth quack and tsunami waves. In dealing with weather hazards, meteorological
information are used to predict their occurrence rather than to prevent them.
➢ Frost
Frost refers to the white ice crystals that condensate on the ground or objects when the air
temperature near the earth’s surface drops below the frost point (the dew point is lower
than 0 ◦C) under the influence of ground radiation cooling. Cold advection is more
deleterious in winter season because it cause typical hazards when the field crops are in
their seedling stage. Frost generally forms and develops under cold and wet conditions.
Frost is very common in middle and high latitudes. Frost is more dangers for vegetable
(tomato, potato) crops. Crops in North West India frost incident of moderate to severe
intensity.
Present time technologies and methods related to frost detection continue to appear, but
there has never been a relatively mature program suitable for the detection of frosting leaf
surfaces. In addition, the difficulty of frost detection is also the main reason for the
inefficiency of frost protection, especially in agriculture [
Protection: The temperature of the plants is increases with increasing of soil
temperature. The soil temperature can be increased through giving the irrigation to the
crops.
1. Covering the nursery plants with mulch/plastic sheet.
2. Sprinkling irrigation also increased the temperature of the air.

(a) (b)

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➢ High temperature: High temperature effect more observed in summer season many
parts of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Prolonged high temperature conditions can
lead to heat wave conditions chiefly heat wave conditions can occur during the months of
April, May and even June.High temperature conditions occur in the tropical areas during
summer season if the maximum and minimum temperature remains above normal for a
few days, than excessive thermal energy accumulates which decreases the relative
humidity.
Protection: The crops can be protected through the irrigations. For long term protection
can be protected by Shelter belts, they can be minimise the high temperature effect on
crop plants.
Drought: Occurring the drought conditions where soil moisture is not sufficient to meet of
potential evapotranspiration. In these areas high evapotranspiration compare to rainfall,
results failure of crop due to low moistures in soil. Generally occurring of droughts when
supply of soil moisture from rainfall and stored water is insufficient to fulfil the demand
of crop plants. The initial effect of drought on the plants is the poor germination and
impaired seedling establishment. Various studies have reported the negative impacts of
drought stress on germination and seedling growth (Kaya et al., 2006; Farooq et al.,
2009b).
Types of droughts: Major four type of drought- (1) Permanent drought (2) Seasonal drought (3)
Contingent drought (4) Invisible drought
(1) Permanent drought: This type of drought is found in desert areas where always soil
moisture is low due to less rainfall and plants not completed their water demands. In this
conditions evapotranspiration always higher compare to rainfall and crop is not possible
without the irrigation.
(2) Seasonal drought: This type of drought occurs in those areas where well defined of dry
and rainy season. Before the rainy season some period is dry in which irrigation is
required for the growing of crops.
(3) Contingent drought: Contingent drought occurs in humid and sub humid region where
erratic rainfall is received. Before and after of erratic and variable rainfall during dry
spell the crop needs water demand.
(4) Invisible drought: This type of drought is not easily identified because its can be occur
at any time. Invisible drought where daily supply of moisture to is not equal to
requirements of the plants. The agriculture point of view it’s very important because
ignores of this farmers bears the great loss of production.
➢ Floods: Receiving of heavy rainfall in short period due to pooling of water in the field
damage of crops. The floods cause a greater loss of agriculture and other properties.
The floods occurring to intense rainfall in a short time a large amount of water is
precipitated in small areas. In such conditions the precipitation rate is much higher than
infiltration rate due to this water is standing on field so growth rate is affected.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

➢ Stroms: Mainly three types of stroms- (a) Tropical Stroms (b) Hail stroms (c) Dust stroms
(a) Tropical Stroms: its known as a thunder stroms also, this type of stroms is most
destructive. In which unstable air and strong motions that produce cumulonimbus clouds.
They release latent heat of condensation in the rising of humid air (critchfield, 2002). The
tropical stroms occurring in ocean where the sea surface temperature exceeds 260C, due
to higher temperature created low pressure area and winds changes into cyclonic
circulation. Low pressure area gets intensified into a depression due to the availability of
abundant water vapour and later pressure decreases rapidly and depression changes into
cyclone. Mostly these type of stroms occurring in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
(b) Hail Stroms: This type of stroms develop from cumulonimbus clouds and it’s connected
with thunder Stroms. The hail stroms mostly occur in the month of March- April, due to
this have a great loss to wheat crop every year.
(c) Dust stroms: It occurring in summer season when the atmospheric pressure may decrease
suddenly, in this area the winds coming to travel 100 km/hr or more than 100 km/hr. In
these conditions the trees and electrical poles are uprooted.

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➢ Tornadoes and Water Spouts:

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending from the base of a thunderstorm down
to the ground. Tornadoes are capable of completely destroying well-made structures,
uprooting trees, and hurling objects through the air like deadly missiles. Tornadoes can occur
at any time of day or night and at any time of the year. The diameter of chimney vary from 10
to 100 meter or 1 to 2 km. Tornadoes associated with cumulonimbus clouds and its extended
downward from the base of cloud in the form of chimney. When tornadoes touches to water
body it’s called water spouts.
➢ Lightning: It’s natural calamity and associated with cumulonimbus cloud, this cloud
extended vertically up to 16km height above the surface. Lightning created due to potential
differences in charge between cloud and earth surface, resulting giant sparkle is generated.
Sometimes a lightning may hit to trees or building on the surface.
➢ Blizzards: This type of weather hazards occurring in high latitude in which combination of
very low temperature and very strong winds with snow is known as blizzard. Due to this
cause heavy loss to agriculture and associated property.
➢ Earthquakes and Tsunami waves: Due to the movement of seismic plates crates the
Earthquakes. Most of the parts of our country comes in moderate to severe intensity and
reasons of its development are- fracturing of rocks, volcanicity and faulting, initiation of new
faults is responsible for seismicity. As many as 80% of the earthquakes in the world occur in
pacific plate and about 15% along Himalayan alpine belt.
➢ Tsunami waves: Due to the earthquake change the level of ocean and rising and lowering
substantially and create a large disturbances in ocean. The size and energy of disturbances
depends on the magnitude of the earth quake.
References:
1. Atam, E.; Hong, S.W.; Arteconi, A. (2020). Thermofluid Modelling of Large-Scale
Orchards for Optimal Design and Control of Active Frost Prevention Systems. Energies,
13, 378.
2. Critchfield, H.J. (2002). General climatology. Prentice-hall of India private Limited, New
Delhi.
3. Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Kobayashi, N., Fujita, D., and Basra, S. M. A. (2009). Plant
drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 29, 185–212.
doi: 10.1051/agro:2008021

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4. Huschke, R. E. (1959). Glossary of Meteorology; American Meteorological Society:
Boston, MA, USA, pp. 638.
5. Kaya, M. D., Okcub, G., Ataka, M., Cikilic, Y., and Kolsaricia, O. (2006). Seed treatments
to overcome salt and drought stress during germination in sunflower (Helianthus annuus
L.). Eur. J. Agron. 24, 291–295. doi: 10.1016/j.eja.2005.08.001.
6. Mahi and Kingra (2013). Fundamentals of Agrometeorology: Vol-2.
7. Pakkish, Z., Tabatabaienia, M. (2016). The use and mechanism of NO to prevent frost
damage to flower of apricot. Sci. Hortic., 198, 318–325.
8. Sheng, W.; Liu, P.; Dang, C.; Liu, G. (2017). Review of restraint frost method on cold
surface. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 79, 806–813.
9. Szalay, L.; Gyrgy, Z.; Tth, M. (2019). Frost hardiness of apple (Malus X domestica)
flowers in different phenological phases. Sci. Hortic., 253, 309–315.

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GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION WITH RESPECT TO

VARIETAL STABILITY IN SUGARCANE
Divya Chaudhary*, Anand Singh Jeena and Tabassum
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar-263145 (India)
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
The performance of sugarcane genotypes varied under different environmental conditions
as a result of GE interactions. GE interaction impacts the selection and formulation of breeding
strategies. If there is no interaction, then the genotype shows stable performance in all the
environments, but if there is significant interaction, genotypes must be sought specifically for
different environments. The sugarcane genotypes are tested in multi-location trials at various
agro-climatic zones and analysed for stability with the help of various stability models. There is
an established system of multi-location testing in sugarcane and for various crops, under the All
India Coordinated Research Projects. Based on multi-location testing and performance in
different environments, the outperforming varieties are recommended to be released.
Introduction:
Sugarcane (Saccharum sp. Complex) is one of the major industrial crops grown all over
the world from tropical to subtropical regions. Sugarcane is being utilized as a source of
sweetener from very beginning as jaggery, khandsari and white sugar. Molasses are being used
for ethanol production and bagasse for paper industry. Sugarcane belongs to the family Poaceae,
sub-family Panicoidae, tribe Andropogonae, sub-tribe Saccharineae and genus Saccharum
(Watson et al., 1985). There are five recognized species in this genus viz., S. officinarum L., S.
barberi Jeswiet, S. sinense Roxb. amend Jeswiet, S. robustum Brandes et Jeswiet Ex Grassl. and
S. spontaneum L. The former three are cultivated species and the latter two are wild ones.
Besides, another species, S. edule Hasak is also recognized which produces aborted inflorescence
and is used as food in Indonesia (Heinz, 1991). The cultivated varieties of sugarcane are
interspecific hybrids involving at least three species, S. officinarum, S. barberi, and S.
spontaneum (Rao et al., 1983) which themselves represent complex polyploidy. The
chromosome number among varieties varies from 2n=100 to 120 (Price, 1963) due to this the
sugarcane varieties are described as Saccharum sp. Complex hybrid.
Sugarcane undergoes four distinct stages of growth, namely germination (0-60 days),
formative (60-150 days), grand growth (150-240 days), and maturity (240-360 days). Each phase
necessitates specific conditions of light, temperature, and water availability to obtain a high
yield. Being a long-duration crop, it is susceptible to various challenges posed by both living
organisms and environmental factors. In subtropical regions, this crop confronts severe cold in
December-January and exceptionally high temperatures during the formative phase, which
occurs from April to June.

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Sugarcane production affected by variable climatic conditions (Zhao and Li, 2015) and
the performance of a particular variety is the result of interaction of its genetic constitution and
environment in which it has been grown. The changes in the varietal performance under the
influence of different environmental conditions are defined as Genotype and environment (GE)
interaction (Baker, 1988). GE interaction complicates selection and testing of plant genotypes.
Maximizing yield across different environments is a challenging task due to the interactions
between genotypes and varying environmental conditions. Genotype adaptable to target
environments are selected under an optimum strategy, this strategy is determined by measuring
GE interaction. In sugarcane breeding programmes, by multi-location yield trials, the genotypes
have been tested in different environmental conditions for identifying varietal stability. If the
rank of genotypes varies from one location to another, it indicates strong GE interaction, which
is a widely recognized phenomenon in sugarcane clonal selection trials (Kang and Miller, 1984).
GE interaction is important source of variation in crops and the term stability is used to
characterize a genotype which shows a relatively constant yield, independent of changing
environmental conditions. Based on this concept, genotypes that exhibit minimal variation in
yield across diverse environments are considered stable or demonstrate a high buffering capacity
within the population. The meticulous observation and analysis of the GE interaction in multi-
environment yield trials are crucial for the effective evaluation, selection, and recommendation
of crop varieties (Mendoza-Batista et al., 2021).
Estimation of phenotypic stability involves regression analysis which has proved to be a
valuable technique for assessing the response of various genotypes under changing
environmental conditions. Various parametric and non-parametric statistical models have been
used for stability analysis in sugarcane. The regression-based models viz., (1) Finlay and
Wilkinson (1963), (2) Eberhart and Russel (1966), (3) Perkins and Jink (1968) and (4) Freeman
and Perkins (1971) and multivariate models such as additive main effects and multiplicative
interaction (AMMI) model and the genotype main effects and genotype × environment
interaction effects (GGE) model (Gauch, 2006) is widely used for stability analysis in sugarcane
now days. Knowledge on the components of the GE interaction is of great importance for
sugarcane breeding, stability and adaptability analysis used for the identification of superior
genotypes in various environments.
Stability concept
The adaptability of genotypes is the result of interaction between genotypes and
environment. Lewis (1954) defined phenotypic stability as the ability of an individual or
population to produce a certain narrow range of phenotypes in different environments.
According to Allard and Bradshaw (1964), stability is determined by the ability to maintain some
characteristics of morphology and physiology in a steady state. The study of the GE interaction
allows the classification of genotypes in different situations by their behaviour, either stable or
adapted to a particular environment in terms of their yield or in some other desirable agronomic
feature or unstable. They also suggested that heterozygous and heterogenous populations offer
the best opportunity to produce varieties which show small GE interactions. They pointed out

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that heterozygous or homozygous genotype may possess individual buffering and a heterogenous
population will possess population buffering. Backer and Leon (1988) defined the stable
genotype as a constant performer irrespective of any changes in the environmental conditions.
The genotype is regarded to be stable if it has low contribution to GE interaction.
In the final stage of plant breeding, the newly developed strains are grown for many
generations under different environments, climatic and soil conditions (Fasahat et al., 2015). In
all experiments, the plant breeders usually emphasis on modelling the genotypic mean in jth
environment. The linear model considers as:
Yij= μ + gi+ ej + geij + eij
Where, Yij is the observed mean of the ith genotype in jth environment; μ is the general
mean; gi is the ith genotype effect; ej denotes the effect of the jth environment; geij is the effect of
interaction between ith genotype and jth environment (GE interaction) and eij is the mean error
related to the observed Yij.
Finlay and Wilkinson (1963) determined the regression coefficient by regressing variety
mean on the environmental mean, and plotting the obtained genotype regression coefficients
against the genotype mean yields. The regression coefficient (bi) for each genotype is then taken
as its stability parameters. Absolute phenotypic stability is expressed by bi = 0. Finlay and
Wilkinson’s model seems to be quite useful as for as the regression coefficient represents a
greater part of yield variation caused by the environmental fluctuation (Matsuo, 1975). However,
other methods are needed when the regression coefficient represents a small portion of variance.
Eberhart and Russell (1966) described deviation parameter (S2di). The residual mean square
(MS) of deviation from regression is the measure of stability of each genotype. A desirable
variety is the one which has a high mean, bi=1.0, and S2di=0. The regression coefficient
described by Perkin and Jinks (1968) is comparable to that of Finlay and Wilkinson, with the
exception that the observed values are modified for location effects prior to the regression.
Freeman and Perkins (1971) criticized the use of linear regression model for stability
analysis. They pointed out the drawbacks of these models as follows:
i) Regression of varietal mean into dependent measure of environment, and
ii) The sum of squares (SS) for environmental (linear) component allocated with one degree of
freedom was the same as the total SS for environments with (n-1) degrees of freedom, where n
was the number of environments.
Lin et al. (1986) identified three concepts of stability:
Type 1: A genotype is regarded as stable if its variance among environments is low. This
stability was referred to by Becker and Leon (1988) as static stability or a biological concept of
stability. Any change in the environmental conditions has no effect on the performance of a
stable genotype. This conception of stability is valuable for quality attributes, disease and insect
resistance or for abiotic-stress characters like winter hardiness. The coefficient of variability
(CVi), which Francis and Kannenburg (1978) utilised as a stability parameter for each genotype,
and the genotypic variations across environments (Si2) are variables used to define this kind of
stability.

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Type 2: A genotype is regarded as stable if its response to environmental changes is parallel to
the mean response of all genotypes in the trial. This stability was referred to as the dynamic or
agronomic concept of stability by Becker and Leon (1988). A stable genotype allows for a
predictable response to environments since it does not deviate from the general response to
environments. Type 2 stability can be assessed using Shukla's (1972) stability variance (σ2i) and
the regression coefficient (bi) (Finlay and Wilkinson, 1963).
Type 3: A genotype is regarded as stable if the residual MS from the regression model on the
environmental index is low. The environmental index estimates as mean yield of all genotypes in
each location minus the overall mean of all genotypes in all locations. Becker and Leon (1988)
assert that Type 3 is a component of the dynamic or agronomic stability concept.
Methods to describe type 3 stability are Eberhart and Russell (1966) and Perkins and
Jinks (1968). According to Becker and Leon (1988), the dynamic concept encompasses all
stability approaches based on assessing GE interaction effects. This includes the methods for
partitioning the GE interaction of Wricke's (1962) eco-valence and Shukla's (1972) stability of
variance, as well as non-parametric stability analyses and methods utilising the regression
approach as proposed by Finlay and Wilkinson (1963), Eberhart and Russell (1966), and Perkins
and Jinks (1968). However, from both a biological and a statistical perspective, there are a
number of restrictions and critiques with regard to these analyses. The primary biological issue
arises when the study only takes into account a small number of extremely low and extremely
high yielding sites, and the fit is based solely on the genotype behaviour in a small number of
extreme environments (Crossa, 1990). The primary statistical issue is that, according to Freeman
and Perkins (1971), the average of all genotypes assessed in each environment is not independent
of the average of each genotype in a specific environment. Another statistical limitation is that
the errors associated with the slopes of the genotypes are not statistically independent. The last
problem is the assumption of a linear relationship between interaction and environmental means,
when the actual responses of the genotypes to the environments are inherently multi-variated
(Crossa et al., 1990). According to Crossa (1990), multivariate analysis has three main
objectives: (i) to eliminate “noise” in the data set (for example, to distinguish systematic and
non-systematic variation); (ii) to summarize the information and (iii) to reveal a structure in the
data (Crossa et al., 1990; Gauch, 1992). In contrast with classic statistical methods, the function
of multivariate analysis is to reveal the internal structure of the data from which hypotheses can
be generated and later tested by statistical methods.
Interpretation of GE interaction
Crop growth and potential yield are essentially defined by availability of resources such
as light, water and nutrients, and the efficiency to use these resources, and the extent to which the
attainment of such potential is limited by biological and physical hazards. The GE interaction
can be explained as the differential yield response of genotype over environments. The aim of
stability analysis is to identify genotypes whose phenotypic performance remain same under
variable environmental conditions. The stability analysis makes sense in the presence of GE
interaction (Fasahat et al., 2015). The presence of GE interaction reduces the correlation among

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phenotype and genotype, makes difficult to assess the genetic potential of variety and changes
the relative ranking of different varieties. The presence of GE interaction diminishes the
correlation between phenotype and genotype, creating difficulties in accurately assessing the
genetic potential of a variety and altering the relative rankings of different varieties. For efficient
breeding strategies, identify the predominant limiting factor within a studied population of
environments in a MET. Also, characterization of environments on the bases to a range of
environmental factors offers the potential to improve the gain from selection through better
selection of environments for field trials. Therefore, prior to the successful commercial release of
a specific variety, plant breeders conduct trials of different varieties across multiple locations and
years to assess the extent of GE interaction. This process ensures the stability of the varieties
under varying environmental conditions (Fasahat et al., 2015). GE interactions can be
categorized into three different groups:
(i) “No” GE interaction: Occurs when one genotype performs constantly better than the other
genotype by approximately the same amount over the environments.
(ii) Non crossover GE interaction: A non-crossover type where the ranking of genotypes
remains constant across environments and the interaction is significant because of changes
in the magnitude of the response. Moreover, the changes due to environmental
modifications in the two genotypes are in the same direction.
(iii) Crossover GE interaction: The different and inconsistent performance of genotypes to
varied environments is defined as crossover GE interaction, in which the ranks of
genotypes changed from one environment to another. Crossover interaction suggests that
no genotype is superior in multiple environments.
In the selection of genotypes across multiple environments, plant breeders look for a non-
crossover type of GE interaction or preferably the absence of a GE interaction for general
adaptation, and a crossover type of GE interaction for specific adaptation. The recommendation
of cultivars for commercialization and evaluation of germplasms in advanced stage adaptation
and performance stability trials are essential breeding objectives.
Widely used methods of stability analysis
Regression based model (Eberhart and Russell model)
The Eberhart and Russell model (1966) which is more widely used regression based
method nowadays for detecting the stable varieties. Stability parameters computing by this
model is follows:
Yij = µ + βi Ij + Sij
Where, Yij = Mean of ith genotype in jth environment, µ= Mean of all genotypes over all
environments, βi = Regression coefficient of ith genotype on the environmental index which
measures the response of this genotype to varying environments, Ij = the environmental index
which is defined as the deviation of the mean of all the genotypes at a given location from the
overall mean, Sij = the deviation from regression of the ith genotype at jth Environment.
The analysis of variance as proposed by Eberhart and Russell (1966) is given in Table 1.

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Table 1: Analysis of variance for estimates of stability parameters over environments

Source of variation Degrees of Sum of squares Mean

freedom squares
Total (ge-1) ∑ ∑ 𝑌𝑖𝑗2 − 𝐶𝐹
𝑖 𝑗
Genotypes (g-1) 1⁄ ∑ 𝑌 2 − 𝐶𝐹 MS1
𝑒 𝑖.
𝑖.
Environment + ∑ ∑ 𝑌𝑖𝑗2 − ∑ 𝑌𝑖.2 /𝑒
(Genotype x g(e-1) 𝑖 𝑗 𝑖
Environment)
Environment 2

(Linear) 1 1/g (∑ 𝑌.𝑗 𝐼𝑗 ) ⁄∑ 𝐼𝑗2

𝑗 𝑗

Genotype x ∑𝑗(〈∑𝑗 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝐼𝑗 〉2 ⁄∑𝑗 𝐼𝑗2 ) − Environmental

Environment (g-1) (linear) ss MS2
(Linear)
Pooled deviations g(e-2) ∑ ∑ 𝑆𝑖𝑗2 MS3
𝑖 𝑗
Deviation due to
genotype [∑ 𝑌𝑖𝑗2 − (𝑌𝑖. )2 /𝑒] − [∑ 𝑌𝑖𝑗2 𝐼𝑗 ] 2 / ∑ 𝐼𝑗2
(e-2) 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 MS4
= ∑𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑗2
Pooled error e(g-1) (r- 1) MS5
Where, g = number of genotypes, e = number of environments, r = number of
replications. In this model two parameters of stability are calculated, the first parameter,
regression coefficient (bi) is the same proposed by Finley and Wilkinson and the second
parameter is mean square deviation (S2di) from linear regression.
∑𝒋 𝒀𝒊𝒋 𝑰𝒋
bi = ∑𝒋 𝑰𝟐𝒋
2
∑𝒋 𝑆𝑖𝑗 𝑷𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓𝑴𝑺
S2di = −
𝒆−𝟐 𝒓
According to this model, a desirable variety is the one that has a high mean, unit
regression coefficient (bi = 1.0), and zero deviation from regression (S2di = 0). A stable variety
in this context is one with bi = 1.0 and S2di = 0.
Multivariate models (AMMI and GGE biplot)
The concept of biplot was a breakthrough of Gabriel (1971). Since then, biplot analysis
has emerged as a crucial statistical tool in the realms of plant breeding and agricultural research.
A biplot is a scatter plot that approximates and graphically displays a two-way table by both its
row and column factors in such a way that relationships among the row factors, relationships

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among the column factors, and the underlying interactions between the row and column factors
can be visualised simultaneously. Bradu and Gabriel (1978) were the first to apply biplots to
agricultural data analysis. So, a genotype-trait biplot can also be used to visualise the merits and
shortcomings of individual genotypes, which is important for both cultivar evaluation and parent
selection. The additive main effect and multiplicative interactions (AMMI) and genotype plus
genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot are principal components analysis based
models with an additive component (the main effect of the environment or genotypes) and a
multiplicative component (G×E interaction). These models served as powerful tools for effective
analysis and interpretation of multi-environment data structure in breeding programs.
AMMI biplot
In the AMMI model, introduced by Mandel (1971) and popularized by Zobel et al.,
(1988) and Gauch (1992), the GE interaction magnitude is estimated according to the response of
each variable in a rather original approach, by the combination in a single model between
ANOVA and the PCA. In this, genotype and environmental effects consider as purely additive
effect components, and GE interactions as multiplicative components (Durate and Vencovsky,
1999). The AMMI statistical model is given as follows, and the AMMI ANOVA is given in
Table 2.
Yij = μ + gi + aj + Σnk=1λkYikαjk + eij
Where, Yij is the mean response of the genotype I in the jth environment, μ is the general
mean of trials, gi is the fixed effect of ith genotype, aj is the fixed effect of the jth environment, λk
is the kth scalar value of the original interaction array, Yik is the element corresponding to the ith
genotype in the kth scalar vector of the column of the interaction array, αjk is the element
corresponding to the jth environment in the kth singular vector in the line of the array, and eij is
the residual effect.
Table 2: AMMI ANOVA (Gauch, 2013; Hongyu, 2014)
Source of Degree of freedom Sum of Mean of square F-ratio
Variation square
Genotypes (G) (g-1) SS1 MS1 MS1/MS3
Environment (E) (e-1) SS2 MS2 MS2/MS3
GXE (g-1)(e-1) SS3 MS3 MS3/MSE
IPCA1 (g+e-1-2n) SS4 MS4 MS4/MSE
IPCA2 (g+e-1-2n) - 2 SS5 MS5 MS5/MSE
IPCA3 (g+e-1-2n) - 4 SS6 MS6 MS6/MSE
Residual (g-1)(e-1)-(g+e-1-2n)-4
Error ge(r-1) SSE MSE
Where, g= no. of genotypes; e= no. of environments; r= no. of replication; n= PC axis 1, 2,…..
K; K= 1, 2, . . . , p, p = min{g − 1, e − 1}
Graphical representation of GE interaction using AMMI interaction parameters is known
as biplot. The interpretation of a biplot graph relies on examining the variation attributed to the
additive main effects of genotype and environment, as well as the multiplier effect of the GE

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interaction (Oliveira et al., 2013). Till date, the stability conclusion made from AMMI model;
are based on biplots. Biplot formulation of interaction will be successful only when significant
proportion of GE interaction is concentrated in the first or first two PC axes. A desirable
genotype is characterized by high yield and IPCA (interaction principal component axis) values
that approach zero. Conversely, an undesirable genotype is characterized by low stability, which
is associated with low yields.
In the AMMI1 biplot, which utilizes a single principal component (PC) axis, the first
PCA scores of genotypes and environments are graphed against their respective means. Now the
pattern of GE interaction may be visualized from this plot. When a genotype or environment
exhibits a PCA score close to zero, it indicates smaller interaction effects and greater genotype
stability. While, in AMMI2 biplot (biplot with two PC axis), second PCA scores of genotypes
and environments are plotted against their respective first PCA scores. For a better description of
the interaction, both first and second PCA scores of genotypes and environments may be
considered for plotting. Genotypes that are positioned in close proximity to specific
environments on the IPCA2 vs IPCA1 biplot demonstrate specific adaptation to those particular
environments. A genotype that falls near the centre of the biplot (small IPCA1 and IPCA2
values) may have broader adaptation. The AMMI1 biplot help in identification of stable
genotypes. While AMMI2 biplot besides to identify stable genotypes also representing which
genotype adaptable in which environmental condition.
GGE biplot
GGE biplot was proposed by Yan et al. (2000) that allows visual examination of the GE
interaction pattern of multi environment trial (MET) data. The difference between GGE and
AMMI is that GGE biplot analysis is based on environment-centered PCA, whereas AMMI
analysis refers to double-centered PCA. The GGE biplot stresses two concepts. First, although
the measured yield is the cumulative effect of genotype (G), environment (E), and GE
interaction, only G and GE are relevant to and must be considered simultaneously for appropriate
genotype and test environment evaluation in cultivar evaluation, hence, termed as “GGE”.
Second, the biplot technique is employed to approximate and display the GGE of a MET, hence
its term "GGE biplot."
GGE biplot analysis uses environment centred data for analysis as the emphasis is on G
and GE interaction so as to arrive meaningful conclusion about the genotypic performance across
varying locations. Environment centring is done by subtracting the environment mean ( Y .j) from
the Y ij values and transforming the two-way table. Therefore, the GGE biplot analysis is based
on the following model.
Y ij - Y .j = λ1 ξi1ηj1 + λ2ξi2ηj2 + εij
where, Y ij is the average phenotypic value of genotype i in the jth environment; Y .j is the mean
of the jth environment (µj); λ1 ξi1ηj1 and λ2ξi2ηj2 are the first and second PCs, of which λ1 and λ2
are the singular values, ξi1 and ξi2 are the genotypic PC scores, and ηj1 and ηj2 are the environment
PC scores for the PC1 and PC2 respectively.

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A GGE biplot that sufficiently approximates the GGE of a MET data set allows, among
other things, visualisation of three important aspects: (i) Genotype × Environment relations as
represented by the "which won where" pattern, which assists in mega-environment investigation;
(ii) the interrelationship among test environments, which assists in the identification of better
environments for cultivar evaluation by “discrimination vs representativeness” biplot; and (iii)
the inter-relationship among genotypes ranking based on mean yield and stability by “mean vs
stability biplot”.
The AMMI and the GGE biplot analyses are more efficient than the Eberhart and Russell
method because AMMI and GGE analyses explained around 50% of the sum of squares of the
GE interaction, whereas the method of Eberhart and Russell explained only 9.1% and 15.8%.
The GGE biplot explains a higher proportion of the sum of squares of the GE interaction and is
more informative with regards to environments and cultivar performance than the AMMI
analysis. Yan et al. (2007) compared GGE Biplot against AMMI analysis of GE interaction
Data. They observed AMMI differed from GGE biplot only in that it contained less G + GE
interaction and had less functionality than the GGE biplot. The AMMI analysis separates G from
GE interaction first and then puts them together again, whereas GGE biplot analysis deals with G
+ GE interaction directly.
Effects of variable climate events on sugarcane production
Sugarcane is an important cash crop used for sugar and bioenergy. It is one of the world’s
major C4 crops that mainly grow in the tropics and subtropics regions. Major growing countries,
Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, and USA. Weather and climate-related events (i.e., the
growth environment of atmospheric CO2, temperature, precipitation, and other extreme weather)
are the key factors for sugarcane production worldwide (Figure 1). The sugarcane and sugar
yields have varied with extreme climate events (Zhao and Li, 2015). Due to extreme weather
events like heat, drought, flooding, typhoons, and frost are occurring more frequently and with
greater intensity as a result of climate change, cane production is highly affected. In most areas
with a short growing season, like Louisiana in the United States, the frost is a significant
productivity constraint (Zhao and Li, 2015). Whereas, high temperatures because of climate
change in North-eastern Brazil will cause evapotranspiration rates to rise, decreasing the amount
of water in the soils, and making the planting of sugarcane increasingly difficult (Carvalho et al.,
2015). The decreased yield was mainly due to increased water deficit stress due to the warmer
climate. Effects of drought due to climate change on sugarcane growth and development
depending on the stage of plant growth, the severity of water deficiency stress, and the duration
of the stress (Reyes et al., 2020). Drought conditions in the early and middle growth stages
primarily reduces cane production, which resulting low sucrose yield; however, drought
conditions in the late development stage can improve sucrose content in stalks. China is majorly
affected by this stress and more than 80% of sugarcane grown in rainfed conditions. Water
logging is another abiotic stress that severely reduces the growth and survival of cane and causes
an 18–64% reduction in sugarcane yield, dependind on the duration of the water logging, plant
growth stage, and cultivars (Zhao and Li, 2015). The damage by diseases and pests in cane

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production is also afffected by temperature. The damage by smut disease is likely to increase due
to high temperatures, and dry weather intensifies the symptoms of ratoon stunting disease. The
warmer winter and high humidity are favourable climate conditions for sugarcane orange rust
spore survival and rapid development. The fluctuating climate conditions result in an increase in
disease pathogens, overwintering pests, and additional input costs required to mitigate these risks
and sustain a certain level of sugarcane production. The production of sugarcane is significantly
influenced by these changing climatic conditions. Hence, enhancing our understanding of the
mechanisms behind these climate factors and their influence on sugarcane production can enable
the manipulation of plants to fulfil human requirements while also formulating strategies for
adaptation and mitigation.

Figure 1: A flow chart to demonstrate factors influencing sugarcane yield

Implication of GE interaction during selection in sugarcane breeding programme

The selection of varieties that are consistently high in performance over a range of
environments in different location and different seasons is the major task of sugarcane breeders.
This selection is often inefficient due to GE interaction i.e. failure of varieties to have the stable
performance in different locations. The optimum number of locations and years for variety trials
depends on the contribution of varieties x location and varieties x year interaction in overall
phenotypic performance. The genotype values and relative rankings for sugarcane characteristics
that are quantitatively inherited, like cane and sugar yield, can vary significantly between
environments (Kang 2002). These rank changes confound the determination of the whole true
genetic value of the potential varieties. If the GE interaction is significant, it is essential for the
plant breeder to accurately assess the specific environmental conditions under which the
cultivated varieties will be grown after their release (Zhou et al., 2012; Duma et al., 2019). As
sugarcane is a perennial crop, the choice of environments for its cultivation depends on specific

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locations and different stages of the crop, such as the initial planting and subsequent ratoon
crops. Selecting appropriate locations allows for consideration of various agro-climatic
conditions and diverse soil types (Nuss, 1998). In most sugarcane breeding programs, advanced-
stage variety trials (AVT) are carried out at multiple locations over several years. The yield and
quality data in the first and second ratoon crops of sugarcane are measured from the same plots
as the plant cane to facilitate the assessment of ratooning ability. Consequently, the impact of
different years becomes intertwined as each crop stage is cultivated in a separate year. As a
result, the combined effects of years and crop stages are referred to as "crop years" (Kang et al.,
1987). In the early selection stages, it is important to determine the optimum number of
locations. Therefore, different countries are to provide several locations to not to eliminate all but
one or few varieties before large scale testing in mill areas. Large GE interaction would make the
concluding procedure inefficient because most of the gains in selection would become lost when
the selected varieties are planted in mill areas and the discarded group contains most of the
potentially valuable commercial varieties (Shanthi et al., 2011). When the trial is conducted in
several location and years, the yield of all varieties at a site (general mean) can be used to
provide environmental index i.e. a measure of that environment. According to Finley and
Wilkison (1963), the regression of the yield of individual varieties on these environments was
used to measure the adaption and stability of varieties. Hence, investigations into GE interaction
provide valuable insights and guidance for the development of strategies aimed at testing and
selecting genotypes that exhibit the highest adaptation to the desired environments (Ali et al.,
2020). Additionally, these investigations aid in ranking genotypes based on their varied response
to diverse environmental conditions, particularly in relation to traits like yield (Verma et al.,
2023).
Multilocation testing of sugarcane genotypes in India
The Sugarcane varietal improvement programme under the All India Coordinated
Research Project on Sugarcane (AICRP-Sugarcane) has played a significant role in the
development of improved, location-specific sugarcane varieties for the nation. There are 5 agro-
climatic zones that have been identified for sugarcane variety testing. Comprises, North West
Zone, North Central Zone, North East Zone, East Coast Zone and the Peninsular Zone. The
National Hybridization Programme and the Zonal Varietal Testing Programme are the two
components that make up the AICRP-Sugarcane crop improvement programme. The AICRP-
Sugarcane programme annually conducts the zonal varietal trials in 5 agroclimatic zones across
the nation. In this, from the breeding stations, the elite clonal selections take place across the
country, pooled on a zonal basis, and evaluated in two stages. The entries are evaluated in the
Initial varietal trial (IVT) for one year, and those that perform poorly are discarded. The
remaining entries are examined in 2 plant and 1 ratoon crops for all yield and quality traits under
the AVT. In the early and mid-late groups, various trials are conducted. For the varieties to be
released in individual zones, varieties are identified based on the overall performance over the
locations within the zone in plant and ratoon crops. The red rot resistance is required for a variety
to be identified for release (Nair 2011). The AICRP-Sugarcane system ensures that superior

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locally adapted varieties from several sugarcane research stations will continue to be available at
the time of multi-location evaluation of the elite clones AICRP trials allow for the simultaneous
interchange of elite genetic materials among research stations as well as their evaluation at
numerous locations within the agro-climatic zone. That provides detailed information about the
yield potential of the varieties and their general adaptability for different agro-climatic
conditions.
References:
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stability analysis of some sugarcane genotypes across different environments. SVU-
International Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2(2), 192-213.
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interactions in applied plant breeding 1. Crop science, 4(5), 503-508.
3. Baker, R. J. (1988). Tests for crossover genotype-environmental interactions. Canadian
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4. Becker, H. C., & Leon, J. (1988). Stability analysis in plant breeding. Plant breeding,
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5. Bradu, D., & Gabriel, K. R. (1978). The biplot as a diagnostic tool for models of two-way
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H. B., von Randow, C., & Giarolla, A. (2015). Impact of climate changes on potential
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region interactions of released sugarcane varieties for cane yield in the South African sugar
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12. Fasahat, P., Rajabi, A., Mahmoudi, S. B., Noghabi, M. A. and Rad, J. M. (2015). An
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14. Freeman, G. H., & Perkins, J. M. (1971). Environmental and genotype-environmental

components of variability VIII. Relations between genotypes grown in different
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Chromosome engineering in plants, Part B. Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, Tokyo,
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22. Hongyu, K., García-Peña, M., de Araújo, L. B., and dos Santos Dias, C. T. (2014).
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Agronomy journal, 80(3), 388-393.

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CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA PLANT AND ITS USE IN

THE TEXTILE SECTOR
Reema Bora* and Bulbul Baruah
Department of Textiles and Apparel Designing,
College of Community Science,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Natural fibre production is a major agricultural activity and it is a valuable raw material
used for textile and non-textile production. Calotropis gigantea stem fibre also comes under
natural fibre which is a soft shrub that grows in dry habitats and in excessively drained soils.
Like other natural fibres, the obtained Calotropis gigantea stem cellulose fibres show good
strength and these strength properties are an advantage for the use in textile industry. With
strength (tenacity) as basic properties, fibres and fibrous products should possess some primary
properties for acceptance as suitable raw materials. These properties include length to diameter
ratio (aspect ratio), flexibility, as well as acceptable extensibility for processing, cohesion, and
uniformity of properties, which are also important. These properties are present in Calotropis
stem fibre. Calotropis gigantea plant also possesses various medicinal properties.
Keywords: Calotropis gigantea, Cellulosic fibre, Bast fibre, Stem, Properties
1. Introduction:
Natural fibre production is a major agricultural activity worldwide. Natural fibres are an
important part of the human environment, which are also valuable raw materials used for textile
and non-textile production. These fibres are biodegradable in nature. The textile and paper
industries are the primary converters of fibres into the numerous products which are needed in
our modern society. Most natural fibres are lignocellulosic in nature; they are considered low-
value industrial fibres. But the progress in fibre and yarn production technologies through
constant and serious research over the years and ecological considerations have created a
renewed research interest in lignocellulosic fibres to explore their potential in textile and allied
fields.
Bast fibres have a tradition of extended utilization. These fibres have been used for more
than 8000 years. Now a days bast fibres are raw materials not only used for the textile industry
but also for eco-friendly composites used in different areas of applications like building
materials, particle boards, insulation boards, food, cosmetics, medicine, and source for other
biopolymers, etc.
Bast fibres are well-defined as those fibres obtained from the outer cell layers of the
stems of various plants. Bast fibres are comprised of a bundle of tube-like cell walls. Each cell
wall comprises primary and secondary layers (Jones, 2017). Strands of bast fibres are released
from a stem’s cellular and woody tissue by a process of natural rottenness called retting
(controlled rotting). Often the strands are used commercially without separating the individual
fibres one from another (Koh, 2011).
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As all bast fibres comprise non-cellulose matter such as pectin, lignin, and hemicellulose,
degumming or retting is required to remove the non-cellulose matter. Degumming using
chemicals and retting in water has a lot of undesirable environmental effects. However, recently
enzyme-retting and enzyme or microbial degumming have been developed and put into practice,
resulting in less water pollution, less damage to fibre, and more efficient processing. (Yu, 2015).
The properties of bast fibres are influenced by different conditions of cultivation, different retting
methods, and processing.
Calotropis gigantea is a soft shrub that can grow in dry habitats and in excessively
drained soils. Like other natural fibres, the stem of Calotropis plants can be used to acquire
natural cellulose fibres with good strength and elongation. These Calotropis fibre can be taken
out using different retting methods such as water retting, chemical retting, enzyme retting, etc.
2. Ecology and distribution of Calotropis species:
Calotropis is extensively distributed and it has two species – Calotropis gigantea and the
Calotropis procera mainly. Both species are found throughout the world. Physically the main
difference between the two species that are easily differentiated is their flower colour while in
the bud, or bloomed condition (Verma, 2014). Calotropis gigantea is a wasteland weed well
known as Milkweed, a habitat of Asian countries that includes, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and China (Kumar et al., 2010).
Table 1: Systematic position of Calotropis gigantea (Source: Kumar et al., 2013)
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Gentianales
Family: Asclepiadaceae
Subfamily: Asclepiadoideae
Genus: Calotropis
Species: gigantea
Calotropis is drought resistant plant; salt tolerant to a relatively high degree, grows wild
up to 900 meters (msl) throughout the country, and prefers disturbed sandy soils with mean
annual rainfall: 300-400 mm. Through its wind and animal dispersed seeds, it quickly becomes
established as a weed along degraded roadsides, lagoon edges, and in overgrazed native pastures.
It has a preference for and is often dominant in areas of abandoned cultivation especially
disturbed sandy soils and low rainfall. It is assumed to be an indicator of over-cultivation (Kumar
et al., 2013).
Calotropis gigantea R.Br. Asclepiadaceae, includes 280 genera and 2,000 species of
world-wide distribution but is most abundant in the sub-tropics and tropics, and rare in cold
countries. Other familiar plants of Calotropis are Milkweed or Silk weed (Asclepias syriaca L.),
Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa L.), and Calotropis procera (Ait.f). A comparison of these
plants is given in Table 2. Native to India (Lindley, 1985) Calotropis grows wild throughout the
country (Sastry and Kavathekar, 1990) on a variety of soils in different climates, sometimes
where nothing else grows.

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Table 2: Comparison of Calotropis and Asclepias species

Flower
Species Height Leaf
Origin Size Leaves Fruits
Common name(s) (ft.) arrangement Color
(inches)
Calotropis gigantea White to purple, rarely Sessile Follicles recurved, 2 or 1
Gigantic swallow India 8-10 Opposite 2 light green yellow, or follictes, second more often
wort, Madar white. Flowers not scented suppressed, 3-4" long
Asclepias tuberosa South Corolla greenish-orange, Sessile or very Follicles finely pubescent, 4-
2-3 Alternate 0.5
Butterfly weed America scented short petiolated 5" long
Asclepias syriaca Opposite Petiolated
South Up to Corolla greenish to Follicles tomentose and
Common milkweed or 0.5
America 5 purplish white, scented. echinate, 3-5" long.
Sikweed verticillate
Calotropis procera Sub-sessile
India 3-6 Opposite 1.5 White to pink, scented. Follicles 3-4", recurved
Swallow-wort

Table 3: Vernacular names of Calotropis gigantea

India (Sanskrit)Arka, Ganarupa, Mandara, Vasuka, Svetapushpa, Sadapushpa, Alarka, Pratapass, (Hindi) Aak, Madar, (Kannada) Ekka,
(Tamil and Malayalam) Erukku and (Telugu) Jilledi Puvvu
Malaysia Remiga, rembega and kemengu
English Crown flower and giant Indian milkweed
Indonesia Bidhuri (Sundanese, Madurese), sidaguri (Javanese) and rubik (Aceh)

Philippines Kapal-kapal (Tagalog)

Laos Kok may, dok kap and dok hak
Thailand Po thuean, paan thuean (northern), and rak(central)
French Faux arbre de soie and mercure vegetal
Source: Kumar. et al. (2013) Review on a potential herb Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br.

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In ancient ayurvedic medicine, the plant Calotropis gigantea is known as “Sweta Arka”
and Calotropis procera as “Raktha Arka”. Both are often alike in their botanical aspects and
have similar pharmacological effects (Kaumar et al., 2013).
Table 4: Vegetative characters of Calotropis gigantea
Habit Shrub or a small tree up to 2.5 m (max.6m) in height.
Root Simple, branched, woody at the base and covered with a fissured;
corky bark; branches somewhat succulent and densely white to
mentose; early glabrescent. All parts of the plant exude white latex
when cut or broken
Leaves Opposite-decussate, simple, sub sessile, extipulate; blade-oblong
obovate to broadly obovate, apex abruptly and shortly acuminate to
apiculate, base cordate, margins entire, succulent, white tomentose
when young and later glabrescent and glacouse.
Flowers Bracteate, complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, pentamerous,
hypogynous, pedicellate, and pedicel 1-3 cm long.
Floral Inflorescence: A dense, multiflowered, umbellate, peducled cymes,
Characteristics arising from the nodes and appearing axillary or terminal
Calyx Sepal 5, Polysepalous, 5 lobed, shortly united at the base, and
glabrescent quincuncial aestivation.
Corolla Petals five, gamopetalous, five lobed and twisted aestivations
Androcium Stamens are five, gynandrous, another dithecous, and coherent.
Gynoecium Bicarpellary, and apocarpus, styles are united at their apex, peltate
stigma with five lateral stigmatic surfaces. Anthers adnate to the
stigma forming a gynostegium.
Fruit A simple, fleshy, inflated, subglobose to obliquely ovoid follicle up to
10 cm or more in diameter.
Seeds Many, small, flat, obovate, 6x5 mm, compressed with silky white
pappus, 3 cm or longer.

Calotropis gigantea is one of the latex-bearing plants that belong to the family
Asclepiadaceae and is known for its medicinal properties (Singh et al., 1996; Rastogi et al.,
1991).
C. procera and C. gigantea are closely related species. A comparison of their flowers can
be used for species identification. C. procera is distinguished by its erect corollas and white
petals with dark purple tips. C. gigantea has reflexed (bent backward or downwards) corollas
that become twisted with age. The petals are white to pale lilac-blue. Flowers of C. procera are
fragrant unlike those of C. gigantean (Brown, 2013).
Calotropis gigantea R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) plant has been reported to possess a number
of medicinal properties (1) and other purposes (2) generally known as the crown flower. It has
clusters of waxy flowers that are either white or lavender in colour. Each flower consists of five

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pointed petals and a small, elegant "crown" rising from the centre, which holds the stamens
(Gupta et al., 2009).
The plant has oval, light green leaves and a milky stem. It is a large shrub with oval
leaves that are woody beneath and has clusters of waxy flowers that are lavender in colour. The
scentless flowers are about 1 cm across and long-lasting, the seeds are dispersed by wind.5-12
cm long, and the stalk of an individual flower is 2.5-4 cm long. The egg-shaped or boat-shaped
fruits are mostly in pairs, inflated, 6.5-10 cm x 3-5 cm (Gupta et al., 2009).
3. Physico-chemical properties of C. gigantea
Physico – Chemical properties of C. gigantea given by (Misra et al.,1993) are described
below.
Plant parts contain 23.38% of ash, acid insoluble ash 5.08%, water soluble extractive
33.38%, and alcohol soluble extractive 6.66%.
The Root bark contains β-amyrin, 2-isomeric crystalline alcohols, gigantea (m.p.:2230-240), and
iso-giganteol (m.p.1170-780). A colourless substance (m.p.:1620) of Tetracyclic triterpene
alcohol has been found from an unsaponifiable fraction of the fatty matter.
The plant leaf contains an active principle – Mudarine and three glycosides calotropinuscharin,
calotoxin, and phenol.
Latex contains water and water soluble (86 – 95.5%) and caoutcohouc (0.6 – 1.9%). The
calcium consists of caoutchouch (5.5 –18.6%), resin (73.6 – 87.8%), and insoluble matter (4.5 –
13.8%) Seeds: Contains moisture (7.4%), protein (27%), ether extracts (26.8%), crude fibre and
nitrogen free extract (32.4%) and ash (6.55%). Oil extracted from seeds is an olive-green liquid,
an acid fraction of which contains palmitic (15%), oleic (52%), linoleic (32%), and linolenic acid
(0.9%). The unsaponifiable fraction (31%) of seed wax yields phytosterol (m.p.:1360),
stigmasterol (m.p.:1700), melissyl alcohol, and laurane (0.6%).13.8%). Floss: Contains moisture
(7.2%), soluble matter (4.7 – 9.7%), lignin (15.5%), wax (6.4%), saccharose (0.4%), and ash
(3.64%). 2.1.2 Medicinal Properties of C. gigantea Plants are exploited as medicinal sources
since the ancient age. The traditional and folk medicinal system usages plant products for the
treatment of several infectious diseases. In recent times, plants are being extensively explored for
harboring medicinal properties. Research studies have verified that plants are one of the key
sources of drug discovery and development. Plants are reported to have antimicrobial,
anticancer, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, hemolytic, antioxidant, larvicidal properties, etc.
(Kumar et al., 2010).
Traditionally Calotropis gigantea is used alone or with other medicinal plants to treat
common diseases such as fever, rheumatism, indigestion, elephantiasis, asthma, and diarrhoea
(Kartikar et al., 1975). Tribal people were using these plant parts to cure several illnesses such as
toothache, earache, sprain, anxiety, pain, epilepsy, diarrhoea, and mental disorders. C. gigantean
is scientifically reported for its anti-Candida activity, cytotoxic activity, antipyretic activity, and
wound healing activity (Kumar et al., 2010). Various parts of this plant are reported to possess
multiple therapeutic properties like antipyretic, analgesic, anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and
sedative (Mueen et al, 2005).

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The latex of the plant exhibited several pharmacological properties and are exploited in
folk medicine (Ervatamia, 1952). Latex from several plant species has been shown to involve in
hemostatis (Bolay, 1979; Gunter et al., 2002), wound healing, and pain-killing effects
(Thankamma, 2003). The latex C. gigantea shows digitalis like action on the heart. The latex is
also used to induce abortion, and infanticide (The Wealth of India, 2004).
The latex is used as bitter, heating, oleaginous, purgative, cures, leucoderma, tumours,
and ascites. The latex of Calotropis is also used as caustic, acrid; expectorant, depilatory, and
anthelmintic; useful in leprosy scabies ringworm of the scalp, piles, eruptions on the body,
asthma, enlargement of spleen and liver, dropsy; applied to painful joint swellings. In the latex
calotropin, gigantin and uscharin show digitalis-like action on the heart (Nalwaya et al.,2009)
The latex is applied to soften the outer skin portion while removing thorns (Pankaj,
2003). The latex from C. gigantean and related species is commonly used on fresh cuts to stop
bleeding (Ashwani, 1999) and has been used as an anti-inflammatory agent in folk medicine
(Dhanukar et al., 2000). Several tribal people used this latex for easy delivery, abortion, and
other ailments (Bhuyan, 1994).
The principal constituent of the leaves and stems are milky latex, which contains protease
enzymes, calotropain FI, calotropain FII, calotropisn DI and DII, and uscharine, glutathione,
ascorbic acid, calotoxin, calactin, and caoutchouc and also nitrogen and sulphur containing
cardiac and fish poison, gigantin. Stem and root barks α- and ß- calotropeols, amyrins, taraxerols,
sitosterols, triterpenes, and other glycosides. Leaves contain glycolipids, phospholipids, waxes,
and fatty acids. Various cardiac glycosides, including calotropin, uscharin, uscharidin, and
calotoxin, and four ursane-type triterpenoids have also been identified in the roots. The presence
of a novel insect antifeedant nonprotein amino acid, giganticine, has been reported in the root
bark (Ghani, 2003). α-amyrin, ß-amyrin, taraxasterol, ψ- taraxasterol, and ß-sitosterol have also
been isolated from the plant (Rastogi & Mehrotra, 1991).
The root bark of Calotropis is diaphoretic, emetic, alterative, and purgative; useful in
dysentery, asthma, elephantiasis, and syphilis. It acts like digitalis on the heart. The powder of
the root encourages gastric secretion and acts as a mild stimulant and may be given with
carminatives in dyspepsia. Milky juice is a violent purgative; cures leucoderma, tumours, and
ascites; used for criminal purposes for producing abortion or causing the death of new-born
infants; useful in scabies and ringworm of the scalp and piles (Uddin, 2014).
Leaves are used as poultice against rheumatism, chest pain due to cold, paralysed parts,
and in dropsy. It is also beneficial in piles, skin diseases, wounds, and insect bites. Flowers are
asrtingent, digestive, stomachic, tonic, anthelmintic, and analgesic; useful in asthma, catarrh, and
loss of appetite. Poultice of the warm leaf is applied to relief pain (Uddin, 2014).
4. Fiber properties and uses of C. gigantea
Fibres and fibrous products should possess some primary properties for acceptance as
suitable raw materials among people. These properties are length to diameter ratio (aspect ratio),
tenacity (strength), and flexibility. Acceptable extensibility for processing, cohesion, and
uniformity of properties is also important (Bhatnagar, 2004).

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Natural cellulose fibres with cellulose content, strength, and elongation higher than that
of milkweed floss and between that of cotton and linen have been obtained from the stems of
common milkweed plants. Natural cellulose fibres extracted from milkweed stems have been
characterized for their composition, structure, and properties. Fibres obtained from milkweed
stems have about 75% cellulose, higher than the cellulose in milkweed floss but lower than that
in cotton and linen. Milkweed stem fibres have a low percentage of crystallinity when compared
with cotton and linen but the strength of the fibres is similar to cotton and elongation is higher
than that of linen fibres (Reddy and Yang, 2009).
As one type of natural cellulose fibre, akund fibre has a good touch to the skin like cotton
and a beautiful lustre like silk. It has a large hollow structure with a thin wall that looks like an
air-filled pipe (Yang et al., 2012).
Stems of milkweed plants have been used to obtain natural cellulose fibres with better
strength and elongation than milkweed floss fibres. Milkweed stem fibres have high cellulose
content but a low percentage of crystallinity. The fibres have strength like cotton and elongation
higher than that of linen fibres. The modulus and moisture regain of the milkweed stem fibres is
between that of cotton and linen. Overall, the milkweed stem fibres have properties required for
high value textile, composite, and other fibrous applications. Utilizing the milkweed stems for
high quality natural cellulose fibres will add value and make milkweed a more useful fibre plant
(Reddy and Yang, 2009).
The milkweed stem fibres are longer than the floss fibres and cotton but in the range of
length of the linen fibres. The milkweed stem fibres have an adequate length for processing on
both the short and long staple spinning machinery similar to cotton and linen, respectively
(Reddy and Yang, 2009).
The short fibres of Calotropis (surface or floss) grow in the fruits of the plant, while the
long fibres (bast fibres) are in the stems of the plant and have been evaluated for some
applications such as their fibre characteristics in the production of cloth. The mean length of
floss fibres is 23.8 mm and fineness are reported as 3.3 mg/in (Varshney and Bhoi, 1988). The
Calotropis stem fibres (11.5 cm in length) are longer than the cotton (1.5-5.6 cm) but smaller
than the length of the linen fibres (20-140 cm). The strength of the fibres is comparable to cotton
and elongation, and the strength of the fibres is higher than linen fibres (Reddy and Yang, 2009).
Among the variety of newly known natural resources, milkweed is a versatile substitutive
fibre with numerous unique properties which are mainly attributed to their hollowness structure.
The presence of hollow channels along the fibre length is responsible for their light weight and
good insulation properties. Because of the fibre ecological and chemical benefits, technical
application fields could be considered for the eco-friendly and non-allergenic textile made of
Milkweed fibres, especially in the production of medical goods (Hassanzadeh and Hsami, 2015).
The parts of the milkweed plants are used for various applications. Fibres (floss)
produced from the plant have low density (0.9 g/cm3) unlike any other natural cellulose fibre and
efforts have been made to use the floss as a filling material in jackets and for nonwovens.

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However, the short lengths and low elongation limit the use of floss as a natural cellulose fibre
for textiles and other applications (Reddy and Yang, 2009).
The moisture content of akund fibre in the standard state is a little more than that of
kapok. The ability of moisture absorption and release of akund fibre is similar to that of kapok
and it has a quick moisture release and slow moisture absorption performance. The initial rate of
moisture release of akund fibre is much higher than that of cotton fibre. The mechanical
performance of akund fibre changes as the relative air humidity changes. Its breaking strength
increase gradually with the increase of relative humidity. The wet strength of akund fibre is
much higher than the dry strength (Yang et al., 2012).
Calotropis gigantea fiber was found to be suitable for the composite application. The
composite was fabricated using Calotropis gigantea stem fiber and resin mixture formulation of
PLA using compression molding. The mechanical properties of Calotropis gigantea composites
are slightly inferior compared to flax fibre composites due to the better properties of flax
(Karthik and Ganesan, 2012). The stem of the milkweed plant has also been used to extract oil
and natural rubber. Milkweed stems were sensitive to extraction conditions.
Milkweed stems bark disintegrates into small fibres in strong alkali conditions and/or
heating of the stalks at temperatures above 80° C, which is not suitable for high value fibrous
applications (Reddy and Yang, 2009). Calotropis yields a durable fibre useful for ropes, carpets,
fishing nets, and sewing thread. Calotropis yields a durable fiber (commercially known as
Bowstring of India) useful for ropes, carpets, fishing nets, and sewing thread. Floss, obtained
from seeds, is used for stuffing purposes. A fermented mixture of Calotropis and salt is used to
remove the hair from goat skins for the production of "nari leather" and sheep skins to make
leather which is much used for low-cost book-binding (Singh et. al. 1996). Fungicidal and
insecticidal properties of Calotropis have been reported. Fibre from the inner bark was once used
in the manufacture of cloth for the nobility (Srinivas and Babu, 2013).
Table 5: Composition of Calotropis gigantea (Source: Karthik & Ganesan, 2012)
Sl. No Fibre composition Calotropis gigantea fibre
Composition (%)
1 Wax content 2.98
2 Lignin 3.5
3 Holocellulose 79
4 α-cellulose 51.5
5 Hemicellulose 27.5
6 Ash 2

5. Advantages of plant fibres

Vegetable fibres are produced from plants' bast, fruit, seed, leaf, and sheath. Vegetable
fibres are biodegradable, annually renewable, non-carcinogenic, and therefore healthy and
friendly (Das et al., 2008).

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The advantages of natural fibres over traditional reinforcing materials such as glass fibres
and mica are specific strength properties, low cost, low density, high toughness, good thermal
properties, reduced tool wear, reduced dermal and respiratory irritation, ease of separation,
enhanced energy recovery and biodegradability (Ishak, 2007).
As its name implies, bast fibres are obtained from the outer layer, i.e., the inner bark or
phloem of bast surrounding the plant stem. The fibres are relatively very long and strong. For
this reason, the bast fibre is considered to be the most important fraction of any bast plant (Sur,
2005).
Plant fibre has also environmental advantages. The energy required to separate the plant
into their component fibres is small compared with that needed for the production of synthetic
fibres.
The plant fibres can also be used in many different areas, supplementing and/or replacing
synthetic fibres which have received increasing attention from the industry. These can be used
not only for traditional uses such as rope making and packaging, but also can be used for the
production of other value -added products such as pulp and paper, geotextiles, plastic moulded
products, and home textiles (Moore, 1979; Aimin, 2001).
References:
1. Ashwani, K., (1999). Ayurvedic Medicines: Some Potential Plants for Medicine from
India. A Meeting of the International Forum on Traditional Medicines. Toyama Medical
and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama, Japan.
2. Bhatnagar, M.S. (2004). Chemistry and Technology of Polymers. S. Chand and Company
Ltd. Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055.
3. Bhuyan, D.K., (1994). Herbal drugs used by the tribal people of Lohit district of Arunachal
Pradesh for abortion and easy delivery—a report. Adv. Plant Sci. Vol. 7 (2). Pp 197–202.
4. Bolay, E., 1979. Feigenund wurgefeigen. Pharmazie in Unserer Zeit, Vol. 4. Pp. 97- 112.
5. Brown, S. H. (2013). Horticulture Agent Lee County Extension. Fort Myers, Florida 239:
533-7513. [email protected].
6. C. Yu, (2015). Natural Textile Fibres. Textiles and Fashion. sincedirect.com
7. Das, P.K., D. Nag, S. Debnath, L. S. Nayak. (2012). Machinery for extraction and
traditional spinning of plant fiber. Indian J. Traditional Knowledge. Vol. 9 (2). Pp. 386-
393.
8. Dhanukar, K.A., R. A. Kulakarni, N. N. Rege. (2000). Pharmacology of medicinal plants
and National products. Indian J. Pharmacol. Vol. 32. Pp. S81–S118.
9. Ervatamia. (1952). In: The Wealth of India: 3. Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Delhi. pp: 192-193.
10. Gunter, R., P.S. Hans, D. Friedrich and L. Peter. (2002). Activation and inactivation of
human factor X by proteases derived from Ficus carica. B r. J. Haematol. Vol. 119. Pp.
1042-1051.

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11. Gupta, S. P., P. Namdeo, N. Upmanyu, Garg. (2009). Phytochemical and pharmacological
activity of Calotropis gigatea as a potetial medicial plat: a overview. Pharmacologyonline
3: 757-769
12. Hasanzadeh, S., H. Hasani. (2015). A review on milkweed fiber properties as a
highpotential raw material in textile application. Journal of Industrial Textilesjit.
sagepub.com.
13. Ishak, M. R. (2007). A Comparison of mechanical properties between Kenaf core fiber and
Kenaf bast fiber reinforced polyester composites. Thesis submitted to Universiti Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka.
14. J. Koh (2011). Dyeing of cellulosic fibres. Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing.
sincedirect.com
15. Jones D. (2017). M.-C. Popescu, in Advanced High Strength Natural Fibre Composites in
Construction. Chemical compositions of natural fibres. sincedirect.com
16. Karthik, T. and P. Ganesan. (2012). Development of Eco-Friendly Textile Composites
From Calotropis gigantea bast fibre. Int. J. General Engineering and Technology (Ijget),
Vol. 1 (1). Pp. 26-43.
17. Kumar, S. P., E. Suresh and S. Kalavathy. (2013). Review on a potential herb Calotropis
gigantea (L.) R.Br. Scholars Acadamic Journal of Pharmacy (SAJP). Vol. 2 (2). Pp. 135-
145
18. Kumar, G., L. Karthik and K. V. B. Rao. (2010). Antibacterial activity of aqueous extract
of Calotropis gigantea leaves –an in vitro study. Int. J. Pharmaceutical Sciences Review
and Research, Vol. 4 (2). Pp. 141-144. www.globalresearchonline.net
19. Lindley, J. (1985). Flora medica. Ajay Book Services, New Delhi.
20. Misra, M. K., M. K. Mohanty, P. K. Das. (1993). Studies on the method – ethnobotany of
Calotropis gigantea and C. procera. Ancient Science of Life, Vol. 13 (1, 2). Pp. 40 – 56.
21. Moore. G. C., W. K. Trotter and M. O. Bagby. (1979). Economic potcntial of kcnaf.
TAPPI59:117.
22. Mueen, A. K. K., A. C. C. Rana and V. K. Kixit. (2005). Calotropis Species
(Asclepiadaceae): A comprehensive review. Pharmacog. Mag. 1:48-52.
23. Nalwaya, N., G. Pokharna, D. Lokesh, J. Kumar. (2009). Wound healing activity of latex
of Calotropis gigantea. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
Vol. 1 (1). Pp. 176-181.
24. Pankaj, O., (2003). Doomar or Gular (Ficus glomerata) as medicinal herbs in Chattishgarh,
India, Research Note. botanical.com/site/ column_poudhia/127_doomar.html.
25. Rastogi, P. Ram and B. M. Mehrotora. (1991). Compendium of Indian medicinal plants.
Pbl. Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow and Publications & Information
Directorate, N. Delhi.pp .70-73.
26. Reddy, N and Y. Yang. (2009). Extraction and characterization of natural cellulose fibers
from common milkweed stems. Pp 2212-2217.

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27. Sastry, C.S.T. and K. Y. Kavathekar. (1990). In: Plants for reclamation of wasteland.
Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi. Pp. 175-179.
28. Singh, U., A. M. Wadhwani, and B. M. Johri (1996). Dictionary of Economic Plants of
India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Pp. 38-39.
29. Srinivas, C.A., G. D. Babu. (2013). Mechanical and machining characteristics of
Calotropis gigentea fruit fiber reinforced plastics. Int. J. Engineering Research &
Technology (IJERT) 2 (6), www.ijert.org.
30. Sur, D. (2005). Understanding jute yarn. Institute of Jute Technology. Kolkata. Pp. 254
31. Thankamma, L., (2003). Hevea latex as wound healer and pain killer. Curr. Sci. Vol. 84.
Pp. 971-972.
32. The Wealth of India, (2004). A Dictionary of Indian Raw Material and Industrial Products.
Vol: 3. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 78:181.
33. Uddin, S. B. (2014). Ethnobotany Lab Department of Botany Chittagong, University
Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh. www.mpbd.info.
34. Varshney, A. C., and K. L. Bhoi. (1988). Cloth from bast fibre of the Calotropis procera
(Aak) plant. Biological Wastes, 26(3): 229-232.
35. Yang, X. L. D., L. Q. Cheng, Huang, and W. H. Fan. (2012). New materials and processes,
Advanced Materials Research. Vol. 476-478: 1934-1938.

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(ISBN: 978-93-88901-65-9)

CLIMATE CHANGE AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE

Devi Lal*1 and Ram Niwas2
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Bhiwani, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
2
CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

1. Introduction
Long-term deviation in regular weather patterns over an extended period of time (≥30
years) is referred to as climate change. It discusses unusual climatic changes and how they
impact other parts of the world. It might take tens, hundreds, or even millions of years to make
these modifications. But as anthropogenic activities like industrialization, urbanisation,
deforestation, agriculture, and modifications to land use patterns increase, more greenhouse
gases are emitted into the atmosphere, speeding up the rate of climate change. Climate change
scenarios may result in high temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and higher
atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Agriculture may be impacted by the greenhouse effect by
increased atmospheric CO2 levels have an impact on agriculture.
Weather and climate
Weather is the set of meteorological conditions such as wind, rain, snow, sunshine,
temperature, etc. at a particular time and place. By contrast, the term climate describes the
overall long-term characteristics of the weather experienced at a place. The ecosystems,
agriculture, livelihoods and settlements of a region are very dependent on its climate. The
climate, therefore, can be thought of as a long-term summary of weather conditions, taking
account of the average conditions as well as the variability of these conditions. The fluctuations
that occur from year to year, and the statistics of extreme conditions such as severe storms or
unusually hot seasons are part of the climatic variability.
Projections for climate change
The northern regions of India may experience higher levels of warming. Under a
changing climate, it is anticipated that maximum and minimum temperature extremes will
increase. Some parts may see increased rainfall, while others may not. A 20% increase in
summer monsoon rainfall is anticipated throughout all states in India, except for Punjab and
Rajasthan in the North West and Tamil Nadu in the South, which show a little drop on average.
In some areas of India, especially the North East, the number of rainy days may decline (like in
MP), but the intensity is predicted to increase. India's gross water availability per individual will
decrease from 1820 m3/yr in 2001 to in 2050, it will only be 1140 m3/yr. Corals in the Indian
Ocean may soon be subjected to summer temperatures that are higher than those recorded over
the past 20 years. From 2050, annual coral bleaching will almost certainly occur. The districts of
Nellore and Nagapattinam in Tamilnadu, Jagatsinghpur and Kendrapara in Odisha, Junagadh and
Porabandar in Gujarat, and Nellore and Nagapattinam in Tamilnadu are now the most vulnerable
to the effects of increased severity and frequency of cyclones in India (NATCOM, 2004). The
average sea level along the Indian coast has been rising at a rate of around 1.0 mm per year

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during the previous 100 years, according to historical data. The most recent data, however,
indicates a 2.5 mm/year rising trend in sea level throughout the Indian coastline.
Atmosphere, oceans, and predicted increases in greenhouse gases resulting from socio-
economic scenarios for the ensuing decades. The IPCC estimates that by 2100, the average
global surface warming (change in surface air temperature) will increase by 1.1 to 6.40C after
reviewing the published data from numerous models. Between 18 and 59 centimetres will be
added to the sea level. The seas' acidity will rise. Extreme heat, heat waves, and heavy
precipitation events are quite likely to continue increasing in frequency.
2. Impact of climate change on agriculture
Humans are concerned about climate change and variability. The life of billions of people
who rely on land for most of their requirements is significantly threatened by unpredictable
floods and droughts. Extreme disasters including cold and heat waves, landslides, forest fires,
droughts, and floods frequently have a negative impact on the world economy. Although not
associated with meteorological disasters, natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and
volcanic eruptions may alter the atmosphere's chemical composition. Disasters due to the
weather will follow. Aerosols (atmospheric pollutants) have increased as a result of the release of
greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels, including carbon dioxide (CO2), hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), etc.
Weather extremes are caused by ozone depletion, UV-B filtered radiation, volcanic eruptions,
the "human hand" in deforestation in the form of forest fires, and the loss of wet lands. With less
forest cover, precipitation spreads across the ground, eroding top soil and causing floods and
droughts. Normally, the forest cover intercepts rainwater and allows it to be absorbed by the soil.
Ironically, lack of trees speeds up soil evaporation, which worsened drought in dry years. Since
CO2 illustrates long wave radiation and radiates it back to the earth's surface, it is the main
greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. The surface atmosphere gets warmer as a result
of greenhouse gas emissions, which is the cause of global warming.
Climate change can affect agriculture in a variety of ways. Beyond a certain range of
temperatures, warming tends to reduce yields because crops speed through their development,
producing less grain in the process. And higher temperatures also interfere with the ability of
plants to get and use moisture. Evaporation from the soil accelerates when temperatures rise and
plants increase transpiration—that is, lose more moisture from their leaves. The combined effect
is called “evapotranspiration.” Because global warming is likely to increase rainfall, the net
impact of higher temperatures on water availability is a race between higher evapotranspiration
and higher precipitation. Typically, that race is won by higher evapotranspiration. But a key
culprit in climate change—carbon emissions— can also help agriculture by enhancing
photosynthesis in many important, so-called C3, crops (such as wheat, rice, and soybeans). The
science, however, is far from certain on the benefits of carbon fertilization. But we do know that
this phenomenon does not much help C4 crops (such as sugarcane and maize), which account for
about one-fourth of all crops by value.
Future climate estimates are mostly dependent on computer-based climate models that
consider the significant Indian climate, which is controlled by the southwest monsoon and brings
the majority of the region's precipitation. It is essential for the provision of irrigation for
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agricultural and drinking water. There are two types of climate-related effects that affect
agricultural productivity:
(1) Direct effects from changes in temperature, precipitation, or carbon dioxide concentrations;
and
(2) Indirect effects from changes in soil moisture and the distribution and frequency of pest and
disease infestation. With climatic changes, rice and wheat yields may decrease significantly
(IPCC 1996; 2001).
For a temperature increase of 20C to 3.50C, it is predicted that the loss in net revenue at
the farm level will be between 9% and 25%. Additionally, scientists predicted that a 20C rise in
mean temperature and a 7% increase in mean precipitation would result in a 12.3% decrease in
net earnings for the entire nation. The agriculture is observed to be most adversely impacted in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka's coastal regions. Small losses are also predicted for
Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, which produce most the world's food grains. On the
other side, it is anticipated that West Bengal, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh will only marginally
gain from warming.
3. Impact on crop yields
The results give little support to the optimists. Globally, the overall impact of baseline
global warming by the 2080s is a reduction in agricultural productivity (output per hectare) of 16
per cent without carbon fertilization, and a reduction of 3 percent should carbon fertilization
benefits materialize—when results are weighted by output. The losses are greater when weighted
by population or country.
Crop Loss: Crops like carrot, sugar beetroot and radish typically exhibit increased partitioning
of assimilates to roots at greater carbon dioxide levels. Root crop losses from soil-borne illnesses
could be decreased under climate change if more carbon is stored in the roots. On the other hand,
increases in temperature and precipitation due to climate change may cause more crop loss for
foliar diseases that are preferred by high temperatures and humidity. Increased crop losses due to
foliar diseases may be made worse by the impacts of expanded plant canopies brought on by
higher CO2.
Changes in agriculture productivity: Cotton Crop grown in a semi-arid climate and requires a
mean temperature of 21–270C and with adequate soil moisture for proper vegetative growth, it
can tolerate temperatures as high as 430C, but below 210C the growth slows down or ceases.
Cotton crop requires 600–1000 mm of rainfall during its entire growth phase; however, heavy
rainfall or moisture stress during bud development and boll shedding will substantially reduce
the yield. Cotton is also called ‘white gold’ because of its economic value in the market. Figure 4
b shows the time series of cotton production over Maharashtra. The sudden boost in production
after 2005 was due to the large-scale commercial cultivation of high-yielding varieties. Rice crop
require a hot and humid climate conditions. It is grown in the areas of high humidity, prolonged
sunshine, good supply of water and requires 4–6 months for full growth. The average
temperature required for rice crop development is 20–400C. The optimum temperature of 300C
during daytime and 200C during night-time are favourable for growth and development of the
crop. When the temperature is in the critical range, rainfall is the most crucial factor for
cultivation of rice crops. Rainfed rice cultivation is limited to areas where rainfall is more than
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1000 mm. Even though high rainfall is preferred, variation in the distribution of rainfall is the
most critical factor. Throughout the years, total production has increased due to chemical
fertilizers, advanced machinery, etc. This crop is tropical, and in warm, humid weather, it keeps
growing until it flowers, at which point it stops. The average sugarcane life cycle lasts 15 to 18
months. Throughout all stages of its growth, a maximum temperature range of 27-380C is
necessary. The ideal temperature range for germination is 32–380C. Equally important for crop
development is a sufficient supply of water.
Conclusions:
Heavy crop and human losses are probably in store. The entire climate change is linked to
rising greenhouse gases and human-caused aerosols, and the imbalance between them may cause
unpredictability even in the behaviour of the monsoon over India from year to year. Therefore,
both industrialised and developing nations should make a concerted effort to make
industrialization environmentally benign by lowering the amount of greenhouse gases that are
pumped into the atmosphere. In the same way, priority needs to be given to implementing
awareness campaigns on climate change, including its effects on various sectors, including
agriculture, health, infrastructure, water, forestry, fisheries, land and ocean biodiversity, sea
level, and the role played by human interventions.
References:
1. Adams, Richard M., Hurd, Brian H., Lenhart Stephanie, Leary, Neil. (1998). Effects of
global climate change on agriculture:an interpretative review CLIMATE RESEARCH
Clim Res, Vol. 11: 1,20,21
2. Cline, William R. (2007). Global Warming and Agriculture: Impact Estimates by Country
(Washington: Center for Global Development and Peterson Institute for International
Economics).
3. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change) (2007). Climate Change: The
Physical Science Basis. Extracts from the IV Assessment Report. Survey of the
Environment 2007, The Hindu, pp147-155.
4. Kelkar M Saurabh., Kulkarni Ashwini and Rao Koteswara K. (2020). Impact of climate
variability and change on crop production in Maharashtra, India Curr. Sci, Vol.118: 8.
5. Mahato Anupama. (2014). Climate change and its impact on Agriculture. Int J. of
Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4.
6. Prasada Rao, G.S.L.H.V. and Alexander, D. (2007). Impact of climate change on the
agricultural sector in tropical countries. Proceedings of the WTO Workshop, held at
College of Fisheries, Panangad, Kochi on 14th December, 2007, Kerala Agricultural
University, 80p
7. Rosenzweig, Cynthia, and Ana Iglesias (2006). Potential Impacts of Climate Change on
World Food Supply: Data Sets from a Major Crop Modeling Study;
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu; accessed August 9, 2006.
8. Mendelsohn, Robert, and Schlesinger, Michael E. (1999). Climate Response Functions,
Ambio, Vol. 28 (June), pp. 362–66.

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CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Rahul*1, M. L. Khichar1, Amit Singh1 and Rohit Kumar2
1
Department of Agricultural Meteorology
2
Department of Nematology
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Climate change is having significant impacts on Indian agriculture, posing challenges to
food security and rural livelihoods. This review paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the
effects of climate change on Indian agriculture, encompassing crop production, water
availability, pests and diseases, and farmer livelihoods. It highlights the vulnerabilities, risks, and
potential adaptation strategies for the agricultural sector. The review synthesizes scientific
literature, government reports, and field studies to present an overview of the current
understanding of climate change effects on Indian agriculture. The findings emphasize the need
for a multi-dimensional approach that integrates technological, socioeconomic, and policy
interventions to enhance climate resilience. The review also identifies key research gaps and
future directions, including improving climate modeling, developing climate-smart technologies,
conducting socioeconomic studies, and promoting stakeholder engagement. By addressing these
challenges and embracing opportunities, India can build climate-resilient agricultural systems for
sustainable food production and rural development.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Indian agriculture is a vital sector of the country's economy and plays a critical role in
ensuring food security for its large population (Government of India, 2020). However, this sector
is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Climate change refers to long-term shifts in
weather patterns and average temperatures, resulting from factors like greenhouse gas emissions
(IPCC, 2014). These changes in climate parameters can have significant consequences for
agricultural systems, including crop yields, water availability, livestock health, and overall rural
livelihoods. India, with its diverse agro-climatic zones and dependence on rain-fed agriculture, is
particularly susceptible to the effects of climate change. The country has already witnessed
changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, including increasing temperatures, altered
monsoon patterns, and a rise in extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and cyclones
(Krishnan et al., 2013; Patwardhan et al., 2016). These changes pose substantial challenges to
agricultural productivity and sustainability.
1.2 Objective of the chapter
The objective of this comprehensive book chapter is to examine the effects of climate
change on Indian agriculture. By analyzing scientific literature, government reports, and field
studies, this review aims to provide a holistic understanding of the vulnerabilities, risks, and
potential adaptation strategies in the face of a changing climate. The chapter synthesizes existing

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knowledge to identify the key areas where climate change impacts are observed in Indian
agriculture.
Understanding the effects of climate change on Indian agriculture is crucial for
policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders in developing effective strategies to mitigate and
adapt to these changes. By assessing the current state of knowledge, this review aims to provide
insights into the multidimensional impacts of climate change on Indian agriculture and guide the
formulation of policies and interventions to enhance the sector's resilience. In the subsequent
sections of the review paper, we will delve into specific aspects of climate change effects on
Indian agriculture, including changing weather patterns, crop production and agro ecosystems,
livestock and fisheries, socioeconomic implications, adaptation strategies, and policy
interventions.
2. Changing Weather Patterns
2.1 Temperature Rise and Heat Stress
Rising temperatures and heat waves can adversely affect crop growth, productivity, and
livestock health. Studies have shown that higher temperatures can reduce crop yields, delay
maturity, and increase the risk of heat stress in livestock (Singh et al., 2019; Lobell and Gourdji,
2012). For example, research conducted in India has indicated that a temperature increase of 1°C
can result in a 5-6 % reduction in wheat yields (Ahuja et al., 2010). Heat stress can also impact
livestock production, leading to reduced milk yield, lower fertility rates, and increased mortality
(Bhattacharya et al., 2018).
2.2 Altered Precipitation Patterns
Changes in rainfall distribution and monsoon patterns can impact crop water
requirements, irrigation practices, and groundwater availability. Studies have shown that altered
precipitation patterns, such as increased variability and more intense rainfall events, can affect
agricultural productivity (Goswami et al., 2019; Rai et al., 2020). For example, a study in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains of India found that changes in monsoon precipitation patterns have the
potential to reduce wheat yields by 6-23 % (Sharma et al., 2021). These changes in precipitation
can also affect water availability for irrigation, with implications for crop water management and
overall agricultural sustainability (Sharma et al., 2019).
2.3 Extreme Weather Events
Increased frequency and intensity of droughts, floods, and cyclones can lead to crop
losses, soil erosion, and infrastructure damage. Droughts can significantly impact agricultural
productivity, causing water stress, reduced crop yields, and livestock fodder scarcity (Kumar et
al., 2018; Choudhury, 2021). Floods can result in soil erosion, loss of crops, and contamination
of water sources, affecting both agricultural production and rural livelihoods (Singh, 2017; Patil,
2021). Cyclones can cause widespread destruction, including damage to crops, livestock, and
agricultural infrastructure (Singh et al., 2022; Sarkar et al., 2023).
3. Crop Production and Agroecosystems
3.1 Crop Yield and Production
Climate change can have substantial impacts on crop yield and production in Indian
agriculture. Rising temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns and increased occurrence of

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extreme weather events can disrupt crop growth, flowering, and maturation, ultimately affecting
yields (Lobell et al., 2011; Kumar et al., 2022). For example, studies have shown that higher
temperatures can lead to reduced rice yields, with a projected decrease of 6-14 % for every 1°C
increase in temperature (Pandey et al., 2020). Changes in rainfall patterns, particularly during the
monsoon season, can also affect crop water requirements, resulting in water stress and reduced
yields (Ramesh et al., 2018; Roy et al., 2020).
3.2 Shifts in Agroecological Zones
Climate change can cause shifts in agro ecological zones, altering the suitability of
certain crops in different regions. As temperatures and rainfall patterns change, the optimal
growing conditions for crops may shift, affecting crop distribution and cropping patterns
(Challinor et al., 2014; Rai et al., 2022). For instance, studies have projected a decrease in the
suitability of traditional crops like wheat and maize in certain regions of India due to changing
climatic conditions, while other regions may become more suitable for different crops (Singh et
al., 2016; Srinivas et al., 2021). These shifts in agro ecological zones can have implications for
farmers' decision-making regarding crop selection and land use.
3.3 Pests and Diseases
Climate change can influence the dynamics and distribution of pests and diseases, posing
challenges to crop health and productivity. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can
impact the prevalence, abundance, and behavior of pests and disease vectors (Sridhar et al.,
2017; Ghosh et al., 2020). For example, studies have shown that climate change can affect the
distribution and intensity of pests like the brown plant hopper in rice fields (Kumar et al., 2017).
Likewise, altered climatic conditions can create favorable environments for the spread of
diseases such as bacterial blight in crops (Babu et al., 2019). These pest and disease pressures
can require additional management strategies and have economic implications for farmers.
4. Livestock and Fisheries
4.1 Livestock Productivity and Health
Climate change can have significant impacts on livestock productivity, health, and
welfare. Rising temperatures and heat stress can reduce feed intake, milk production, and
reproductive efficiency in livestock (Bhattacharya et al., 2019; Bhatta et al., 2021). For example,
studies have shown that heat stress can lead to a decline in milk yield in dairy cattle, with
estimated losses of 10-35 % during heatwave events (Dash et al., 2016; Gantait et al., 2018).
Furthermore, climate change can also increase the vulnerability of livestock to diseases and
parasites, affecting overall herd health and productivity (Bansal et al., 2017; Sejian et al., 2018).
4.2 Changing Forage Availability
Altered rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts can impact forage availability for
grazing livestock. Changes in precipitation can affect the growth and quality of pasture and
fodder, leading to fodder scarcity and reduced nutritional value (Bhattacharya et al., 2020; Islam
et al., 2022). These challenges can force farmers to seek alternative feed sources, increase feed
costs, or reduce livestock numbers, thereby affecting livelihoods and rural economies (Bhatta et
al., 2019; Joshi et al., 2021).

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4.3 Impact on Fisheries

Climate change can also influence fishery resources and aquaculture systems. Rising sea
temperatures, ocean acidification, and changes in precipitation patterns can affect fish migration,
reproduction, and distribution (Narain et al., 2019; Islam et al., 2021). For instance, studies have
shown that rising sea temperatures can impact the breeding patterns and reproductive success of
commercially important fish species (Acharya et al., 2018). Furthermore, changes in
precipitation and river flows can influence freshwater fish populations, affecting fish production
and livelihoods in riverine areas (Bhattacharya et al., 2021; Islam et al., 2020).
5. Adaptation Strategies and Policy Interventions
5.1 Agricultural Practices and Technologies
Adapting agricultural practices and adopting innovative technologies can help mitigate
the impacts of climate change on Indian agriculture. Several strategies focus on improving water
management, such as the use of efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and sprinkler
systems (Sharma et al., 2019). Additionally, conservation agriculture practices, such as zero-
tillage and crop residue management, can enhance soil health, water retention, and carbon
sequestration, thereby improving crop resilience and productivity (Kumar et al., 2021).
Moreover, the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties and diversification of cropping systems
can reduce vulnerability to climate change (Kumar et al., 2018; Dwivedi et al., 2020).
5.2 Weather Forecasting and Early Warning Systems
Accurate weather forecasting and early warning systems are crucial for farmers to make
informed decisions in the face of climate variability and extreme events. Timely and reliable
information on weather conditions, including rainfall, temperature, and pest outbreaks, enables
farmers to plan their agricultural activities effectively (Kumar et al., 2019). The integration of
traditional knowledge with modern weather forecasting techniques can enhance the usability and
effectiveness of such systems, benefiting farmers at the local level (Goswami et al., 2017).
5.3 Institutional Support and Policy Interventions:
Effective institutional support and policy interventions play a vital role in facilitating
climate change adaptation in Indian agriculture. Governments and agricultural institutions need
to provide extension services, training, and capacity-building programs to equip farmers with the
knowledge and skills required for climate-resilient farming practices (Mall et al., 2019).
Financial incentives, such as subsidies and insurance schemes, can help farmers adopt climate-
smart practices and manage climate-related risks (Singh et al., 2021). Furthermore, policy
measures focusing on water management, sustainable land use, and disaster preparedness can
enhance the resilience of the agricultural sector (Bisht et al., 2020).
6. Challenges and Future Perspectives
6.1 Economic and Social Challenges
Climate change poses significant economic and social challenges for Indian agriculture.
Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme events
can lead to yield losses, reduced income, and food insecurity for farmers (Verma et al., 2019;
Aggarwal et al., 2020). Small-scale farmers, who often lack resources and access to information
and technology, are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts (Sharma et al., 2021).

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Additionally, climate change can exacerbate existing social inequalities, leading to increased
poverty, migration, and social unrest in rural communities (Sinha et al., 2018).
6.2 Technological and Infrastructural Constraints
The adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies faces several
technological and infrastructural constraints. Limited availability and access to climate-resilient
seeds, irrigation facilities, and farm machinery hinder the implementation of adaptive strategies
(Sharma et al., 2020; Dhawan et al., 2021). Insufficient rural infrastructure, such as storage
facilities, transport networks, and market linkages, further exacerbates post-harvest losses and
reduces farmers' ability to benefit from agricultural innovations (Verma et al., 2021).
6.3 Policy and Governance:
Effective policy frameworks and governance structures are critical for addressing climate
change challenges in Indian agriculture. However, policy implementation gaps, inadequate
coordination among different sectors, and lack of integration of climate change concerns into
agricultural policies hinder progress (Aggarwal et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021). Strengthening
policy coherence, enhancing institutional capacities, and promoting multi-stakeholder
collaborations can facilitate the implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation
measures (Kaur et al., 2022).
6.4 Future Perspectives
Despite the challenges, there are opportunities for transformative changes in Indian
agriculture. Integration of traditional knowledge and indigenous practices with scientific
advancements can enhance climate resilience and sustainability (Gupta et al., 2020; Shukla et al.,
2022). Promoting agro ecological approaches, sustainable intensification, and climate-smart
landscapes can contribute to improved productivity, ecosystem services, and livelihoods (Kumar
et al., 2022; Lal et al., 2022). Moreover, investments in research and development, capacity-
building programs, and farmer-centric extension services are crucial for building climate-
resilient agricultural systems (Bhatia et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2022).
7. Future Research Directions
7.1 Climate Modeling and Projections:
Advancements in climate modelling and projections are crucial for understanding future
climate scenarios and their potential impacts on Indian agriculture. High-resolution climate
models incorporating regional-scale processes can provide more accurate predictions of
temperature, rainfall patterns, and extreme events at local scales (Menon et al., 2018).
Furthermore, integrating climate models with crop models can enhance the assessment of crop
responses to climate change and aid in decision-making for adaptive strategies (Singh et al.,
2020).
7.2 Climate-Smart Technologies and Practices
Further research is needed to develop and optimize climate-smart technologies and
practices tailored to the diverse agro ecological regions of India. This includes the development
of climate-resilient crop varieties with improved tolerance to heat, drought, and pests (Rani et al.,
2021). Additionally, the evaluation and promotion of sustainable and resource-efficient practices

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such as precision agriculture, agroforestry, and organic farming can contribute to climate change
adaptation and mitigation (Rao et al., 2022).
7.3 Socioeconomic and Policy Research
In-depth socioeconomic research is essential for understanding the implications of
climate change on rural livelihoods, farm incomes, and food security. Studies examining the
social dimensions of climate change adaptation and the effectiveness of policy interventions can
inform the design and implementation of targeted measures (Srivastava et al., 2020).
Furthermore, investigating the economic feasibility and cost-effectiveness of different adaptation
strategies can assist policymakers and stakeholders in making informed decisions (Kumar et al.,
2023).
7.4 Stakeholder Engagement and Knowledge Exchange
Enhancing stakeholder engagement and promoting knowledge exchange among
researchers, policymakers, farmers, and other stakeholders are critical for effective climate
change adaptation in Indian agriculture. Participatory research approaches, farmer field schools,
and platforms for knowledge sharing can facilitate the co-design and dissemination of context-
specific solutions (Sarkar et al., 2019). Additionally, integrating indigenous knowledge and
traditional practices into adaptation strategies can improve their relevance and effectiveness
(Mukherjee et al., 2021).
Conclusion:
In conclusion, climate change poses significant challenges to Indian agriculture,
impacting crop production, water availability, pest dynamics, and farmer livelihoods. Adapting
to climate change requires a multi-dimensional approach, integrating technological,
socioeconomic, and policy interventions. Strategies such as resilient crop varieties, precision
agriculture, water management, and stakeholder engagement are essential. Future research
should focus on improving climate modelling, developing climate-smart technologies,
conducting socioeconomic studies, and fostering knowledge exchange. By addressing these
challenges and embracing opportunities, India can build climate-resilient agricultural systems for
food security and sustainable livelihoods.
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RESEARCH TRENDS IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE:

A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Praimathi A
Department of Medical Surgical Nursing,
Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University,
Kasturba Gandhi Nursing College, Pillaiyarkuppam, Puducherry 607402
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Agricultural science plays a crucial role in addressing the global challenges of food
security, environmental sustainability, and climate changes. This research aims to provide an
overview of the current trends in agricultural science by analysing recent studies and
advancements in the field. The content will cover various sub-disciplines of agricultural science,
including crop science, soil science, plant breeding, agricultural engineering, and precision
agriculture, with relevant references to support the discussed trends. This comprehensive review
explores the current research trends in agricultural science, highlighting key areas of focus,
emerging technologies, and innovative approaches that are shaping the future of agriculture.
Introduction:
Importance of agricultural science in global food production Key challenges faced by the
agricultural sector Role of research in addressing these challenges. The introduction provides an
overview of the importance of agricultural science in addressing global challenges such as
feeding a growing population, mitigating climate change impacts, and ensuring sustainable
agricultural practices. It emphasizes the need for continuous research and innovation to enhance
productivity, efficiency, and environmental sustainability in agriculture1.
1.Precision Agriculture:
Precision agriculture involves the use of advanced technologies, such as remote sensing,
geographic information systems (GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS), to optimize farm
management practices. This section discusses the applications of precision agriculture in crop
monitoring, yield prediction, resource management, and decision support systems.
2.Sustainable Crop Production:
With the increasing demand for food, there is a pressing need to enhance crop
productivity while minimizing environmental impact. This section explores research trends in
sustainable crop production, including the development of drought-tolerant and disease-resistant
crop varieties, integrated pest management, soil health management, and agroecological
approaches2.
3.Agricultural Biotechnology:
Biotechnology plays a crucial role in agricultural science, enabling the development of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and biotechnological tools for crop improvement. This
section covers advancements in gene editing technologies, genetic engineering, and the potential
of biotechnology in addressing crop diseases, pests, and nutritional deficiencies.

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4.Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation:
Climate change poses significant challenges to agricultural systems worldwide. This
section focuses on research efforts to develop climate-resilient crops, sustainable irrigation
practices, carbon sequestration in soils, and the use of renewable energy sources in agriculture. It
also discusses the role of agricultural practices in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions3.
5.Digital Agriculture and Big Data:
The digital revolution has transformed agriculture, enabling farmers to collect and
analyze vast amounts of data for improved decision-making. This section explores the role of big
data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), and Internet of Things (IoT) in agriculture, including
farm automation, smart sensors, and predictive modeling for optimized resource allocation.
6. Agricultural Waste Management:
Effective management of agricultural waste is essential for sustainable farming. This
section discusses research trends in the utilization of crop residues, animal manure, and agro-
industrial byproducts for bioenergy production, organic fertilizers, and waste reduction
strategies.
7.Water Management in Agriculture:
Water scarcity is a critical issue in many agricultural regions. This section focuses on
research advancements in water-efficient irrigation systems, precision irrigation technologies,
water harvesting, and wastewater treatment for agricultural reuse.
8.Agricultural Policy and Economics:
Agricultural policies and economic factors significantly influence the development and
sustainability of the agricultural sector. This section explores research trends in agricultural
policy analysis, market dynamics, trade, and the economic impact of technological innovations
in agriculture.
9. Future Perspectives and Challenges:
The review concludes by summarizing the key research trends in agricultural science and
identifying future challenges. It highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration,
knowledge sharing, and the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices for a resilient and food-
secure future 4,5
10.Crop Science
➢ Genomic and molecular approaches in crop improvement
➢ Development of stress-tolerant and disease-resistant crop varieties
➢ Application of biotechnology in crop production
➢ Sustainable intensification of cropping systems
11.Soil Science
➢ Soil health and fertility management
➢ Precision soil mapping and nutrient management
➢ Soil microbiology and its impact on plant health
➢ Soil conservation and erosion control techniques

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12.Plant Breeding
➢ Marker-assisted breeding for accelerated crop improvement
➢ Hybridization and genetic diversity in breeding programs
➢ Application of genomic selection in plant breeding
➢ Breeding for nutritional quality and functional traits 6
13.Agricultural Engineering
➢ Automation and robotics in agricultural operations
➢ Sensor technologies for monitoring and optimization
➢ Smart irrigation and water management systems
➢ Energy-efficient and sustainable farming practices
14.Precision Agriculture
➢ Remote sensing and GIS applications in agriculture
➢ Farm data analytics and decision support systems
➢ Variable rate technology for optimized input management
➢
Integration of Internet of Things (IoT) in agriculture7
15.Sustainable Agriculture
➢ Organic and regenerative farming practices
➢ Agroecology and biodiversity conservation
➢ Climate-smart agriculture and carbon sequestration
➢ Circular economy approaches in agricultural systems
16.Emerging Technologies
➢ Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 technology in agriculture
➢ Artificial intelligence and machine learning applications
➢ Nanotechnology for enhanced nutrient delivery and pest control
➢ Biodegradable materials for sustainable packaging
17. Future Perspectives
➢ Role of interdisciplinary research in agricultural science
➢ Integration of digital technologies for data-driven farming
➢ Adoption of climate-resilient and resource-efficient practices
➢ Collaboration and knowledge-sharing for global agricultural development 8,9
Conclusion:
Summary of the key research trends in agricultural science. Implications for sustainable
food production and environmental stewardship. These emerging research trends in agricultural
science highlight the ongoing efforts to address global challenges related to food security,
climate change, and sustainable agriculture. By leveraging innovative technologies, ecological
principles, and genetic advancements, scientists are paving the way for more resilient,
productive, and environmentally friendly agricultural systems. Continued research and
collaboration in these areas 10.

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References:
1. Lowder, S. K., Skoet, J., & Raney, T. (2016). The number, size, and distribution of farms,
smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Development, 87, 16-29.
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2019). The future of
food and agriculture: Alternative pathways to 2050.
3. Van Ittersum, M. K., Cassman, K. G., Grassini, P., Wolf, J., Tittonell, P., & Hochman, Z.
(2013). Yield gap analysis with local to global relevance—A review. Field Crops
Research, 143, 4-17.
4. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., Derpsch, R., & Altieri, M. (2019). The spread of conservation
agriculture: Justification, sustainability and uptake. International Journal of Agricultural
Sustainability, 17(2), 109-124.
5. Giller, K. E., Witter, E., Corbeels, M., & Tittonell, P. (2009). Conservation agriculture and
smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics' view. Field Crops Research, 114(1), 23-34.
6. Lobell, D. B., Schlenker, W., & Costa-Roberts, J. (2011). Climate trends and global crop
production since 1980. Science, 333(6042), 616-620.
7. Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M.,
& Zaks, D. (2011). Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature, 478(7369), 337-342.
8. Godfray, H. C., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., ... &
Toulmin, C. (2010). Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science,
327(5967), 812-818.
9. Ray, D. K., Ramankutty, N., Mueller, N. D., West, P. C., & Foley, J. A. (2012). Recent
patterns of crop yield growth and stagnation. Nature communications, 3(1), 1-8.
10. Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., & Befort, B. L. (2011). Global food demand and the
sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 108(50), 20260-20264.

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ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA: ENVISION FOR A HEALTHY NATION

Kadapa Sreenivasareddy*1, Kalwala Srikanth Reddy1,
Gundreddy Rajareddy2 and Peace Raising Longshang3
1
Division of Agronomy,
2
Division of Entomology,
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi – 110 012
3
Department of Agronomy,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand -263 153
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Organic farming ensures that nature remains clean and abundant. We will notice a buzz
of animal, bird, and insect activity if we visit an organic farm. According to research, there is
approximately 30% more wildlife and plants near ecological production fields than near
conventional farming. This is due to the absence of pesticides and the use of far less fertilizer. It
is time to talk about nutritional security rather than just food security (which consists solely of
carbohydrates). Organic food is perceived as the preferred choice among a plethora of healthy
food options. Organic agriculture is one of several environmentally friendly producing strategies.
The demand for organic food is gradually expanding in both industrialized and emerging
countries, with an annual average growth rate of 20 -25%. Without question, organic agriculture
is one of the fastest-expanding segments of agricultural production. Its potential environmental
benefits and compatibility with integrated agricultural approaches to rural development, may be
viewed as a development tool for the nation.
Keywords: Organic farming, Need for organic, Income, Integrated approach.
1. Introduction:
Northbourne created the phrase 'organic' in his book 'Look to the Land' in 1940. Organic
farming, according to Northbourne, is "an ecological production management system that
promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity." Organic
product is produced without the use of synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, growth hormones,
genetic alteration techniques (such as genetically modified crops), sewage sludge, or chemical
fertilizers (Nourthbourne, 2003). Conventional farming, on the other hand, is the cultivation
procedure in which synthetic pesticides and artificial fertilizers are used to increase crop output
and profit. Organic farming as a growing method has grown in popularity in recent years
(Dangour et al., 2010). Organic foods have emerged as one of the finest options for both
consumers and farmers. Organically farmed foods are an important aspect of living a green
lifestyle (Chopra et al., 2013). It is based on using on-farm resources more efficiently than
industrial agriculture to reduce the use of external inputs. As a result, synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides are avoided. The term "organic" in organic agriculture refers to products that have
been produced in compliance with specified standards during the food production, handling,
processing, and marketing stages, and have been certified by a duly established certification

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agency or authority. In this context, organic farming, focusing on optimal, balanced, efficient and
scientific management of land, water, biodiversity and external inputs has emerged as a solution.
2. Relevance of organic farming
The need for an eco-friendly alternative farming system arose as a result of the negative
consequences of chemical agricultural practices used globally in the second part of the last
century. For generations, our forefathers' farming methods evolved and were less harmful to the
environment. People began to consider various alternative farming systems based on
environmental protection, which would increase human welfare in a variety of ways such as
clean and healthy foods, an ecology conducive to the survival of all living and non-living things,
low use of non-renewable energy sources, and so on as depicted in figure 1. Many farming
systems have resulted from the efforts of both specialists and ordinary people. However, organic
farming is thought to be the greatest of all because of its scientific approach and widespread
acceptance around the world.

Figure 1: Importance and benefits of organic farming

Source: Adopted from Meemken and Qaim 2018

3. The international scenario

There are numerous organizations in Europe, America, and Australia that promote the
organic agricultural movement. These organizations, such as the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and Greenpeace, have investigated the problems
associated with chemical farming practices and compared the benefits of organic farming to the
latter. Since then, organic agricultural movements have extended throughout Asia and Africa.
IFOAM was created in 1972 in France. It leads and manages global organic farming activities by
promoting organic agriculture as an environmentally benign and sustainable practice. IFOAM
engages in a wide range of organic farming-related activities, such as exchanging knowledge and
ideas among its members and representing the movement in governmental, administrative, and
policy-making forums on a national and international scale (IFOAM, 1998).

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The United Nations FAO supports organic farming in member countries. It also aims to
harmonize national organic standards, which is critical for increasing worldwide trade in organic
products. During this time, international trade in organic foods grew at a rate of about 20-22
percent per year. Cotton. Cut flowers, animals, and pot plants are popular non-food items on
global markets. Organic farming is expected to expand globally as many countries adopt their
own standards and rules. The United States and the European Union have extensive National
Organic Programmes, while Japan implemented organic agricultural rules in the early 1990s.
Australia and Canada. New Zealand, Israel, and Brazil have established organic criteria
comparable to those of the United States and the European Union. China. Thailand, South Korea,
the Philippines, Turkey, and Mexico have all formed certification bodies. India has also
implemented the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), which includes national
standards. Organic items are trusted because of the label or logo that has been recognized by the
certification process.
(a) provide a distinguishable label, logo, or symbol
(b) deliver consumers with assurance that the product is truly organic.
4. Need for organic farming in India
The necessity for organic farming in India stems from the unsustainable nature of
agriculture production and the environmental damage caused by traditional farming practices.
The current system of agriculture, which we call 'conventional' and which is practiced all
throughout the world, emerged in western nations as a result of their socioeconomic context,
which supported an overarching goal for wealth creation. Other countries' farming methods are
essentially self-destructive and unsustainable. The current farming method was developed by
Americans who dispossessed Indians of their farms from the beginning. Agriculture and
associated sectors in India employ 65 percent of the workforce and generate 30 percent of the
national GDP. In the future, population expansion and income growth will raise demand for food
grains as well as agricultural raw materials for industry. Obviously, the area under cultivation
cannot be enlarged, and the current 140 million hectares will have to meet future growth in such
demands. There is a strong case for even a decrease in cultivated land as a result of urbanization
and industrialization, which will put significant strain on the existing farmed area. India, which
includes semi-arid and desert parts, can gain from the experiment. IFOAM, which has 600
organizational members from 120 countries, inspired and assisted the organic agriculture
movement in India.
As per current status in India there are several states practicing Natural Farming.
Prominent among them are Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Kerala, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As of now more
than 10 lakh ha. area is covered under natural farming in India as shown in Fig. 2. Different State
governments are promoting natural farming through various schemes. Recently Andhra Pradesh
Government Launch Indo German Global Academy for Agro-ecology Research and learning
(IGGAARL) at Pulivendula on 7th July 2022. As per the study, India which holds almost 20 %

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of the world population has consumption of only 1 % organic produce of the total organic
produce.

Figure 2: Major states in India practicing Natural Farming (Source:

http://naturalfarming.dac.gov.in)

5. Organic agriculture and characterstics

5.1 Organic agriculture and yield
Yields relative to comparable conventional systems are closely related to the
conventional systems' farming intensity. This is true not only for comparing areas, but also for
crops within a region and for specific crops across time. An oversimplification of the impact of
organic agricultural conversion on yield. Several studies have found that in drought conditions,
crops in organic agriculture systems produce much better yields than comparable conventional
agricultural crops. Other research has found that organic systems have reduced long-term
production variability. An assessment of 208 projects in poor tropical countries that implemented
modern organic practices revealed average yield gains of 5-10% in irrigated crops and 50-100%
in rainfed crops (Pretty and Hine, 2001). Some assessments of yield comparison studies have not
supported the so-called organic transition effect, which predicts a yield reduction in the first 1-4
years of transition to organic agriculture, followed by a yield increase once soils have generated
appropriate biological activity (Neera et al., 1999).
5.2 Organic agriculture and food security
The widely held belief that widespread conversion to organic agriculture will cause a
catastrophic reduction in the world's food supply or a sharp increase in the conversion of
undisturbed lands to agriculture has not been substantiated by modelling studies. According to
conversion studies, domestic food consumption wouldn't change much, exports would depend on
the crop, but farming structures would surely change as agriculture diversified. If organic
agriculture were extensively practiced, increased investment in research and extension would
lead to increases in agricultural productivity above current averages. According to Stanhill

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(1990) and Wynen (1994), with today's knowledge and technology, organic farmers cannot
worldwide supply enough food for everyone. This is especially true for developing countries
with high population growth.
6. Nutrient management in organic farming
Many people think of organic farming as a type of agriculture that uses exclusively
organic inputs for nutrition delivery and disease and insect management. In actuality, it is a
specialized type of diversified agriculture in which farming issues are only resolved with the aid
of regional resources. The word "organic" alludes to the idea of a farm as an organism rather
than the specific type of inputs that are employed. On the basis that farm production and
profitability might not increase with just organic inputs due to the extremely limited supply of
organic sources, organic agriculture has frequently come under fire. creation of many
composting techniques, such as vermicomposting, phosphor composting, N-enriched phosphor
composting, etc. improves the quality of composts through enrichment with nutrient-bearing
minerals and other additives. These manures have the ability to effectively meet the nutrient
needs of crops and encourage the activity of good macro- and microflora in the soil. Scientists
and farmers alike have some reservations about whether organic sources alone can provide crops
with the minimum amount of nutrients they need. Only 30% of our total cultivable land is
currently equipped with irrigation, which results in a greater pesticide use rate than rain-fed
zones. Increasing input usage efficiency at each stage of farm operations is a fundamental
necessity for organic farming. As a result, organic farming is frequently referred to as
knowledge-based farming rather than input-based farming. Agrochemical-based, high-input
agriculture is not sustainable over the long term due to a slow drop in factor productivity, which
has a negative effect on the health and condition of the soil (Subbarao, 1999; Stockdale, 2000).
7. Environmental benefits of organic agriculture
The effects of organic farming on the environment support agro-ecosystem interactions
that are essential for both agricultural production and nature preservation. Environmentally
beneficial services include soil formation and stabilization, waste recycling, carbon
sequestration, nitrogen cycling, predation, pollination, and habitat maintenance. The
environmental costs of conventional agriculture are high, and there is compelling evidence that
switching to organic agriculture will significantly improve the environment. A review of over
300 reports found that none of the 18 environmental impact indicators (floral diversity, faunal
diversity, habitat diversity, landscape, soil organic matter, soil biological activity, soil structure,
soil erosion, nitrate leaching, pesticide residues, CO2, N2O, CH4, NH3, nutrient use, water use,
and energy use) showed a significant difference between organic farming systems and
conventional farming systems (Stolze et al., 2000).
8. Problems, constraints and prospects
A change in the agricultural system in a nation with more than a billion citizens should
naturally be carefully considered and necessitate extreme care and prudence. There might be a
number of obstacles along the road.

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8.1 Problems and Constraints
The most significant barrier to the development of organic farming is the government's
reluctance to make a definite decision to support organic farming. According to research, the
following are the main obstacles to the expansion of organic farming in the nation:
a) Lack of awareness
It is a reality that many farmers in the nation are only vaguely familiar with organic
farming and its benefits over traditional farming practises. The agricultural community must be
aware of and willing to use bio-fertilizers and biopesticides. It's also essential to have knowledge
of the availability and value of additional nutrients that can enrich the soil in order to boost
productivity. Farmers are ignorant of how to make compost using contemporary methods and
how to use it.
b) Shortage of bio-mass
Many specialists and knowledgeable farmers are unsure as to whether organic materials
can provide all of the nutrients in the necessary proportions. They believe that even if this issue
can be resolved, the organic matter that is now accessible is insufficient to satisfy the needs.
After harvest, the farms remove the agricultural remains needed to create vermicompost, and
these residues are utilized as fuel and feed.
c) Inadequate supporting infrastructure
Despite the NPOP's approval in 2000, the state governments have not yet developed
policies or a reliable implementation plan. Only four organizations may be accredited, and they
only have knowledge of fruits and vegetables, tea, coffee, and spices.
d) High input costs
India's small and marginal farmers have been using the traditional agricultural method as
a kind of organic farming. The cost of applying organic manures such as groundnut cake, neem
seed and cake, vermicompost, silt, cow dung, and others is rising, making them expensive for
small producers.
e) Marketing problems of organic inputs
Due to the low demand for these items, shops do not want to deal with them, hence they
lack a marketing and distribution network. Other significant issues influencing the markets for
organic inputs in India include higher profit margins for chemical fertilizers and pesticides used
in retail, as well as extensive advertising efforts by producers and dealers.
f) Absence of an appropriate agriculture policy
Promotion of organic farming for both export and internal consumption, the needs of
millions of the poor in terms of food security, and national self-sufficiency in terms of food
production and product are crucial concerns that must be addressed in an effective agriculture
policy of India. To effectively promote organic agriculture, a suitable agriculture policy must be
developed.
g) Lack of financial support
In India, there is no such thing as financial assistance like there is in developed nations
like Germany. Additionally, neither the State nor the Union governments offer any support for

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the marketing of organic products. For the promotion of organic farming, not even the financial
aid given to conventional agricultural methods is present.
h) Low yields
When farmers go from conventional to organic agricultural practises, some yields are lost
as a result of the removal of synthetic inputs. Small and marginal farmers are unable to convert
to organic farming and bear the first 2–3 year production risk. There are no plans in place to pay
them while they are pregnant. If organic agricultural goods are made available, the price
surcharges on such products will not assist much.
i) Inability to meet the export demand
The sophisticated western nations like the United States, the European Union, and
Japan have a significant demand for organic products. According to reports, US customers
are willing to pay a premium price of 60% to 100% for organic goods.
j) Conflicts of interest
In order to react to fertilizers and chemicals, hybrid seeds are created. The traditional
agricultural business has a stake in it, as do the importers of seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides into
the nation. These interests are the reason for their hostility to organic farming.
k) Social and political factors
Political interference in India's agricultural sector aims to grant privileges in exchange for
electoral advantages.
9. Status of organic agriculture in india: production, popularity, and economics
Global demand for organic food and farming has increased. Over the past three decades,
the overall area of farmland used for organic cultivation has continuously expanded since 1985
(Willer and Lernoud, 2019). Globally, there were 69.8 million hectares of land that was
organically managed as of 2017, which is a 20% increase over 2016 (or 11.7 million hectares of
land). According to Willer and Lernoud (2019), this is the organic agricultural industry's biggest
increase ever observed. With a total area of 1.78 million hectares dedicated to organic
agriculture, India moved up to eighth place, surpassing Australia, which has the highest organic
land area at 35.65 million hectares (Willer and Lernoud, 2019). In 2017, Additionally, it was said
that the availability of organic vegetables is reportedly growing significantly on a daily basis
worldwide. India is the country with the most organic producers (835 000), and Asia accounts
for the highest share (40%) of global organic output. In India, organic farming has grown very
slowly, making up approximately 41 000 hectares, or 0.03% of the country's total arable land.
The production of organic farming in India in 2002 was 14 000 tonnes, of which 85% were
exported (Chopra et al., 2013). The lack of a solid government policy to support organic
agriculture was deemed to be the biggest obstacle to the development of organic farming in
India. The expansion of organic farming in India also faced a number of significant challenges,
including poor marketing strategies, a lack of biomass, inadequate infrastructure, high input
costs, inappropriate marketing of organic inputs, ineffective agricultural policies, a lack of
financial support, an inability to meet export demand, poor manure, and low yields (Bhardwaj
and Dhiman, 2019).Numerous initiatives and programmes have recently been put into place by

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the Indian government to promote organic farming there. Among these the most important
include
1. The Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana,
2. Organic Value Chain Development in North Eastern Region Scheme,
3. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana,
4. The mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
a. National Horticulture Mission, b. Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan
states, c. National Bamboo Mission, d. National Horticulture Board, e. Coconut
Development Board, d. Central Institute for Horticulture, Nagaland
5. National Programme for Organic Production,
6. National Project on Organic Farming, and
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (Yadav, 2017).
10. Future opportunities for organic agriculture in India
In India, 55% of the work force and 67% of the population depend on agriculture and
allied industries. India's fastest-growing population's basic needs are satisfied by agriculture,
which generated 30% of the nation's GDP. It has been discovered that organic farming is an
ancient Indian tradition that has been followed for millennia in innumerable farms and rural
communities. Modern farming methods' introduction and the growing weight of the population
have given rise to a preference for conventional farming, which uses synthetic fertilizers,
chemical pesticides, the employment of genetic modification techniques, etc. Even in developing
nations like India, there is a growing demand for produce cultivated organically since consumers
are more conscious of the safety and quality of their food, and the organic approach has a
significant impact on soil health because it uses no chemical pesticides. The potential for
generating revenue from organic farming is enormous (Bhardwaj and Dhiman, 2019). According
to Reddy (2010) and Deshmukh and Babar (2015), India's soil is endowed with a variety of
naturally occurring organic nutrient supplies that support organic farming. India is a nation with
an established traditional agricultural system, creative farmers, vast drylands, and minimal usage
of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, when very minor chemicals are used for a
long time, the north-east hilly portions of the nation produce naturally organic soils (Gour,
2016). Based on their expertise, in-depth observation, tenacity, and practices for sustaining soil
fertility and pest control that are deemed helpful in bolstering organic output and ensuing
economic progress in India, traditional Indian farmers have a keen understanding. It's impressive
how far organic farming has come. With 1.78 million hectares of organic agricultural land in the
world (Willer and Lernoud, 2019), India was the eighth-largest producer of organic food in the
world as of today.
11. Important issues regarding organic farming
India is experiencing negative repercussions of the conventional farming system,
including unsustainable agricultural productivity, environmental degradation, issues with health
and sanitation, etc. As an alternative to the current system, organic agriculture is gaining
popularity.

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8. With the current state of knowledge and technology, a large-scale switch to organic
agriculture would cause a food crisis since, especially in intensive agricultural systems,
organic systems' yield losses from conventional agriculture range from 10 to 15%.
9. An alternate sustainable source of fertilizer supply is organic manure. The potential for
using organic wastes and its actual use is far apart.
10. By managing farming systems strategically and making structural improvements, organic
farming systems may help both the environment and agriculture. Both rich countries like
the United States and emerging ones like India may profit from organic farming.
11. While the advantage of organic foods in terms of health and safety has been established,
there is no scientific proof to support their superiority in terms of flavour and nutrition, as
the majority of research are frequently ambiguous.
12. Lower input costs and favourable price premiums can balance off lower yields and make
organic farms as lucrative as conventional farms, if not more so.
13. Pest and disease control techniques used in organic agricultural systems are mostly
proactive rather than reactive. In contrast to conventional farms, the prevalence of pests
and diseases is often lower on organic farms.
Conclusion:
In India, the unsustainable agricultural productivity, environmental degradation, health
and sanitation issues, etc. are all a result of the traditional farming system. The popularity of
organic agriculture as an alternative to the current system is growing. Many nations have been
successful in converting 2–10% of their farmed land to organic farming. The demand for organic
goods is increasing quickly (20% annually in the major industrialized nations). India looks to be
far behind other countries in the use of organic farming. The NSOP, which have been
established, and the acceptance of four accrediting agencies (all government organizations) with
specialized knowledge of only a few crops appear to be the sole accomplishments to date. The
future for organic farming in India is to increase the area under cultivation, promote farmer-to-
consumer linkages, and create an enabling policy environment. While the government has taken
some initiatives to promote organic farming in the country, the private sector has also promoted
organic farming in India.
References:
1. Bhardwaj, M. and Dhiman, M. (2019). Growth and performance of organic farming in
India: what could be the future prospects? Journal of Current Science 20: 1–8.
2. Chopra, A., Rao, N.C., Gupta, N. and Vashisth, S. (2013). Come sunshine or rain; organic
foods always on tract: a futuristic perspective. International Journal of Nutrition,
Pharmacology Neurological Diseases 3: 202–205.
3. Dangour, A.D., Allen, E., Lock, K. and Uauy, R. (2010). Nutritional composition & health
benefits of organic foods-using systematic reviews to question the available evidence.
Indian Journal of Medical Research 131: 478–480.
4. Deshmukh, M.S. and Babar, N. (2015). Present status and prospects of organic farming in
India. European Academic Research 3: 4271–4287.

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5. Gour, M. (2016). Organic farming in India: status, issues and prospects. SOPAAN-II, 1:
26–36.
6. IFOAM, (1998). The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
(IFOAM) basic standards for organic production and processing. General Assembly,
Argentina, November, IFOAM, Germany. Organic Food Production Act of 1990 (U.S.C) s.
2103.
7. Neera, P., Katano, M. and Hasegawa, T. (1999). Comparison of rice yield after various
years of cultivation by natural farming. Plant Production Science 2: 58–64.
8. Northbourne, Lord. (1940). Look to the Land (Club edition) ("eleventh of the Basis Books
programme and is sold to members only"; "by arrangement with J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd").
9. Pretty, J. and Hine, R. (2001). Reducing food poverty with sustainable agriculture: A
summary of new evidence. SAFE Research Project, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park,
UK, p. 136.
10. Reddy S.B. (2010). Organic farming: status, issues and prospects—a review. Agricultural
Economics Research Review 23: 343–358.
11. Stanhill, G. (1990). The comparative productivity of organic agriculture. Agricultural.
Ecosystem Environment 30, 1–26.
12. Stockdale., E. A., Lampkin, N. H., Hovi, M., Keatinge, R., Lennartsson, E. K. M.,
Macdonald, D. W., Padel, S., Tattersall, F. H., Wolfe, M. S. and Watson, C. A. (2000).
Agronomic and environmental implications of organic farming systems. Advances in
Agronomy. 70: 261–327.
13. Stolze, M., Piorr, A., Haring, A. and Dabbert, S. (2000). The environmental impact of
organic farming in Europe. In Organic Farming in Europe: Economics and Policy,
University of Hohenheim, Hohenheim, Germany.
14. Subba Rao, I. V. (1999). Soil and environmental pollution – A threat to sustainable
agriculture. J. Indian Society Soil Science 47: 611–633.
15. Willer, H. Lernoud J, eds. (2019). The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and
Emerging Trends. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick and IFOAM—
Organics International, Bonn.
16. Wynen, E. (1994). Economics of organic farming in Australia. In The Economics of
Organic Farming (eds Lampkin, N. H. and Padel, S.), CAB, Wallingford, UK, pp. 185–
199.
17. Yadav, M. (2017). Towards a healthier nation: organic farming and government policies in
India. International Journal of Advance Research and Development 2: 153–159.
18. Meemken, E. and Qaim, M. (2018). Organic agriculture, food security, and the
environment. Annual Review of Resource Economics 10 (1):39-63

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RECENT ADVANCES IN MECHANISATION OF PRE-COCOON

SERICULTURAL ACTIVITIES
Sangeeta Dash
Division of Entomology,
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi, 110012
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Sericulture is an agro-based, labour-intensive, cottage industry that is practised
commercially in 25 countries recruiting nearly 30 million people globally. The various
sericultural activities can be broadly classified as pre-cocoon and post-cocoon activities. The pre-
cocoon activities encompass moriculture (raising of mulberry plantations), sericulture (raising of
silk worms), and cocooning /spinning activities of the worms generating huge scope for
employment. Although India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of silk across the globe, it
is still witnessing a big blow from the Chinese and Japanese silk Industries primarily because
foreign silk is superior in quality and less expensive to buy. In India, approximately 65-70% of
cost involved in cocoon production is spent is paying the wages to professionals for various
activities. Manual operation also requires lump sum money, time and resources that further hikes
the production costs. Therefore, mechanisation in all the three sectors of pre-cocoon activities
can aid in production of superior and affordable silk products, cutting down the labour costs to
minimal. This article summarises the importance of mechanisation in pre-cocoon sericultural
activities and various innovative tools and machines available currently in the sector.
Keywords: Mechanisation, Moriculture, Pre-cocoon, Sericulture, Silk
1. Introduction:
Mechanisation precisely means scientific application of tools, machines, and mechanical
aids to procure higher benefits and scale up production, productivity, profitability, and efficiency
with which the work is done. Apart from scaling up production, it reduces the time and cost
involved in doing a particular operation. Mechanisation is also the solution to drudgery currently
witnessed by workers in the sector. It helps in precisely managing the inputs as seeds, fertilizers
or various agro-chemicals and resources. Thus, it helps to boost up the overall income of farmers
and improve the quality of their lives.
Sericulture is the art of rearing silkworms for obtain glossy silk fibers (Vijayakumar et al., 2007).
The sericultural sector demands huge labour in operations like preparation of land, tillage,
planting of seeds or saplings, training and pruning, intercultural operations, application of agro-
chemicals for crop production and protection, intercultural operations, chopping leaves to
required size depending on the stage of the larvae, silkworm egg production, rearing of chawki
and late age worms, selection and mounting of the ripe worms over the cocoonages or
mountages, care during cocoon spinning, cocoon harvesting, and transport of cocoons, and
proper protective measures for disinfection at all stages (Srivastav et al., 2005). In countries like
Japan most of these activities are mechanized, however India is still dependent on manual labour

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or tools that have limited efficiency that further questions the timeliness of these critical
operations. Under tropical conditions approximately 5-6 crops are taken per year, that allots
nearly 60-70 days for each crop (Dandin et al., 2003). Under such situation, assuring the
timeliness of the activities as pruning, weed management in mulberry garden, intercultural
operations, leaf harvests, storage and larval feeding, application of body and bed disinfectants,
mounting and harvesting of cocoons etc. needs to ensure for successful seri-crop production
(Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). The number of man day required for major pre-cocoon
sericultural activities is represented in percentage for India and Japan (Fig. 1) (Dandin et al.,
2003). It can be clearly understood that a greater number of man days are required for every
activity in India as compared to Japan, suggesting that sericulture in Japan is highly mechanized.
Further the labour efficiency index of the two countries shows that labour output is 10 times
higher for mulberry cultivation and 4 times higher for silkworm rearing in Japan as compared to
India (Fig. 2). Therefore, mechanisation becomes critical for various operations in Indian
sericulture industry (Dandin et al., 2003).

Figure 1: Percentage representation of man days required for various operations in pre-
cocoon sericultural activities. (A) Mulberry cultivation (To produce 1500 kg leaf):
Cultivation, fertilizer application and inter-cultivation; (B) Mulberry pruning and other
operations; (C) Plant protection; (D) Silkworm rearing (To produce 60 kg cocoons):
Preparation of rearing house, cleaning, disinfection; (E) Mulberry leaf harvest;
(F) Silkworm rearing; (G) Mounting of worms, cocoon harvesting & marketing. The man
days required for all the above activities are higher in India as compared to Japan

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Figure 2: Labour efficiency index of Japan as compared to India. The labour output in
Japan is 10 times higher for mulberry cultivation and 4 times higher for silkworm rearing
as compared to India

2. Machineries developed
Mulberry cutting preparation machine
Mulberry is the sole food plant of monophagous silkworm Bombyx mori (Dewangan,
2018). It is a hard, woody, recalcitrant, perennial food plant that is mostly propagated by
hardwood cuttings. Preparation of cuttings manually using secateurs, knifes, and conventional
tools is laborious and time consuming. Therefore, CSRTI, Mysore have invented an electrically
operated mulberry cutting preparation machine (Fig. 3a) that is fast, highly efficient and
minimizes drudgery. It prevents any damage or wounds to the cuttings preventing disease
development (Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). While manual preparation of cuttings for plantation
generates 1500-2000 cuttings/day, the machine is known to generate nearly 1200-1400
cuttings/hour. It must be noted that shoots must be firmly held against the cutting blade of the
machine while preparing the cuttings. Also, care must be taken use shoots of optimum thickness,
using too thick shoots may harm the machine and the operator. The machine costs around INR
10,000 (Kawakami and Yanagawa, 2003).
Mulberry leaf chopper
Mulberry leaves are the sole food of silk worm larvae. Larvae of silkworm possess 5
instars and each instar must be fed with leaves of different sizes to meet its nutritional and
physiological demands. Chawki worms/ young age worms (I-II instar) require finely cut fresh,
tender leaves whereas late age worms (III-V instar) require coarse and mature leaves to feed
(Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). Therefore, chopping the leaves and shoots of mulberry to
required size is critical to ensure the health of the larvae. Thus, CSRTI, Mysore developed a
mulberry leaf chopper (Fig. 3b), manually or electrically operated and chops leaves to different
sizes as per the age of the larvae. The machine can chop nearly 150-175 kg of mulberry leaves

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/hour (Srivastav et al., 2005). The leaves are gently fed to the machine with sufficient work area
around the machine. Thus, it saves a lot of time in leaf chopping and ensures the freshness of the
leaves fed to the larvae.
Mulberry shoot crushing machine
Left over mulberry shoots and leaves from the rearing operations serve as raw material
for the compost and vermin compost making which is effectively utilized to enrich the organic
matter of the soil. The mulberry shoot crushing machine (Fig. 3c) is an electrically operated
invention of CSRTI, Mysore that effectively cuts and crushes all types of plant materials
including coconut fronds, thus facilitating quick conversion and fast decomposition of the shoots.
The compost is made ready by 4-5 months instead of 9-12 months in the conventional processes
due to the smaller size of the shoots facilitating easy and quick decomposition (Srivastav et al.,
2005). The machine costs around INR 40,000. Care must be taken not to feed too hard shoots
into the machine that may damage its working and operations.
Disinfectant dusting machine for chawki worms
The chawki worms are susceptible to deadly diseases that may cause severe crop losses.
Therefore, use of silkworm body and rearing bed disinfectants is a curative and a protective
measure to ensure healthy crop. Dusting worms with lime (to reduce moisture in the rearing bed
before the worms settle for moulting) and disinfectants like Vijetha/ Vijetha Supplement/
Ankush/Amruth (to prevent silkworm diseases) etc. is highly important. The electrically operated
dusting machine (Fig. 3d) invented by CSRTI, Mysore, durable, fast, efficient, and ensures
uniform dusting. The machine also minimizes human exposure to the disinfectants and thus is
user-friendly. It is used widely in the chawki rearing centers (CRCs) that facilitates easy
disinfection of the worms. The machine is capable of dusting nearly 18-20 trays per minute. The
estimated cost of the machine is around INR 30,000 (Chanotra and Bali, 2019). While using the
machine care must be taken to use smooth or clump free dry powder formulations.
Mature silkworm separator
Silkworms reach the stage of maturity after the completion of V instar. Therefore, the
ripe worms need to be separated from the mulberry twigs and mounted timely to warrant
synchronization and uniformity in spinning and harvesting operations. Using the silkworm
separator (Fig. 3e) innovated by CSRTI, Mysore, delay in spinning procedures due to manual
handling and operations especially in use of rotary cardboard mountages. The separator is
manual or electrically operated. Manually operated machines costing INR 6000 are used by
small and marginal farmers sufficient for 45-50 dfls/hour whereas electrically operated machines
costing INR 10,000 are used by large farmers sufficient for 120-125 dfls/ hour. The machine
ensures that the mature larvae are not injured during separation from the mulberry twigs. Care
must be taken not to resort separation before the larvae ripe or mature (Chanotra and Bali, 2019).
Seri-Room heater
It is an electrically operated room heater (Fig. 3f) used to maintain desired temperature in
the rearing room. It is durable, efficient and is set to desired temperature as per the age and stage
of the larvae. The heater is supposed to be placed on ground on a levelled surface. The heater

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comes with a cost of INR 5000 (Chanotra and Bali, 2019). It is never recommended in open type
rearing house.
Seri- Humidifier cum heater
It can be used to set desired temperature and humidity (Fig. 3g) as per the larval stage. It
must be ensured that a minimum level of water is maintained in the machine. The machine
comes with a cost of INR 16, 000 (Chanotra and Bali, 2019). It is never recommended in open
type rearing house.

Figure 3: (a) Mulberry cutting preparation machine; (b) Mulberry leaf chopper; (c)
Mulberry shoot crushing machine; (d) Disinfectant dusting machine for chawki worms; (e)
Mature Silkworm separator; (f) Seri-Room Heater; (g) Seri-Humidifier cum Heater

Plastic tray washing machine

Plastic trays are used to rear young and late age worms. The trays need to be frequently
cleaned and disinfected to prevent transmission of diseases. This process is time consuming and
laborious. Additionally, it is not considered user-friendly and leads to excessive use of water. To
counter the above listed issues CSRTI, Mysore has developed a pressurized water spray and
washing and scrubbing system (Fig. 4a) to promote proper disinfection and hygienic rearing of
chawki worms at CRCs and various grainages and egg production centers. It optimizes the
utilization of water and disinfectants. The machine works with an efficiency of cleaning nearly
60-70 trays/ hour (Chanotra and Bali, 2019) and is estimated to cost around INR 35, 000. Care
must be taken to use and wash trays only of specified dimensions in the machines.
Cocoon harvester for rotary mountages
Rotary mountages are mountages having specific section (1560 sections) for mounting
the ripe worms. The mountages are known to yield cocoons of superior quality with uniform size
and high reelability. As the cocoons are separated by slots, the manual harvesting of the cocoons
from such mountages is time consuming and labor-intensive (Chanotra and Bali, 2019).
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Therefore, hand or foot operated cocoon harvesters (Fig. 4b) have been devised for rotary
cardboard and plastic mountages. It is easy, quick and incur no damage to the cocoons while
harvesting (Chanotra and Bali, 2019). The cardboard frame of the mountage is fixed in the
machines and the cocoons are harvested by applying gentle pressure from the back. The machine
costs INR 8000. Care must be taken to apply uniform pressure from all sides in hand operated
cocoon harvesters.
Cocoon harvester for plastic collapsible mountages
Plastic collapsible mountages are plastic wavy corrugations web and are widely used
mountages for spinning cocoons. They are used in self-mounting of the worms. A cocoon
harvester device (Fig. 4c) simplifies the process of obtaining healthy, uniform cocoons from such
mountages (Bindroo and Kishur, 2011). Cleaning and deflossing (removal of outer floss layer of
the cocoon) is also done along with harvesting (Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). The machine also
efficiently sorts out the flimsy and defective cocoons before harvesting. It works with an
efficiency of harvesting cocoons from 150-160 mountages/ hour and costs nearly INR 18000.
Care must be taken to insert only one mountage between the shafts of the machine and allow
gentle movement. Inserting more than one mountage in layers may block the shaft area of the
machine (Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976).
Cocoon deflossing machines

Figure 4: (a) Plastic tray washing machine; (b) Cocoon harvester for rotary mountages;
(c) Cocoon harvester for plastic collapsible mountages; (d) Cocoon deflossers
Floss is the outermost layer of the cocoon which must be removed to find the true reeling
end. Cocoon deflossers (Fig. 4d) are fast, efficient, labour and time saving, cost-effective
machines that work to remove the floss layer of the cocoons. Cocoons are fed to machine in a
single layer and the floss is carefully removed without damaging the cocoon. They can be

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manual (INR 2500), motorized (INR 12,500) and motorized cum hand operated (INR 10,000).
Care must be taken to remove the floss collected or deposited in the machine frequently for its
efficient working (Chanotra and Bali, 2019).
Folding and bundling tool for plastic collapsible mountages
Plastic collapsible mountages are reusable and durable. However, they must be stored
while maintaining its proper shape and using less space. The bundling tool (Fig. 5a) helps to
properly fold the mountage after use and the folded mountages are kept one above the other into
a frame that maintains its shape and integrity (Srivastav et al., 2005). It is metal frame to fold
and hold the plastic collapsible mountages and costs INR 200.
Silkworm seed cocoon cutting machine
The machine (Fig. 5b) facilitates the fast cutting of the seed cocoons and reduces the
drudgery involved in the process (Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). It is finely adjustable to the
cocoon size. It works with an efficiency of cutting approximately 5000-5500 cocoons/ hour and
costs INR 35000. Care must be taken to place only uniform size cocoons to the slot avoiding
double, pierced and flimsy cocoon (Verma and Dandin, 2006).

Figure 5: (a) Folding and bundling tool for plastic collapsible mountages;
(b) Seed cocoon cutting machine

Conclusion:
Mechanisation is the key to efficient utilisation of manpower. It reduces labour
requirement, curtails the cost of production, reduces the drudgery, and ensures timeliness at
various levels of production. Mulberry cultivation is known to require 800-man days/ha/year
which can be reduced to just 80-man days (1/10th) /ha/year involving mechanisation of
operations (Rangaswami and Jolly, 1976). Similarly, rearing of silkworms demands labour that
can be reduced to minimum using mechanisation. Hence, mechanisation in pre-cocoon
sericultural activities is essential to endure profitability of sericultural sector, reduce import
dependency, expand sericultural operations horizontally and elevate the quality of Indian silk.
References:
1. Bindroo, B. B., Kishur, M. V. 2011. R. and D Advancements in Indian Sericulture
Proceedings of the Golden Jubilee National Conference Sericulture Innovations: Before

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(ISBN: 978-93-88901-65-9)
and Beyond. Technologies Developed by CSRTI Mysore. Golden Jubilee Publications,
Mysore, India.
2. Chanotra, S., Bali, K. 2019. Importance of mechanization in sericulture industry. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 8(6): 912-914.
3. Dewangan, S. K. 2018. Economics of Sericulture-A Study of Raigarh District—
Chhattisgarh–India. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering
Technology. 6 (1): 573-579.
4. Dandin, S. B., Jayaswal, J., Giridhar, K. 2003. Handbook of Sericulture Technologies (3rd
Edn.). Central Silk Board (Ministry of Textiles – Govt. of India, BTM Layout, Madiwala,
Bangalore). pp. 1-277.
5. Kawakami, K. and Yanagawa. 2003.Illustrated Working Process of New Mulberry
Cultivation Technology (English – Kannada). JICA, India Project for Strengthening
Extension System for Bivoltine Sericulture in India. pp. 1-78.
6. Rangaswamy, S. and Jolly, M. S. 1976. Sericulture Manual 1 – Mulberry Cultivation.
Agricultural Services Bulletin 15, FAO, Rome.
7. Singh, G. B. 1995. Mechanization in silkworm rearing. Indian Silk. 35(2):21-25.
8. Srivastav, P. K., Thangavelu, K., Baghel, S. S. 2005. Sericulture and Seri-biodiversity.
Associated Publishing, 41.
9. Verma, S., Dandin, S. B. 2006. Mechanization in sericulture, publication. Director, CSRTI,
Mysore. p. 78.
10. Vijayakumar, P. B., Katti, S. R., Venkatesh, H. 2007. Studies on the growth rate in some
pure races of Bombyx mori during the fifth instar. Journal of Experimental Zoology, India.
10 (2): 277-280.

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A SUSTAINABLE AND ECO-FRIENDLY ALTERNATIVE TO

TRADITIONAL PESTICIDES IN AGRICULTURAL CROPS
Swapan Kumar Chowdhury
Department of Botany,
Balurghat College, Balurghat, Dakshin Dinajpur, West Bengal, India
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Agricultural practices that are sustainable integrate effective resource utilization with
minimal environmental impact. As a result of these practices, a potential tool that is highly
effective, target-specific, and responsible for reducing environmental risks may be found as an
alternative to synthetic pesticides. Biopesticides are of various origin that includes several types
of entomopathogenic viruses, fungus, bacteria,certain nematodes, and alsoplant secondary
metabolites, are gaining increasing importance as they are alternatives to chemical pesticides and
are a major component of many pest control programs. It also plays an important role in
sustainability of agricultural bio-economy. Given how quickly the world's population is growing,
managing agricultural production systems in a sustainable way is one of humanity's greatest
challenges going forward. The advantages to the ecosystem provided by many significant
biological resources justify the incorporation of biopesticides in IPM programmes. The use of
biopesticides has been advanced via research and development, significantly reducing
environmental contamination. The creation of biopesticides encourages agricultural
modernization and will undoubtedly lead to a progressive abolition of chemical pesticides. The
main objective of biopesticide research is to develop cheap biopesticide products that may be
used on farms as a tool in integrated pest management strategies. Further research is required in
several areas, including bioformulation and areas like commercialization, and biopesticide
research is still ongoing. The development of biopesticides at this time is primarily focused on
expanding their action spectrum and replacing chemical pesticides, its role in integrated pest
management, use of botanical and semiochemical in pest management have been discussed in
this review.
Keywords: Biopesticides, Eco-friendly pesticide, Sustainable Agriculture, Microorganisms,
Bioeconomy, Bacteria, Fungi
1. Introduction:
According to FIFRA, a pesticide is "any substance or aggregate of substances meant for
use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant, as well as any substance or aggregate of
substances meant for use in stopping, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any insects, rodents,
nematodes, fungi, or weeds, or any other forms of lifestyles declared to be pests." From the till
the existing, numerous combinations were advanced to govern fungi, insects, weeds, and
different pests. Starting in the past due Nineteen Sixties, the capability of the chlorinated
hydrocarbons for bioaccumulation and lengthy-term toxicity became widely identified [1].
Herbicides or weed-killers may also be taken into consideration as pesticides, and are used to kill

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undesirable plant life that allows you to go away the desired crop surprisingly unharmed and
properly supplied with vitamins, main to a more worthwhile harvest [2].
However, the world meals manufacturing is continuously stricken by bugs and pests at
some point of crop increase, harvest and storage. As a be counted of truth, there may be a
predicted loss of 18–20% concerning the once-a-year crop production international,
accomplishing a cost of greater than USD 470 billion [3]. Moreover, bugs and pests now not
only represent a menace to our homes, gardens and reservoirs of water, however also, they
transmit a number of sicknesses through appearing as hosts to a few ailment-causing parasites.
consequently, the mitigation or manipulate of pests’ sports may also lead to a good-sized
reduction of the world food crisis in addition to the improvement of human and animal health
[4]. Very few insecticides applied after DDT have long half-lives in the environment, and none
of them bioaccumulate in the same way as organochlorines did. This intricate is illustrated as
properly via the neonicotinoid insecticides (inclusive of imidacloprid, clothianidin,
thiamethoxam, acetamiprid and thiacloprid). This greater latest class of molecules is active
towards several pests (focused on the acetylcholine receptors) and may be implemented to
distinct cultures (which include tobacco, cotton, peach and tomato).
This focus on pest issues and the environment has led to the search for efficient and
insecticides that break down over time, preventing pest resistance, which is likewise pest-precise,
non-phytotoxic, trustworthy to mammals and comparatively less high-priced to be able to reap a
sustainable crop production. in addition to the attention completed inside the numerous
international locations (which includes China, united states of america, Brazil or Turkey) and
also in European Union, the law has end up increasingly more stringent and binding with the
effects of a inexperienced preference inside the use of pesticides and approbation of plant
derivatives allowed in the organic manipulate regulation (as an instance: clove (Syzygium
aromaticum [L.] Merr. and L.M. Perry [Myrtaceae]) crucial oil within the European Union, the
derived terpenes from Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Amaranthaceae) in US, Ginkgo (Ginko
biloba L. [Ginkgoaceae]) fruit extract and Psoralea corylifolia L. (Leguminosae) seed extract in
China or the extract of Tephrosia candida DC. (Fabaceae) in Brazil. When biopesticides are
economically priced, target-specific, less harmful to human health, bio-degradable, and thus
ecologically friendly, they can achieve the necessary criteria, become crucial for resolving pest
issues, and promote sustainable production. Biopesticides are pest control sellers based totally on
biochemicals derived from dwelling microorganisms, bugs and plants. In this review, we can
attention on biopesticides from plant foundation. The insecticides that are derived from plants
include (elements that kill bugs in any degree of improvement: adults, ova and larvae), which act
with the aid of numerous exclusive mechanisms affecting one or greater biological systems,
along with anxious, breathing and endocrine structures, as well as water balance. Additionally,
pesticides can also be categorized relying at the mode of its access into the insect, specifically:
belly poisons, touch poisons and fumigants.
2. Biopesticides: A historical perspective
Insecticides are substances or mixtures of substances that may be used specifically in
agriculture or in public health safety programmes to protect plants from pathogens, weeds, or

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diseases, as well as people from vector-borne illnesses like malaria, dengue fever, and
schistosomiasis. Typical examples include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, and
plant growth regulators.
In her book "Silent Spring," released in 1962, Rachel Carson discussed the problems that
could arise from the widespread use of insecticides. The effects of pesticides on human health
and the environment were greatly sparked by this work Ratcliffe observed an increase in the
number of raptor nests with damaged eggs in the UK in 1967. Pest resistance began to appear in
the 1970s, and this, together with the book "Silent Springinfluence's and mounting evidence of
the effects of pesticides, led to the U.S.'s 1972 ban on the use of DDT.Thereafter, different
nations discontinued using DDT, as nicely [5].
From another study that can be concluded that pesticides are regularly considered a short,
clean and less expensive answer for controlling weeds and insect pests in urban landscapes.
Insecticides have infected almost every factor of our environment. Stable phase extraction (SPE)
is used to extract organochlorine pesticide residues from water samples [1]. The study conducted
inside the floor water of Sharda River Place in Lakhimpur Kheeri, Uttar Pradesh, India, reports
the concentration tiers and distribution patterns of the 21 organochlorine pesticide residues. The
highest amount often encountered Dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide, and isomers were some of the
organochlorine pesticides found in surface water. The incidence of these compounds in Sharda
River region floor waters may be attributed to severe agricultural interest in addition to trans-
boundary pollution [3]. However, it has been found that agrochemicals pose serious risks, and
certain pesticides may potentially have an impact on human endocrine and immunological
systems and promote the growth of cancer.
One of the important studies found a relationship between the amount of pesticides
applied and the signs and symptoms of illnesses brought on by exposure in the spray farmers of
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India, who sprayed insecticides by themselves and were thus
immediately exposed to insecticides. Most acute symptoms and signs and symptoms reported by
the 18-month spray farmers included burning/stinging of the eyes (18.42%), impaired vision
(23.68%), skin redness/itching (50%) excessive sweating/breathlessness (34.2%), a dry sore
throat (21.05%), and burning of the nose (28.9. That look at honestly talks approximately the
urgency and there may be a need for developing greater focus many of the farm sprayers and
government in imposing and making sure the usage of protecting tools whilst managing
pesticides [6]. Pesticide residues have been found in soil, air, surface, and groundwater,
indicating that pesticides have contaminated practically every aspect of our
environment.Pesticide infection poses big risks to the surroundings and non-target organisms
ranging from useful soil microorganisms to insects, plants, fish, and birds. An assessment was
done to show the effect of changing agricultural practices on human health in Sri Lanka and
concluded that unfavorable agricultural conduct, which include the immoderate and
indiscriminate use of poisonous agrochemicals, permitting endured environmental infection and
contamination of the human meals chain [7]. However, considering the fact that a number of
destructive outcomes of this insecticide had been pronounced, utilization of DDT changed into
banned global huge. Regardless of the excessive restrict, DDT is still illegally used in lots of

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areas, particularly in developing countries. DDT's terrible effects on human fitness had been
widely publicized in order to warn the public and head off unforeseen catastrophes [4].
3. Need toward cleaner and safer agricultural practices
Current agricultural practices include the extensive production and considerable use of
chemical compounds regarded for their capacity to motive poor health consequences in humans
and wildlife and to degrade the herbal surroundings. Therefore, a pressing strategic approach is
wanted for a discount inside the use of agrochemicals and for the implementation of sustainable
practices [8]. The reduction in the use of agrochemicals via applying them best whilst and
wherein they're important, the spatiotemporal variability of all of the soil and crop factors of a
given field should be considered. This variability consists of yield, field, soil, and crop variability
however additionally factors, which include wind harm or flooding. Technology-based
structures, such as global positioning systems, geographic statistics systems, and other sensors,
can be helpful [9]. A modern idea evolved with the aid of the worldwide movement “through
Campesina,” become the democratic concept of food sovereignty that has followed the
development toward sustainability for more than two decades. It obtained a robust basis in 2007
in the African village the big appleéléni in Mali, where representatives from more than 80
countries adopted the “statement of nyéléni.” according to its concepts, all the people of the
world have the proper to choose their very own national and neighborhood regulations to
eliminate poverty, malnutrition, and hunger, to guard their traditions and additionally the natural
surroundings [10].
4. Types of biopesticides
Biopesticides are substances with pesticidal residences that originate from natural
dwelling organisms, together with microorganisms, flowers, and animals. There are 3
fundamental classes that biopesticides fall into:
4.1 Microbial pesticides:
These biopesticides are produced with the aid of microorganisms, which includes
microorganism, viruses, and certain fungi. Every form of microbial pesticide objectives a
particular species or small institution of species. It’s far commonplace that microbial insecticides
manipulate a large kind of pests. A number of the prominent examples are: inexperienced-
Verticillium, Tricho-inexperienced, Micromix-guard, Micromix-Biofert, Pseudo inexperienced,
inexperienced-Beauveria, Meta inexperienced Pacelo inexperienced. Beauveria spp., Isaria spp.,
Lecanicillium spp., Metarhizium spp., etc.
4.2. Biochemical/herbal pesticides:
Those are materials certainly going on in the environment that control pests. This could
encompass plant extracts that lure and lure bugs or insect pheromones that interfere with mating.
It is able to consist of botanical extractions which might be lively in opposition to plant disorder
pathogens and different pests. A biochemical pesticide, one of 3 primary instructions of
biopesticides, is a natural pesticide that utilizes obviously happening materials in place of
chemical compounds to manipulate pests.
4. 3. Plant-incorporated Protectants (PIPs):
Those insecticides are comprised of plants as a result of every other genetically integrated
cloth introduced to that plant (aka. GM vegetation). At the same time as this utility of
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insecticides originates from herbal fabric, it additionally interferes with the herbal biochemistry
of the goal organism and is as a consequence extensively contested. While PIP vegetation goal
insects; they may be called "insect-resistant." PIP-producing vegetation can help growers lower
the amount of pesticides they use on their fields. Some of the plants that can be made to produce
PIPs are corn, soybeans, cotton, potatoes and plums. As a natural pesticide choice, herbal
microbial and biochemical insecticides are the type usually used by farmers and growers to
govern a present pest hassle, due to the fact they may be implemented like synthetic pesticides
however without the poisonous damage. Right here at Soil technology Corp., we utilize herbal
microbial and biochemical pesticides in our merchandise to correctly target pests in an
environmentally sound way. Let's focus a little more on these biopesticides and how they
function. In order to target the crucial area of the plant, microbial and biochemical pesticides are
increasingly used as soil additives or seed treatments.While microorganisms are brought to the
soil/plant complex they launch families of biochemical molecules to a centered environment,
which includes the surface of the leaf or stem or in the root rhizosphere.The pesticidal residences
of the microbial biochemical excretions then resource the plant in its affected regions.The
maximum extensively used microbial pesticide are varieties of the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis
or Bt. every pressure of bacterium produces distinctive proteins which can be toxic to certain
bugs, in particular focused on insect larvae.Certainly derived materials consisting of copper,
baking soda, sesame oil, clove oil, rosemary oil and canola oil are also taken into consideration
biopesticides.
Other classes of Bioinsecticides of current era are as follows:
4.4. Mycopesticide
Mycopesticides consist of fungi and fungi mobile components. Propagules which include
conidia, blastospores, chlamydospores, oospores, and zygospores had been evaluated, at the side
of hydrolytic enzyme mixtures. The position of hydrolytic enzymes specially chitinases within
the killing process, and the viable use of chitin synthesis inhibitors are the top research regions.
4.5. Nanotechnologically designed pesticides
The encapsulation of some biological compounds in nanoparticulate structures has been
proven to enhance their effectiveness in opposition to pests, reduce their toxicity in the direction
of human beings and the surroundings, and lessen the losses as a result of physical deterioration
(which includes volatilization and leaching). For that reason, nanotechnology can also useful
resource within the advent of much less poisonous biopesticides with perfect safety profiles,
extra energetic agent balance, stepped forward efficacy against the supposed pests, and higher
quit-person attractiveness. Neem (Azadirachta indica) oil can be successfully covered from short
degradation via the usage of nanoparticles, imparting a more sustained action on the intended
pests. Due to the fact there's currently a lack of tremendous expertise concerning risk evaluation
factors and the subsequent toxicity of nanoparticles toward additives of agro ecosystems after
their release into the surroundings, destiny studies need to cognizance on ways to keep away
from the dangers related to the use of nanoparticles.

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Table 1: A broad description of some common biopesticides, their types, sources, and target crops with the authors who published such
reports

Source Type Organism Pest Type Target Crop References

Virus Insecticide Cydiapomonella codling moth apples and pears [13]
granulovirus
Oomycetes Herbicide Phytophthora Moreniaorderata citrus crops [14]
palmivora
Talaromyces flavus; Biopesticides Glomerellacingulata and Strawberry, Cotton, [15 - 21]
Clitoriaternatea (butterfly Colletotrichum acutatum; Helicoverpa Gladiolus hybrids,
pea); Trichoderma spp.; Fusariumoxysporum Agelastica alder leaf, and
harzianum; Bacillus alni; Spodoptera litura, hazelnut, other
thuringiensis var. Helicoverpaarmigera, Aphis gossypii; economically
tenebrionis; Lactobacillus Xanthomonas fragariae; Spodoptera important plants and
casei fermentation products littoralis and others trees
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Mutual Fungi Fusarium verticillioides; pathogens Zea mays [22 - 24]
Fungi inhabitant in the affecting below ground plant organs
roots
Microalgae Filamentous Nostoc piscinale; [25]
cyanobacterium; Chlamydopodium
Single-celled fusiforme;
green algae Chlorella vulgaris
Anabaena laxa and Increase in fungicidal Coriander, cumin, [1]
Calothrix elenkinii activity and fennel

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Attractant Citronellol tetranychid mites apples, cucurbits, [26, 27]
grapes, hops, nuts,
pears, stone fruit,
nursery, and
ornamental crops
Semiochemical Attractant Multi-component codling moth Fruits, such as [28]
sex pheromone, apples
such as (E,E)-8,10- and pears
dodecadien-1-ol
Nanobiopesticide Silver None Alternaria alternatasolani Alternaria leaf blight [29]
nanobiopesticide and leaf spot
diseases in tomato,
pepper, and potato
Sargassum None Lepidopteran pest [29]
muticum
derived nps
Caulerpa None Culex quinquefasciatus [29]
scalpelliformis
& Mesocyclops
longisetus-
derived nps
Bacteria Insecticide Bacillus caterpillars, fungi (Botrytis), Elm Leaf vegetables, fruits, [30];[31];[3
thuringiensis Beetle, Alfalfa weevil ornamentals, cereals 2].
var kurstaki Potato
B. thuringiensis var
tenebrionis
Fungicide Bacillus subtilis Botrytis spp. vegetables, fruits, [33];[31]
and ornamentals

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Insecticide Beauveria bassiana Whitefly protected edible and [34]
ornamental plant
production
Fungi Fungicide Trichoderma Sclerotinia S sclerotiorum spp outdoor edible and [35];[36]
harzianum nonedible crops and
protected crops
Starwberry crops
Herbicide Chondrostereum cut stumps of hardwood trees and Forestry [37]
purpureum shrubs

Nematicide Paecilomyceslilaci nematodes in soil vegetables, soft fruit, [38]

nus citrus, ornamentals,
tobacco and turf
Neem (Azadirachta indica) Insecticide Azadirachtin aphids, scale, thrips, whitefly, vegetables, fruits, [39]
eafhoppers, weevils herbs, and
ornamental crop
Plant extracts Fungicide Reynoutria powdery mildew, downy mildew, protected ornamental [40]
sachalinensis Botrytis, late blight, citrus canker and edible crops
(giant
knotweed) extract
Herbicide Plant essential oils Ragwort, many arthropods Grassland [37]
Nematicide Quillajasaponaria plant parasitic vineyards, orchards, [33]
field crops,
ornamentals and turf

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4.6. RNA interference enabled pesticide technology

RNAi has been used to goal weeds that tolerate Roundup. RNAi may be mixed with a
silicone surfactant that shall we the RNA molecules enter air-exchange holes inside the plant's
surface. This disrupted the gene for tolerance long sufficient to allow the herbicide paintings.
This method could allow the ongoing use of glyphosate-primarily based herbicides. Companies
like Syngenta and Bayer are researching the use of RNA interference in spray-on (RNAi)
insecticides. However, the Australian Safe Food Foundation asserted in 2012 that the RNA
trigger intended to alter the starch content of wheat might disrupt the gene for a human liver
enzyme. Supporters responded that RNA no longer seems to be present in human saliva or
stomach juices. The EPA was warned by the US Honey Bee Advisory Board that using RNA
might put natural systems at "the pinnacle of risk."The beekeepers advised that pollinators can be
harm with the aid of unintended results and that the genomes of many insects are nonetheless
undetermined. Differentunassisted risks encompass ecological (given the need for sustained
presence for herbicides) and feasible RNA goes with the flow across species boundary [11]. A
European RNA companion named Devgen was given to Syngenta in 2012. RNA is being studied
by startup forest improvements as a potential treatment for the citrus greening disease that, in
2014, caused 22 percent of Florida's oranges to fall off the trees [12].
5. Advantages and disadvantages of biopesticides
Why then utilize biopesticides when other synthetic pesticides are readily available
everywhere? One is that biopesticides have been simply recognized and comprehended for
hundreds of millions of years. These plants are accustomed to and responsive to biopesticides,
thus there are no significant negative effects. Also, natural microbial and biochemical materials
are common to our worldwide ecology and are without problems processed in our ecology with
minimal opportunity of environmental imbalancethat is the tremendous distinction from artificial
pesticides. Plants and different living organisms are not accustomed or responsive to synthetic
molecules, and this unfamiliarity outcomes in rejection or terrible response and side effects.
Because the plant doesn't know how to store these synthetic substances, malignant cells that
grow abnormally and cause flaws in normal organic characteristics can develop in the plant.
Biopesticides also show a number of other advantages over synthetic pesticides, including.
Further to controlling pests and sicknesses, they produce little toxic residue, and are of minimum
danger to human fitness. By providing alternatives to traditional chemical pesticides, they can
minimize the pressure on pest populations to develop pesticide resistance. It is generally believed
that there is little chance that diseases and pests would evolve a resistance to biopesticides. They
often have desirable compatibility each with biological pest control sellers (natural enemies) and
conventional chemical pesticides, so may be quite simply integrated into IPM programmes.
Similarly, to their ability to control pests and illnesses, biopesticides produce very little
poisonous residue and in part for that reason they may be usually considered to be minimal
danger products for human fitness. Many biopesticides do not have to be automatically
monitored by regulatory bodies or retailers since they are residue-exempt. Re-access and
managing times are becoming more important considerations when choosing a plant protection

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product to be utilized, especially in covered crops. Some microbial biopesticides can proliferate
on or near the target pest or illness, providing a degree of self-perpetuating control, and
biopesticides can frequently be applied with existing spray systems. There is strong evidence that
some microbial biopesticides can inhibit the expression of resistance as soon as it has evolved.
As alternatives to traditional chemical pesticides, they could help minimize the selection pressure
for the evolution of pesticide resistance in pest populations.
6. Regulatory framework of biopesticides
Biopesticides have attracted interest in pest control in current many years, and feature
long been promoted as potential alternatives to artificial pesticides. In India, the pesticides Act of
1968 and the rules created under it govern all pesticides, including biopesticides. In order to
eliminate any harm to people or animals, the legislation governs the import, manufacturing,
delivery, sale, distribution, and use of pesticides. As of 26/02/2018, 287 pesticides are registered
for use in India under section 9(3) of the Insecticide Act, 1968, and technical grade insecticides
are produced locally. Globally, biopesticides manufacturing is 4.5% and in U.S. it is 6%,
whereas in India, it accounts most effective three% of the full chemical pesticides
manufacturing. Currently, most effective 12 styles of biopesticides together with neem primarily
based and microbial primarily based formulations are registered under the Insecticide Act, 1968
in India. As a result, there has been an increase in the demand for food safety and quality in
recent years, which is reflected in the severe safety requirements on product imports and the
rules for the amount of pesticide residue on commodities [39]. Furthermore, an increasing
number of high standards concerning product satisfactory are continuously being set. Of the total
insecticides produced, the usage of artificial insecticides in India is set 50% on cotton crop by me
followed through 17% on rice [41]. In India, the average per-hectare consumption of pesticides is
currently around 280 g/ha, and the use of insecticides is increasing at a rate of 2 to 5% per year.
Biopesticides had been registered beneath the tips of the pesticides Act, 1968, which become
approved by means of the pesticide Registration Committee in India. Numerous stakeholders,
along with scientists, regulators, entrepreneurs, and quit-users, are worried inside the
development and commercialization chain of pest manipulate merchandise. Some participants on
this chain are often worried from the earliest stages of the development manner, but there are
many troubles nonetheless to be resolved; the entrepreneurs may frequently disagree with the
regulators and scientists, such that end-users are often perplexed with the aid of perceived
weaknesses inside the very last product [40].
7. Production, formulation and commercialization of biopesticides
There are 361 biocontrol laboratories and devices operating in India, according to the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), but only a small number of
them are focused on manufacturing. Records indicate, however, that during the past few decades,
the consumption of biopesticides has increased in India. For instance, consumption of neem, one
of the most widely used biopesticides in India, went from 83 metric tonnes (MT) in 1994–1995
to 686 MT in 1999–2000, while consumption of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) climbed from 40 to
71 MT during the same time period. But, it became only a few years ago that the status

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committee on chemicals and fertilizers (2012–2013) throughout the fifteenth Lok Sabha
submitted its file on the production and availability of pesticides in India. The committee
reported that from 123 metric tonnes (MT) in 1994-1995 to 8110 MT in 2011-2012, the use of
biopesticides has increased above and beyond expectations. According to information obtained
from DPPQS, the overall intake of biopesticides in India increased by 40% between 2014–2015
and 2018–2019. According to statistics, Himachal Pradesh and Goa used the least amount of
biopesticides—36 and 38 MT, respectively—while Maharashtra, West Bengal, and Karnataka
used the most—5549, 4416, and 3478 MT, respectively. This information also explains why
biocontrol programmes in northern US states have a lower reach than those in the south. In
previous couple of years, the improvement of microbial biostimulants or biopesticides for
reinforcing plant growth and disease eradication has emerged as an alternative, but a broader
element of their application as biostimulant merchandise has remained in infancy specially in
developing nations. At the financial and social degree also, this climate friendly method is going
through many hurdles and lagging a long way behind their competition, the synthetic fertilizers
and insecticides. Most of the instances, it has been discovered that bioformulations available for
a particular crop do not deliver properly results in field equal to the ones inside the laboratory
situations. Diverse experts from around the world are always working to develop bioformulated
products that are easier to use, more aggressive toward plant diseases, and capable of protecting
more target plants. The entire bioformulation development process, from microbe screening to
product enhancement and implementation, should be examined. Microbe-based formulations,
also known as bioformulations or biopesticides, are more potent than synthetic poisons because
they can directly interact with pathogens and have a variety of mechanisms for preventing illness
and stimulating plant growth [42].
It turns into necessary to isolate and pick out some neighborhood strains of biocontrol
dealers and screen them towards the pests or pathogens of particular region. Such a diagnosed
strain of biocontrol agent will adapt well to the local situation and provide a higher protection
under discipline situations. So the studies were initiated to discover biocontrol capability of
microorganisms in an effort to develop a price powerful and realistic control approach in
augmenting sickness manage. Evaluation of massive wide variety of soil samples collected from
extraordinary components of the arid vicinity brought about isolation of native biocontrol seller’s
viz., Trichoderma harzianum, T. longibrachiatum, Aspergillus versicolor, A. nidulans,
Penicillium oxalicum, Bacillus firmus, B. tequilensis, and Streptomyces mexicanus from one-of-
a-kind agricultural structures [43]. Those biocontrol marketers have proved their adverse
capacity in laboratory exams. Within the subsequent step, their field efficacy on most generally
grown crops, bushes, and their impact on resident microflora was studied in order to verify
whether or not any bioagent has unfavorable impact on native organisms.
Commercialization of biopesticides is a multistep manner. Even though it is simple for
any research organization to become aware of every location's particular biocontrol agent stress,
it will be rather challenging to move it to an industrial level of manufacturing. Because any
biocontrol agent must go through the same registration procedures as all chemical pesticides,

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which are arduous, expensive, and time-consuming. Farmers constantly look in their direction
with skepticism since the effects of biopesticides are unpredictable. Once more, because
microbial biopesticides are living organisms, a number of variables like temperature, moisture,
pH, ultraviolet spectrum, and soil conditions have a negative impact on their survival. The sellers
and shops also are least endorsed to sell biopesticides because of less shelf-existence of the
product, low earnings margin and absence of normal demand amongst farmers. a lot of these
together have led to restrained adoption of biopesticides many of the farmers. But, the diffusion
and use of natural and merchandise for pest and sicknesses and nutrient control in agriculture has
increased in recent decades in India as a result of several reasons:
1. To “make sure environment sustainability” turned into one of the 8 Millennium development
desires (MDGs) of the united countries. All the countries inclusive of India are slowly
transferring their national policies in the direction of renewable electricity assets and green
technologies.
2. Self-sufficiency in food production: The country has attained self-sufficiency in food grain
production due to the fact 1980’s. This has enabled India to shift its awareness in the
direction of satisfactory of meals production while maintaining the amount of modern meals
grain production degrees. India’s modern agricultural policies are aimed toward sustainable
control of herbal assets, sustainability of agriculture, enhancing farm earning, and removing
malnutrition. A few unproven technologies are being encouraged to eventually replace or
lessen agriculture that uses a lot of chemicals.
3. Growing attention amongst customers: increase in great of existence and profits ranges have
enabled the city population in becoming greater conscious at the pleasant of food products
being fed on through them. Healthy food and lifestyle has become a concern and numerous
and chemical loose food is trendy by means of this phase of the society.
4. Increase in region underneath organic/chemical loose agriculture: there's growth in location
beneath natural agriculture in India, which once more illustrates the shift toward reduction in
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as practiced in depth agriculture. The overall
vicinity dedicated to organic agriculture in Asia changed into greater than 5.9 million
hectares in 2019. There had been 1.4 million manufacturers, most of which have been in
India.
The leading international locations by means of area were India (2.3 million ha) and
China (over 2.2 million ha). With most effective 1.3% of total agricultural land beneath natural
agriculture, India stands 5th most of the countries with largest regions of natural agricultural land
in 2019 at the global level [44]. On a global scale, there were at least 3.1 million organic
manufacturers in 2019. See Sustainability and the Economy, pp. 1376–1385. The top three
producers are Ethiopia, Uganda, and India (1366226, 210353). (203602). While chemical
insecticides failed to eradicate Helicoverpaarmigera, Spodoptera litura, and other pests of cotton,
biocontrol made a major technological advance in India. It was discovered that biocontrol is the
most effective and economical way to combat the significant resistance of pest insects to
chemical insecticides. Later, biopesticides were incorporated into IPM, which had previously

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been only focused on the use of chemical pesticides. In this context, biopesticides are crucial in
promoting organic and environmentally friendly farming.
8. Biopesticides Market
According to a Fortune Commercial Enterprise Insights report, a CAGR of 9.38% is
predicted for the India biopesticides market, which is expected to increase from USD 69.62
million in 2022 to USD 130.37 million by 2029. Another data from the World Market Analysis
Forum (GMAF) unequivocally demonstrates that the global market for biopesticides topped
USD 2.5 billion in 2021 and is expected to increase by more than 11% CAGR from 2022 to
2030.Growing consumer demand for organic fruits and vegetables, along with advancements in
farming technology, will drive market growth throughout the forecast period. Growing consumer
preference for natural and organic foods as a result of the continued trend toward healthy living
has favorably influenced the biopesticides industry over the anticipated timeframe. Biopesticides
are pesticides that are unmistakably derived from plants, animals, minerals, and microbes. The
global biopesticides market is expanding as consumers become more aware of the risks and
health problems associated with eating food containing insecticides, such as respiratory
problems, neurological damage, hypersensitive reactions, and many more. Increasing necessity
to increase agricultural output because of hastily growing population and reducing arable land
region is assisting the biopesticides business call for. Further, growing agricultural improvement
in international locations like Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Africa, and Malaysia is major thing
using the marketplace data. Agriculture plays an essential position within the monetary
improvement of African and Asian location, contributing round 47% employments in 2021
across the area.Biopesticides are quite valuable for ecological and environmental stability in
terms of crop safety.Additionally, speedy technological advancement thru systematic and
sizeable research has positively motivated the industry penetration.Stringent rules to limit the
pesticide residue in food products is growing new growth opportunities for the biopesticide
producers. To meet consumer expectations inside the advanced economies of North America and
Europe, the majority of food exporting nations utilise biopesticides. However, the COVID-19
epidemic has resulted in low customer purchasing power and delivery chain disruption, which
may limit the market's demand for biopesticides.
9. Mode of action of biopesticides
In addition to being effective alternatives to conventional insecticides, biopesticides—
which include entomopathogenic viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and plant secondary
metabolites—are also a key component of many pest control strategies. Different biopesticides'
virulence, including that of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), bacteria, and plant products, has
been thoroughly examined in a lab setting. The selected ones have also undergone rigorous field
testing with notable success. Currently, commercially available biopesticide products (including
beneficial insects) are available for the control of pests and illnesses. The general intention of
biopesticide research is to make those biopesticide products available at farm degree at alow cost
rate, and this will grow to be a likely tool inside the incorporated pest management method.
Moreover, biopesticide research continues to be going on and further studies is needed in lots of

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factors consisting of bioformulation and areas inclusive of commercialization. There has been a
sizeable renewal of industrial interest in biopesticides as established by means of the full-size
quantity of agreements among pesticide companies and bioproduct agencies which permit the
improvement of effective biopesticides inside the market. Numerous bacterial species and
subspecies, in particular Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and so forth., have been hooked up as
biopesticides and are normally used to control insect and plant illnesses. Maximum salient
amongst those are insecticides primarily based onseveral subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis
Berliner. The crystalline proteins produced by Bt kill a select group of nuisance insect species,
such as lepidopteran species. The target insect pest is identified by the Bt crystalline proteins'
attachment to the insect intestinal receptor [45]. The parasporal inclusion bodies (-endotoxins),
which can be formed over the duration of sporulation period, are typically attributed to the
toxicity of Bti and some other toxic lines. To achieve toxicity, those end toxins need to be
ingested by the larvae. Bt and its subspecies create a special insecticidal crystal protein (-
endotoxins) that has a distinctly toxic effect [46]. These pollutants can harm intestine tissues
when consumed by larvae, leading to gut paralysis. After that, the inflamed larvae forestall
feeding and finally they die from the blended results of starvation and midgut epithelium
impairment [47,48]. Grey suggested Bt toxins produced by using plant boom-selling
rhizobacteria, which additionally broaden bacteriocin compounds of insecticidal attributes. M.
anisopliae Sorokin var. anisopliae is an essential entomopathogenic fungus. It propagates
international in the soil, demonstrating a huge range of insect host species [49]. This subspecies
turned into first defined in 1879 by way of Metschnikoff. These entomopathogenic fungi were
regarded as safe and appeared as an environmentally fine opportunity to artificial chemical
pesticides [50,51]. These entomopathogenic fungi are currently being developed for commercial
use for the biological control of a number of pests and have recently been registered as microbial
merchants [52].
Entomopathogenic nematodes are soil-dwelling, soft-bodied, un-segmented roundworms
that are naturally present in water film near soil particles. Nematodes are obligatory or
occasionally facultative parasites that seek for their host insects in response to chemical cues like
vibration, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Commercially, two families—Steinernematidae and
Heterorhabditidae—have been successfully discovered and applied as biological controls in pest
management plans. Products containing S. carpocapsae, S. thermophilum, H. bacteriophora, and
H. indica are authorised for sale in India.M. azedarachtree grows within the tropical and
subtropical components of Asia, however nowadays it is also cultivated in different warm
locations of the sector due to its great climatic tolerance. The leaves of M. azedarach are used for
his or her insecticidal activity, while the fruit extracts of M. azedarach produce a spread of
consequences in bugs, consisting of increase retardation, reduced fecundity, molting disorders,
and conduct changes [53]. Luminum oxide, silver, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide nanoparticles
have been used in larvicidal experiments to treat grasseries disease in silkworms and rice weevils
[54]. The larvicidal activity could be studied using the leaf dip method. Usually, the leaf discs of
the host plant are dipped in different concentrations of synthesized nano biopesticides based on

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leaf extracts of plants. The activity is recorded after 24 h of treatment with a continuous supply
of fresh leaves for healthy growth. The larval mortality rates are recorded after 24–96 h of
treatment. Successful tests have been done on the effectiveness of CdS, nano-Ag, and nano-TiO2
nanoparticles against larvae [55]. The immersion methods have been used for recording the
mortality of mosquito larvae and pupae. Ag NPs synthesized from the leaf extracts of Ambrosia
arborescens were more toxic to Aedes egypti when the immersion method was used for various
larval stages [56]. Similarly, the effectiveness of the immersion technique for mosquito larvae
and pupae has been demonstrated by the pupicidal capacity of silver nanoparticles made from
Euphorbia hirta against Anopheles stephensi [57].
10. Challenges and Future perspectives
Farmers need more secure insecticides to guard their plant crops, making biopesticides an
super choice as opposed to chemical dealers. But implementation, production and improvement
of biopesticides retain to have many challenges. To aid the commercialization of biopesticides,
additional studies in manufacturing, shipping and system have to be carried out. Public-private
quarter integrations have the potential to enhance the manufacturing, improvement and sale of
environmentally pleasant options to chemical insecticides in developing nations. Further,
additional guide of public-funded programs, business buyers and pesticide firms are wanted as
properly. A crucial trouble is growing strict regulatory mechanisms to preserve biopesticides to
be had at low priced fees in developing nations. Accordingly, several boundaries stay for the
improvement of numerous biopesticide [58]. The “first technology” of transgenic vegetation
containing Bt genes can be observed by means of more state-of-the-art “2nd” and “1/3”
technology vegetation with more flexibility in IPM. These encompass plant life with inducible
and tissue-precise expression structures and multiple engineered genes. For the reason that early
Nineteen Eighties, scientific pastime in mycoherbicide studies additionally has more quickly in
terms of the number of weeds that are controlled and prospective pathogens that are researched.
The use of both registered and unlicensed mycoherbicides has increased globally. Additionally,
the number of U.S.A. patents issued during the mycoherbicidal era increased dramatically [59].
New pursuits in biopesticides that combine fitness/environmental problems and commercial
pressures for agrochemicals have precipitated significant advances in studies of organic
manipulate marketers. Through the had era, the reliability and efficacy of biopesticides may be
stepped forward. Further, product charges are persevering with to say no because of
developments in manufacturing generation. There are still a number of challenges that want to be
addressed, yet severa marketplace projections reflect the capacity for business biopesticide
manufacturing. Bt manufacturing specially is anticipated to continue to grow, but big sales in
bio-fungicides and bioherbicides are predicted as nicely [60].
Conclusion:
Chemicals are widespread on the market and have remained there for many years because
natural products have economic value. Natural items are believed to have these qualities that
give rise to novel mechanisms. The implementation of the concept of natural biopesticides and
their impact on high-output displays has been challenging, but there have been some notable

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successes in circumstances where some crop disruption is acceptable. There have been several
works carried out recently to enhance shelf life, immediate death, biological scheme, efficiency
in the field, and dependability, as well as the effect of cost-of-living systems. Due to their ability
to prevent the use of dangerous synthetic chemical pesticides in their place, biopesticides are
essential to integrated pest control. Biopesticides, a sustainable substitute for traditional
pesticides, can maintain agricultural output while defending the environment. To increase
agricultural productivity, a pest control approach that makes use of efficient insect resistance
management strategies is essential. Employing biological methods or implementing integrated
biological conventional methods is the most efficient way to control pests. Because of
advancements in application methods, eco-friendly substitutes, and less expensive possibilities
for many formulations, the usage of biopesticides has increased. In light of this, using
biopesticides to manage pests makes more sense, especially when higher cost-efficiency
becomes a reality in the near future.
Acknowledgements:
Author thanks Dr. Swarnendu Mandal, Department of Botany, MUC College for
providing concept to carry out this manuscript.
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29. Narware J, Yadav RN, Keswani C, Singh SP, Singh HB. Silver nanoparticle-based
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30. Koul, O., Walia, S. and Dhaliwal, G.S., 2008. Essential oils as green pesticides: potential
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31. Bravo, A., Gill, S.S. and Soberon, M. Mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry and Cyt
toxins and their potential for insect control. Toxicon. 2007;9(4):423-435.
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37. Chaudhary S, Kanwar RK, Sehgal A, Cahill DM, Barrow CJ, Sehgal R, Kanwar JR.
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39. Isman, M.B. A renaissance for botanical insecticides. Pest Management Science.
2015;71(12):1587-1590.
40. Guerra F, Sepúlveda S. Saponin production from Quillaja genus species. An insight into its
applications and biology. Scientia Agricola. 2020;78.
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insect pest in India. Pestology, 1997;21(8):28-48.
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Essays. 2009;4(10):945-949.
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53. Sitaramaraju S, Prasad NV, Reddy VC, Narayana E. Impact of pesticides used for crop
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55. Chakravarthy AK, Kandakoor SB, Atanu B, Dhanabala K, Gurunatha K, Ramesh P. Bio
efficacy of inorganic nanoparticles CdS, Nano-Ag and Nano-TiO2 against Spodoptera
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56. Agalya Priyadarshini K, Murugan K, Panneerselvam C, Ponarulselvam S, Hwang JS,
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Euphorbia hirta against Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology
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57. Saberi, F., Marzban, R., Ardjmand, M., Shariati, F.P. and Tavakoli, O. Optimization of
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58. Tabrez, S., Priyadarshini, M., Priyamvada, S., Khan, M.S., Arivarasu, N.A. and Zaidi, S.K.
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Trends von morgen. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz/Journal of
Plant Diseases and Protection. 2005;209:21.

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DIGITALIZATION IN AGRICULTURE FOR INNOVATIVE

TRANSFORMATION IN INDIA
Sneh Yadav*1, Karan Ahlawat2, Poonam Yadav1 and Narender Singh1
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mahendergarh,
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004, India
2
Department of Forestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Digitalization holds immense potential to revolutionize India's agricultural sector,
ushering in substantial innovation and transformation. By embracing digital technologies, India
can bolster agricultural productivity, curtail wastage, boost agricultural exports, elevate farmers'
income, and fortify food and nutrition security. Moreover, this shift towards digital solutions
contributes to environmental conservation and fosters sustainable development within the
agricultural domain. The escalating accessibility of the internet and mobile phones across India
has already made a profound impact on multiple sectors, including agriculture, education,
healthcare, and e-commerce. This trend serves as a testament to the readiness of Indian
agriculture for a digital metamorphosis. Within this context, this chapter delves into the profound
implications of digitalization on agriculture, illuminating its potential for innovative
transformation in India. It confronts the existing challenges plaguing the Indian agricultural
landscape while spotlighting the pivotal role of digital technologies in surmounting these
obstacles. Noteworthy digitalization initiatives within Indian agriculture, such as precision
farming, blockchain-based supply chain management, and data analytics, are also scrutinized in
this chapter. Furthermore, the chapter assesses the benefits, risks, and future prospects tied to the
digitalization of agriculture, underscoring the necessity for policy support and robust
infrastructure development to fully harness its transformative capabilities. Through strategic
implementation and concerted efforts, India's agricultural sector stands to leap into a more
technologically advanced and sustainable future.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, Digitalization, Innovation, Indian agriculture
Introduction:
India has long been an agrarian society, with agriculture playing a vital role in its economy.
However, the sector faces several challenges, including limited access to information, outdated
farming practices, fragmented markets, and inefficient supply chains. Digitalization, with its
ability to leverage technology and data, offers innovative solutions to these challenges. By
integrating digital technologies into agriculture, India can enhance productivity, improve
resource management, and ensure sustainable agricultural practices. It can be seen that growth
and penetration of digital infrastructure in India is quite high. India has the world’s second-
largest mobile phone market, with 1.2 billion mobile phone subscribers as of December 2021.
The internet penetration in rural India is 41% as opposed to 71% in the cities and towns. The
study estimates that India will be home to 900 million net users by the end of 2025 and that 56%

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of the 141 million new netizens will be from rural India. The digitalization of agriculture can
drive innovation and transformation in broadly four sectors of Indian agriculture, viz. (i)
Precision agriculture, (ii) Climate-smart agriculture, (iii) Supply chain management, and (iv)
Financial inclusion.
1. Precision agriculture
Precision farming involves the use of advanced technologies like satellite imagery,
drones, and sensors to gather data on soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop health. This
data-driven approach enables farmers to make informed decisions regarding irrigation,
fertilization, and pest control. By optimizing resource allocation and minimizing waste, precision
farming enhances productivity while reducing environmental impact. Using digital equipment,
tools, software, process, farmers can monitor their crops, orchards, animals, aquaculture systems,
soil, water, weather, post-production management of produce in real-time, enabling them to
make more informed decisions about planting, irrigation, fertilization, pest management, harvest
and post-harvest management of agricultural produce. This can help to reduce waste, improve
yields and quality, and save costs. Briefs about some major precision agriculture digital
technologies are given as:
1.1 Applications of sensors in agriculture: Sensors are being increasingly used in Indian
agriculture to improve productivity, reduce waste and optimize resource use. Soil moisture
sensors are used to measure real-time soil moisture levels, to optimize the irrigation
practices. Nutrient sensors can provide real-time data to optimize fertilization practices.
Weather sensors can provide real-time data on weather conditions. Crop health sensors are
used to monitor the health and growth of crops. Sensor-based post-harvest management by
using temperature sensors, humidity sensors, ethylene sensors and quality sensors of
agricultural produce can help to reduce post-harvest losses, improve quality, and increase
profitability for farmers. While monitoring quality, farmers can identify potential issues and
take corrective action before the produce is shipped to market. GPS sensors can be used to
track the location of harvested produce during transportation, enabling farmers to monitor
temperature, humidity, and other factors that can impact quality. Further, sensor-based
storage management is an effective method of post-harvest management that can help Indian
farmers to increase their productivity and income, reduce post-harvest losses, and improve
the quality of their produce. This can increase consumer confidence in the produce and help
to build a brand reputation for quality. However, it is important to ensure that these
technologies are accessible and affordable to small-scale and marginalized farmers, who may
not have the resources to invest in such technologies. This may require government support
in the form of subsidies, training programme, and infrastructure investments.
1.2 Variable rate technology (VRT): Variable Rate Technology (VRT) is a precision
agriculture practice that involves the use of technology to apply different amounts of inputs
(e.g. seed, fertilizer, water, pesticides, feed, chemicals) to different parts of a field, orchards,
or any agricultural production system including livestock and fisheries, based on the specific
needs. The use of VRT in agriculture can help to improve productivity, reduce input costs

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and minimize environmental impact. However, it is important to ensure that cost of these
technologies are reduced to make it accessible and affordable to small-scale and marginalized
farmers.
1.3 Drones: Drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have become increasingly popular in
agriculture due to their ability to collect data quickly and efficiently of an object without
physical contact with object. Major applications of drones in agriculture are crop monitoring
with high-resolution cameras, create detailed maps of agricultural land, soil quality,
topography, and drainage patterns. spray crops with precise applications of pesticides and
fertilizers, using in conjunction with other precision agriculture technologies, assess crop
damage caused by natural disasters, monitor the water health and ecological conditions
including fish health and biomass. However, it is important to ensure that drones are used
safely and responsibly, and that farmers are trained in their use. Additionally, regulations
around the use of drones in agriculture should be put in place to ensure that they are used
legally and ethically.
1.4 Robotics: Robotics is the field of technology that involves the design, construction and
operation of robots. In recent years, robotics has been increasingly used in agriculture to
improve efficiency, reduce labour costs and increase productivity. Robots can be successfully
employed for harvesting crops such as fruits and vegetables which can increase efficiency
and reduce labour costs. For example, robotic arms can be used to pick fruits and vegetables,
planting and seeding with precision to detect and remove weeds, water crops with precision,
spraying chemicals which are dangerous to human health. Overall, robotics has the potential
to revolutionize agriculture in India by increasing efficiency, reducing labour costs and
improving productivity. However, the use of robotics in agriculture requires significant
investment in technology, research, and development. Additionally, farmers and farm
workers must be trained in the use of robotics technology to ensure that it is used effectively.
1.5 Artificial intelligence (AI): Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize
Indian agriculture by enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and optimize their crop
yields. It can be effectively used for (i) predictive analytics, (ii) precision agriculture, (iii)
pest and disease management, (iv) soil health management, (v) livestock herd management
and dairy automation, (vi) aquaculture automation and management (vii) market prediction.
In case of predictive analytics, AI can be used to analyse historical weather data and crop
data to make predictions about future crop yields. This can help farmers to plan their planting
and harvesting schedules and optimize their crop management practices. AI helps to identify
pests and diseases early on and recommend appropriate treatment options. This can help
farmers to minimize crop losses and reduce the need for chemical treatments. AI can be used
to analyse soil data and provide recommendations for optimizing soil health. This can help
farmers to reduce soil erosion, improve water retention and increase crop yields.
1.6 Protected cultivation: Protected cultivation is the practice of growing crops under a
controlled environment using structures such as greenhouses, shade net houses and
polyhouses. This method of cultivation has become increasingly popular in Indian agriculture

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due to its ability to protect crops from adverse weather conditions, pests, and diseases. This
reduces the cost of crop management and improves the quality of the crops. This is
particularly beneficial for high-value crops such as vegetables and fruits, which require high-
quality produce to fetch better prices in the market. The protected cultivation is an effective
method of cultivation that can help Indian farmers to increase their productivity and income.
However, it is important to ensure that the structures used for protected cultivation are
sustainable and do not have adverse effects on the environment. Additionally, farmers should
be trained in the use of protected cultivation techniques to ensure that they are used
effectively.
1.7 Vertical farming: Vertical farming is a method of growing crops in vertically stacked layers
using artificial lighting and a controlled environment. This method of cultivation has become
increasingly popular in Indian agriculture due to its ability to produce high yields of crops in
a small space with minimal environmental impact. Apart from the benefits of protected
cultivation it has efficient use of space i.e. vertical farming allows farmers to grow crops in a
small space, making it ideal for urban agriculture and areas with limited land availability.
This can help to increase the productivity of agriculture in cities and reduce the carbon
footprint of transporting food from rural areas. It can be seen that vertical farming is an
effective method of cultivation that can help Indian farmers to increase their productivity and
income, particularly in urban areas.
1.8 Aquaponics and hydroponics: Aquaponics and hydroponics are two modern methods of
cultivation that have become increasingly popular in recent years. Both methods involve
growing plants without soil, using water as the primary growing medium. Aquaponics is a
method of cultivation that combines aquaculture and hydroponics. In this method, fish are
grown in tanks, and the waste produced by the fish is used to fertilize the plants grown
hydroponically, whereas, Hydroponics is a method of cultivation that involves growing
plants in a nutrient-rich solution without soil. The nutrients supplied by the fish waste help to
produce high-quality crops, making aquaponics ideal for high-value crops such as herbs and
leafy vegetables, whereas, in case of hydroponics we apply highly reduced chemical
pesticides and herbicides. The aquaponics and hydroponics are effective methods of
cultivation that can help Indian farmers to increase their productivity and income,
particularly in urban areas or areas with water scarcity.
ICAR initiatives
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated a network program in the field
of precision agriculture named as “ICAR- Network Program on Precision Agriculture (NePPA)”.
This was initiated by the council initially with 16 ICAR research institutes with IARI as lead.
The programme is focused on exploring potential applications of recent developments on
technologies related to sensor, IoTs, drone and ICTs for precision smart agriculture. The major
objectives span its scope over soil fertility, crop health, livestock, post-harvest operations,
aquaculture and upscaling these using advanced technologies like drones, variable rate

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technologies (VRT’s) to enhance input use efficiency and optimal production system. Following
are the major achievements under this programme:
i. Development of spectral models for quick assessment of different soil attributes:
Models were developed using machine learning (ML) algorithms such K-Nearest
Neighbour (KNN), Random Forest (RF), Ridge Regression (RIDGE), Quantile regression
forests (QRF), Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO), Support Vector
Machine (SVM) and Elastic Net (EN). The models were validated and compared, and the
best pipeline was selected for assessment of different soil attributes.
ii. Development of in-house drone: Multirotor quadcopter design for agriculture health
monitoring and surveying has been developed as part of project. It includes features like,
real-time telemetry demonstration at any specified location, full HD live video transmission
with dual camera support, all in one hand-held ground station for flying and mission
planning. It has a payload capacity of 1.5 kg with a flight time of 40 to 45 minutes (without
payload) and has the altitude capability of 120 m.
iii. Development of IoT enabled irrigation scheduling system for field crops: IoT (Internet
of Things) based Irrigation Water Management System (IWMS) was developed and tested
in wheat and chickpea to measure the soil moisture at three different depths, viz. 20 cm, 40
cm and 60 cm. The mobile application pertaining to the irrigation scheduling was also
developed in python and is under testing.
Digital agricultural knowledge dissemination system
Agricultural knowledge dissemination systems are important for providing Indian
farmers with the information they need to make informed decisions about their farming practices.
Digital technologies can play an important role in improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
these systems. In India, following systems are already being implemented by different
organizations responsible for the same:
i. Mobile-based applications: Mobile applications can be developed to provide farmers
with information on crop management practices, weather forecasts, market prices, and
other relevant information. These applications can be designed to be user-friendly and
accessible even for farmers with low literacy levels.
ii. Interactive voice response (IVR) systems: IVR systems can be used to provide farmers
with information on demand, using a telephone. This can be useful for farmers who do
not have access to smartphones or the internet. IVR systems can also be designed to
provide personalized recommendations based on the specific needs of each farmer.
iii. Digital kiosks: Digital kiosks can be set up in rural areas to provide farmers with access
to information on crop management practices, weather forecasts, market prices and other
relevant information. These kiosks can be staffed by trained personnel who can assist
farmers with accessing and interpreting information.
iv. Farmer helplines: Farmer helplines can be set up to provide farmers with advice and
support on a wide range of issues related to agriculture. These helplines can be staffed by

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trained agronomists and other agricultural experts who can provide personalized
recommendations based on the specific needs of each farmer.
v. Social media: Social media platforms such as Facebook and WhatsApp can be used to
disseminate agricultural information to farmers. Farmers can join groups and
communities on these platforms where they can share information and advice with each
other, as well as receive updates on new agricultural practices and technologies.
vi. KISAN SARATHI: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) developed a digital
platform for agricultural extension system named as KISAN SARATHI-System of Agri-
information Resources Auto-transmission and Technology Hub Interface. This has been
developed to support this emerging need of multi ways and multilingual communication
among various agricultural stakeholders. The ultimate goal of this project is to implement
an intelligent online platform for supporting agriculture at local niche with national
perspective. A total of 731 KVKs are enrolled with the system, where more than 3,600
agricultural scientists and subject matter experts are registered with Kisan Sarathi. The
services of Kisan Sarathi for the farmers is available through an IVR based calling system
via toll free numbers 1800-123-2175 and a short number 14426. More than 65 Lacs
farmers are registered on this portal.
2. Climate smart agriculture
Digitalization is rapidly transforming the agriculture sector, and climate-smart agriculture
(CSA) is no exception. Digital technologies can help farmers make better decisions, increase
productivity and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture. Some of the important area of
digitalization related to above field are weather monitoring and forecasting, precision farming,
crop management, market access, data management, and farm management. Digitalization in
CSA is still in its early stages, and there are challenges to overcome, such as the digital divide in
rural areas and the cost of technology. However, the potential benefits are significant, and
digitalization can play a vital role in making agriculture more sustainable and resilient in the face
of climate change.
3. Supply chain management
Digitalization is transforming supply chain management in agriculture by improving
transparency, traceability and efficiency. There are number of ways by which digitalization is
quite beneficial for supply chain management in the field of agriculture. Digital technologies can
capture and store data at the farm level, such as crop yields, soil health, and pesticide use. This
information can help supply chain managers better understand the origin and quality of the
produce they are sourcing. However, there are challenges to overcome, such as the cost of
technology and the need for standardization across the industry. Nonetheless, the potential
benefits of digitalization in agriculture supply chain management are significant, and it is an area
that is likely to see continued growth and innovation in the years to come.
4. Financial inclusion
It is well known that digitalization is a powerful tool for promoting financial inclusion in
agriculture, particularly in developing countries where smallholder farmers often lack access to

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formal financial services. Success of Unified Payment Interface (UPI) which is a fast payment
system, used largely for peer-to-peer payments and is also the most popular peer-to-merchant
retail payment system in India with monthly transaction volumes of 8 billion in December 2022
(NPCI 2022) is quite motivational for adoption of digital platform of financial inclusion
agriculture. Digital technologies such as mobile banking can help farmers access financial
services such as savings accounts, credit and insurance. This can reduce the cost and complexity
of accessing financial services, making it easier for smallholder farmers to participate in the
formal economy. Digital platforms can facilitate payments between farmers, buyers, and
financial institutions. Digital tools can facilitate communication and record-keeping within
groups, making them more efficient and transparent. Further, these tools can provide farmers
with access to financial education and training, enabling them to make informed decisions about
financial management and investment. Digitalization is transforming the financial landscape of
agriculture, and the potential benefits for smallholder farmers are significant.
5. Data analytics:
Data analytics plays a crucial role in transforming agriculture by providing actionable
insights for decision-making. By analyzing large volumes of data, including weather patterns,
market trends, and crop performance, farmers can optimize production, predict yields, and
identify potential risks. Data-driven insights also enable personalized advisory services, ensuring
that farmers receive tailored recommendations for their specific needs.
G20 perspective
The G20 is a forum of the world’s largest economies, including both developed and
developing countries. Digital agriculture is an area of growing importance in the G20, as it has
the potential to improve the sustainability, productivity and profitability of agriculture. The G20
has recognized the importance of digital agriculture and included it in its agenda. In 2018, the
G20 Agricultural Ministers’ Meeting in Buenos Aires, Argentina, discussed the role of digital
agriculture in sustainable food systems and agreed to develop a roadmap for the adoption of
digital technologies in agriculture. G20 has identified several priority areas for digital
agriculture, including (i) Digital infrastructure, (ii) Data governance, (iii) Standards and
interoperability, (iv) Capacity building and (v) Financing. In G20 Meeting of Agricultural Chief
Scientists (MACS) in Varanasi recently during the presidency of India, deliberations were held
on Digital Agriculture and Sustainable Agri Value Chain and Public-Private Partnership. Digital
agriculture is an area of growing importance in the G20, and there is a growing recognition of the
potential benefits of digital technologies in agriculture. The G20 is working to promote the
adoption of digital technologies in agriculture and to address the challenges and barriers to
adoption.
Benefits of digitalization in agriculture
1. Increased productivity:
Digitalization enables farmers to optimize resource allocation, leading to higher yields and
enhanced productivity. By leveraging data and technology, farmers can make informed
decisions regarding irrigation, fertilization, and pest management. Precision farming

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techniques, supported by data analytics, help farmers maximize crop productivity while
minimizing input costs.
2. Enhanced market access:
Digitalization provides farmers with direct access to markets, reducing dependence on
intermediaries and enabling fair pricing. Through online platforms and mobile applications,
farmers can connect with buyers, negotiate prices, and eliminate inefficiencies in the supply
chain. This direct market access empowers farmers, improves their bargaining power, and
ensures a more equitable distribution of profits.
3. Sustainable agricultural practices:
Digitalization promotes sustainable agriculture by optimizing resource management and
reducing environmental impact. Precision farming techniques minimize the use of water,
fertilizers, and pesticides, resulting in improved resource efficiency. Moreover, data analytics
can help identify climate change risks and enable farmers to adopt climate-smart practices for
resilient agriculture.
Risks and challenges in adoption
1. Extent of profitability should be beyond of a threshold through in usage of the
technology;
2. Amount of uncertainty and risk involved in adopting a technology including cost of the
technology;
3. Availability and suitability of technology in the agricultural production cycle;
4. Requirement of skills and learning curve for adoption of the technology;
5. Eco-environment and digital infrastructure availability in a particular region;
6. Level of agricultural production system;
7. Ease of flow of agricultural credits, and
8. Overall policy support for promotion of a technology;
9. Limited Digital Infrastructure;
10. Data Privacy and Security.
Policy support and infrastructure development
To fully leverage the transformative potential of digitalization in agriculture,
policymakers need to prioritize infrastructure development and create an enabling environment.
This includes investments in rural connectivity, skill development programs for farmers, and the
formulation of regulations to protect data privacy and security.
Future prospects
The future of agriculture in India lies in embracing digitalization as a key driver of
innovation and transformation. As technology continues to evolve, emerging trends such as
artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT), and remote sensing hold tremendous potential for
further advancements in agricultural practices. By embracing these technologies and fostering
collaboration between stakeholders, India can unlock new opportunities for sustainable,
productive, and inclusive agriculture.

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Conclusion:
Digitalization has the power to revolutionize Indian agriculture by addressing existing
challenges and fostering innovative transformation. Through precision farming, blockchain-
based supply chain management, and data analytics, farmers can achieve higher productivity,
enhanced market access, and sustainable agricultural practices. However, addressing
infrastructure gaps, ensuring data privacy, and providing policy support are essential to fully
realize the potential of digitalization in transforming Indian agriculture. With the right
investments and collaborative efforts, India can pave the way for a digital revolution that benefits
farmers, consumers, and the entire agricultural ecosystem.
References:
1. https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/digitalisation-agriculture-india
2. https://epubs.icar.org.in/index.php/IndFarm/article/view/138320#
3. https://www.cropin.com/blogs/digitalization-in-agriculture
4. https://csd.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/content/docs/ICT%20India/Papers/ICT_India_
Working_Paper_35.pdf
5. https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2017-chapter5.pdf

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PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR BASIS FOR SALINITY

TOLERANCE IN RICE
Anil Jadhav*1, Amaregouda A2, M. K Meena2 and Channabasava3
1
Department of Crop Physiology, CoA, UAS Raichur, Karnataka
2
Department of Crop Physiology, AC, Raichur, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur
3
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CoA, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction:
Today’s agriculture faces a daunting task of ensuring food security to the increasing
human population on this planet (FAO, 2009). A great proportion (more than 60%) of this
population depends on rice (Oryza sativa L.) as their staple food. Rice contributes up to 20% of
the calories consumed by human nutrition worldwide. Therefore, rice production must increase
during the coming time in order to keep pace with increasing world population. Asia is known as
the main rice producer in the world by yielding more than 650 million tons (90% of total rice
yield worldwide) grown in 145 million ha land. Understanding salinity responses Rice is grown
in a diverse range of environments characterized by various climates and soil-water conditions.
However, adverse environmental conditions critically threaten rice production and causes
significant yield loss in large areas of main productive sectors. Both abiotic and biotic stresses
frequently prevent the attainment of optimum growth and yield of rice. These stresses include
high salinity, drought, heat, and cold which have negative effect on the yield and vegetative
production of rice, and cause a key risk to worldwide food safety (Pareek et al., 2010). Amongst
the various environmental stress factors, salinity is the main hazardous factor limiting crop
productivity.
Rice has been grouped as salinity susceptible cereal at its young stage (Lutts et al., 1995)
and confines its efficiency of production at mature stage (Todaka et al., 2012). To increase the
grain yield of rice under salinity, it is imperative to first understand the basic molecular
machineries of salt tolerance in this plant. Tolerance toward salinity is a quantitative attribute in
plants, regulated by a host of genes (Chinnusamy et al., 2005). Since the last decade, numerous
genes imparting salinity tolerance in plants (including rice) have been identified and
characterized such as those involved in transcription regulation, signal transduction, ion
transportation and metabolic homeostasis (Verma et al., 2007; Kumari et al., 2009). In the
present text, we present our current understanding about effects of soil salinity on rice crop and
the approaches used to increase the tolerance of this crop toward salinity. Further, critical
evaluation of progress made toward raising salinity tolerant rice using functional genomics tools
is also presented.
Salt affected soils classification and distribution:
Salt affected soils classify as saline, sodic, and saline sodic. The three parameters
considered for such classification are electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract (ECe),
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH (Figure 7). Mapped salt affected lands under

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different grades of severity in the world (Figure 7). Most of the salt affected lands correspond to
saline soils (60%), followed by sodic soils (26%), and finally saline‐sodic soils (14%). When
considering the severity of the saline stress, 65% of salt‐affected soils are slightly affected,
followed by 20% moderately, 10% extremely, and 5% highly salt‐affected soils

The major problem in soils classified as saline is the high concentration of soluble salts as
Cl−, SO4−, and sometimes NO3−, and in lower proportion low‐solubility salts, such as CaSO4
and CaCO3.
In this case, exchangeable Na+ and soil clay dispersion are not a problem; therefore,
saline soils maintain the structure of aggregates, and water permeability is good]. In sodic soils,
Na+ is the major problem because high amounts of this cation along with low EC result in soil
dispersion. Clay dispersion occurs when the electrolyte concentration decreases below its
flocculation value.
These soils have weak structural stability and low hydraulic conductivity (HC) and
infiltration rate (IR). These poor physical properties result in decreased crop productivity caused
by poor aeration and reduced water supply. Historically, sodic soils were often called black alkali
soils because sodium causes the dispersion of organic matter and dissolution of humic
substances, which remain on the surface of the land resulting in a dark colour. Saline–sodic soils
present both high soluble salts and exchangeable Na+. The soil maintains the aggregation with
high electrolyte concentration. However, if soluble salts are leached out, usually Na+ becomes a
greater problem since the soil pH rises above 8.5, and the soil aggregates can be dispersed. Soil
salinity is a problem that is spreading globally and is projected to increase in future climate
change scenarios. Salinity problems occur under all climatic conditions and can result from both
natural and human induced actions. However, saline soils are more frequent in arid and semi-arid
regions, where rainfall is insufficient to meet the water requirements of the crops and leach
mineral salts into the root zone. Recent estimates of the global extent of soil salinization are not
available. However, it is reasonable to assume that, since the data gathering in the 1970s and
1980s, salinization expanded and newly affected areas most probably exceed the areas restored
through reclamation and rehabilitation.

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According to the Harmonized World Soil Database (HWSD), salt affected land accounts
for 1128 Mha (saline soils 60%, sodic soils 26%, and saline sodic soils 14%; Figure 7). Salt
affected soils are found all over the world, although their extent and severity are variable (Figure
7). Regions with the largest salt affected land areas are the Middle East (189 Mha), Australia
(169 Mha), North Africa (144 Mha), and the former USSR (126 Mha). Considering only salt
affected land that is in use or has potential use for agriculture (excluding forest, wetlands,
unsuitable land, high biodiversity areas, among others) Africa (295 Mha) and Asia (291 Mha)
have the highest extensions (Table 2). In the world, 971 Mha are affected by salts (Table 2), an
important area considering the increasing need of soils for agriculture as population growth is
rising. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) records in 2011, the global
population was 7.04 billion people, reaching 7.47 billion in 2016. Following this increasing
trend, demographers are forecasting a population size of 8.01 billion for 2025 and 9.01 billion for
2050.
India:
• Arable land area of 159.7 million ha
• Total irrigated crop area 82.6 million ha,
• Total salt affected area 6.73million ha (5.5%)
• Sodic soils 3.77 million ha, Saline soils 2.96 million ha
Geographical distribution of salt affected soils in India:
• Semi-arid Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract: Punjab, Haryana, UP, Delhi, parts of Bihar
• Arid tract: Rajasthan and Gujarat
• Arid and semi-arid tract of central and southern states principally of the irrigated areas
• Coastal-alluvial soil
Table 1: Distribution of world population and land areas affected by salts and assigned to
agricultural uses.
Region Population Land Area with Arable Land Permanent Salt‐Affected
(Millions) Irrigation a b (* 1000 ha) Crops c Land d
(* 1000 ha) (* 1000 ha) (* 1000 ha)
World 7043 324,548 1,395,490 162,100 971
Africa 1077 15,265 230,862 33,571 295
North America 346 27,730 194,640 7526 63
Central America 163 7306 28,195 5178 4
South America 400 15,880 133,326 14,199 57
Asia 4240 228,667 480,140 83,495 291
Europe 738 25,414 274,151 15,211 2
Oceania 37 3261 48,702 1603 144
Former USSR 117

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A. Land area equipped with irrigation infrastructure and equipment to provide water to crops. B.
Total of areas under temporary crops, temporary meadows and pastures, and land with temporary
fallow C. Land cultivated with long‐term crops. D. Salt‐affected land excluding forest, wetlands,
unsuitable and high biodiversity areas.
Salinity mechanisms in plants:
I. Avoidance: Avoidance is the process of keeping the salt ions away from the parts of the plant
where they are harmful.
1. Salt Exclusion
2. Salt Extrusion
3. Salt Dilution
4. Compartmentation of ions
II. Tolerance
Osmotic adjustment
Hormone synthesis - ABA stress hormone, hardens plants against excess salts
Salt exclusion
The ability to exclude salts occurs through filtration at the surface of the root. Root
membranes prevent salt from entering while allowing the water to pass through. The red
mangrove is an example of a salt-excluding species.
Salt excretion/extrusion
Salt excreters remove salt through glands or bladders or cuticle located on each leaf.
Salt bladders -eg) Atriplex, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. Salt glands - active process,
selective for sodium and chloride (eg) Black and white mangroves Secretion through cuticle –
eg) Tamarix Salt glands- dump sites for the excess salt absorbed in water from the soil; help
plants adapt to life in saline environments.
Salt Dilution
By dilution of ions in the tissue of the plant by maintaining succulence. Plants achieve
this by increasing their storage volume by developing thick, fleshy, succulent structures
Succulence is mainly a result of vacuoles of mesophyll cells filling with water and increasing in
size. This mechanism is limited by the dilution capacity of plant tissues

Compartmentation of ions
Organ level - high salts only in roots compared to shoots especially leaves. At cellular
level- high salts in vacuoles than cytoplasm thus protecting enzymes.

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Mechanisms underlying rice salt stress tolerance
Regulation of ionic balance:
Salt stress is commonly caused by high concentrations of Na+ and Cl− in the soil. Na+
and K+ are imported into the cell using the same suite of transporters, and the two cations
compete with each other. K+ is important for the catalytic activities of many central enzymes,
and excess Na+ competes with K+ for uptake across the plasma membranes of plant cells. K+ is
also necessary for osmoregulation and protein synthesis, the preservation of cell turgor, and
optimal photosynthetic activity. The maintenance of cellular Na+/Homeostasis is therefore a
crucial factor that determines the plant’s ability to survive during salt stress.
Mechanisms to reduce cytoplasmic Na+ include restriction of Na+ uptake, increase of
Na+ efflux, and compartmentalization of Na+ in the vacuole. The rice plasma membrane
Na+/H+ antiporter (OsSOS1) excludes Na+ from the shoot, promoting a lower cellular Na+/K+
ratio and increasing salt tolerance. The vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporters OsNHX1, OsNHX2,
OsNHX3, OsNHX4, OsNHX5, and OsARP/OsCTP play important roles in the vacuolar
compartmentalization of Na+ and K+ that accumulate in the cytoplasm and thereby determine
rice salt tolerance. Members of the rice high-affinity K+ transporter (HKT) family, OsHKT1;1,
OsHKT1;4/OsHKT7, and SKC1/OsHKT1;5/OsHKT8, help to reduce Na+ accumulation in
leaves during salt stress. OsHKT1;1, OsHKT2;1, OsHKT2;3/OsHKT3, OsKAT1, OsKAT2,
OsHAK5, andOsHAK21/qSE3 transport Na+ or both Na+ and K+, helping to maintain Na+/K+
homeostasis in the cytoplasm and regulate rice response to salt stress
A number of genes influence rice salt tolerance by regulating the expression of HKT,
NHX, and CLC genes. These include transcription factors such as OsMYBc, OsbZIP71, OsNF-
YC13, and the sucrose nonfermenting1-related protein kinase2 (SnRK2) SAPK4, which directly
activate the expression of K+/Na+ transporters, thereby improving the K+/Na+ ratio and
positively regulating salt tolerance. The myristoylated Ca2+-bindingprotein OsSOS3/OsCBL4
phosphorylates OsSOS2/OsCIPK24, thereby activating the Na+/H+ antiporter OsSOS1and
promoting rice tolerance to salt stress. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)
OsMAPK33plays a negative role in salt tolerance by promoting higher sodium uptake into cells
and thereby lowering the K+/Na+ ratio. The results above suggest that the modulation of
Na+/K+ homeostasis under salt stress may provide an effective way to improve salt tolerance in
rice.
Osmotic adjustment:
Salt stress also causes osmotic stress and promotes the biosynthesis and accumulation of
compatible osmolytes such as sugar, proline, glycine betaine, polyamines, and proteins from the
late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) superfamily. These osmolytes play a dominant role in
osmotic adjustment under salt stress by reducing cell osmotic potential and stabilizing proteins
and cellular structures. The proline synthesis genes OsP5CS1 andOsP5CR increase proline
accumulation and improve rice tolerance to salt stress. OsTPS1, OsTPS2, OsTPS4, OsTPS5,
OsTPS8, and OsTPS9, which encode trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS), enhance rice
tolerance to cold, salt, and drought stresses by increasing trehalose and proline contents under
abiotic stress. OsGMST1, which encodes a monosaccharide transporter, increases
monosaccharide accumulation and improves salt tolerance in plants. The Sugars will eventually
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be exported transporters (SWEETs) OsSWEET13 and OsSWEET15 regulate the transport and
distribution of sucrose and maintain sugar homeostasis in rice under drought and salinity
stresses. Rice glycine betaine is synthesized by the choline monooxygenase OsCMO and the
betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase OsBADH1, which enhance rice tolerance to salt stress by
promoting glycine betaine accumulation. The LEA genes OsLEA3-2, OsLEA4, OsLEA5, and
OsEm1 significantly improve plant tolerance to salt and osmotic stresses
ROS scavenging:
Plant exposure to salt stress can upregulate the production of ROS such as 1.O2 (singlet
oxygen), O2− (superoxide radical), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), and OH− (hydroxyl radical).
Although low ROS concentrations can function as a signal to activate salt stress responses,
excess ROS accumulation causes phytotoxic reactions including DNA mutation, protein
degradation, and the peroxidation of carbohydrates and lipids. Plants use enzymatic and
nonenzymatic antioxidants to mitigate ROS stress.
Enzymatic scavengers include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases
(NOXs, also called respiratory burst oxidase homologs [Rbohs]), superoxide dismutase (SOD),
ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), glutaredoxin (GRX), glutathione peroxidase (GR),
glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidases (GPXs). Nonenzymatic scavengers
include ascorbic acid (ASH), alkaloids, carotenoids, flavonoids, glutathione (GSH), phenolic
compounds, and tocopherol. OsRbohA and OsRbohI are induced by salt treatment, whereas
OsRbohB, OsRbohC, OsRbohE, and OsNox6 are repressed. OsMn-SOD1 and OsCu/Zn-SOD
overexpressionlines show lower accumulation of O2− and H2O2under salt stress. OsAPX2,
OsAPX7, OsAPx8, OsAPXa, and OsAPXb increase APX activity, lower H2O2 and
malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, decrease oxidative stress damage, and enhance rice tolerance to
salt stress. OsGST4 is induced by heavy metals, hypoxia, and salt stress in rice.
Glutathione responsive rice glyoxalase II (OsGLYII-2) functions in salinity adaptation by
maintaining better photosynthetic efficiency and increasing the antioxidant pool. OsGR2,
OsGR3, andOsGRX8 increase GSH content and enhance tolerance to various abiotic stresses,
including salinity, osmotic, and oxidative stress. The cytosolic dihydroorotate dehydrogenase
gene OsDHODH1 improves rice tolerance to salt and osmotic stresses.
The calcium-dependent protein kinases OsCPK4 and OsCPK12 and the receptor-like
kinaseOsSIK1 promote tolerance to salt stress by reducing the accumulation of ROS. The
transcription factors OsZFP179, OsZFP182, OsZFP213, OsHBP1b/OsbZIP3, OsMADS25,
OsMyb2, and OsMyb6 positively regulate salt tolerance by increasing ROS-scavenging ability,
whereas the zinc-finger proteins DST and DCA1 negatively affect rice salt tolerance by
regulating the transcription of ROS-scavenging genes. All these studies suggest that enhancing
ROS-scavenging ability can efficiently increase the salt tolerance of rice.
Nutrient imbalance:
Salt stress causes plant nutritional deficiencies due to reduced transport efficiency and
decreased uptake of nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Zn, and magnesium (Mg). Mg2+ transport by
OsMGT1 in the mature root zone synchronously enhances OsHKT1;5 activity, which restricts
Na+ accumulation in the shoots and improves salt tolerance.

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The rice aminotransferase OsAMTR1 interacts with stress associated protein 1(OsSAP1)
and regulates abiotic stress responses. The cytokinin type-B response regulator (RR) OsRR22
regulates Zn acquisition by directly modulating the expression of Zn-regulated transporter genes
and the sensitivity to salt stress. OsMADS27 regulates root development in a NO3- dependent
manner and modulates salt tolerance in rice.
Adaptive mechanisms in rice for salinity tolerance
Under salt stress conditions, rice plants exhibit various mechanisms to overcome the
damage such as controlling the seedling vigour, reducing the intake of salt through roots,
efficient intra cellular compartmentation and transport of salt.
Seedling vigour:
Salt stress leads to higher accumulation of Na+ in shoots, mainly in mature leaves.
Various reports have shown that limiting Na+ accretion in shoot part under salt stress is linked to
salinity tolerance of barley and wheat. In rice, it has also been verified that sodium ion accretion
in shoot part is comparatively well linked with its growth under salt stress (Yeo et al., 1990).
Rice varieties differ considerably in their rate of development with the most vigorous one being
the conventional landraces and the shorter ones are the cultivated high yielding varieties.
Naturally occurring salt tolerant varieties like Pokkali, Nona Bokora etc. belong to these
conventional tall varieties. In spite of having comparable net transport of Na+ ion through their
roots as partially dwarf salt susceptible cultivars, the high vigor of land races permits them to
tolerate growth decline by diluting the Na+ content in rice cells.
Root permeability and selectivity:
The lethal ions enter into the root along with water that travels from soil to the vascular
part of the root by two routes, i.e., symplastic and apoplastic. In apoplastic pathway which is a
non-energy driven pathway, water travels through intracellular regions to deliver the salt in
xylem. In symplastic pathway, water enters in the roots through epidermal plasma membranes
and then travels cell-to-cell through plasmodesmata until discharging to the xylem. Rice is a
salinity susceptible crop and it has been revealed that a major quantity of sodium ion transported
to the rice shoot parts at the time of salt stress is via apoplastic pathway (Krishnamurthy et al.,
2009). Munns (1985) reported that, under 100 mM of sodium chloride stress, the transport rate of
Na+ ion toward shoots of salt tolerant barley is quite lower (only 20%) in relation to salt
sensitive rice plants.
This observation indicates that a major involvement of Na+ bypass movement in salt
stress-induced shoot causes sodium ion accretion in rice shoots. Although water can passively
move from roots through intercellular space, but there are morphological components called as
suberin lamellae and Casparian band at the root endo and exo-dermis, which restricts the
apoplastic flow of ions and water to go inside the stele (Schreiber et al., 1999). Casparian bands
are formed by transverse and radial walls infusing the pores of primary cell wall with aromatic
and lipophilic materials and suberin lamellae is deposited to the inside surface of cell walls
(Ranathunge et al., 2004). Chemical nature of the root apoplastic barrier is crucial for their
performance (Schreiber et al., 1999).
It was observed that in roots, apoplastic barriers suberization was most common in
salinity tolerant plants, which also has the least Na+ accretion in the shoot parts (Krishnamurthy
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et al., 2009; Cai et al., 2011). Krishnamurthy et al. (2009) have also revealed that in both
susceptible and tolerant varieties, the expression of suberin biosynthetic genes was induced
under salinity stress, which increased the reinforcement of these barriers in roots of rice. Though
the mechanism of apoplastic movement of Na+ has not been clear, Na+ over accretion through
bypass movement in rice shoots is supposed to be the result of Na+ reflexive flow into the
xylem. Roots with weak barrier areas like lateral root originating sites and cell walls of root tip
area were expected to be the possible entrance sites for Na+ bypass movement. Ranathunge et al.
2004 reported the disruption of the endodermal casparian stripes, and ultimately crack through
the fence in the exodermis at the time of lateral roots emergence at the pericycle region next to
the phloem in the root of monocot.

Intracellular compartmentation:
Based on osmotic potential, plant can check Na+ ion to go into the cell by energy driven
process. K+ and Na+ are interceded by dissimilar transporters which have been verified
by Garciadeblas et al. (2003).
Cell ion homeostasis is maintained by the ion pumps like symporters, antiporters, and
carrier proteins present on the membranes. In cereals, Na+ exclusion systems were suggested to
be composed of several transporters present on cell membrane like H+-pump ATPases,
Na+/H+ antiporter and the high-affinity uptake of K+ ion (Jeschke,1984). Salt Overly Sensitive or
SOS pathway of homeostasis is an excellent example of ion management which is turned ‘on’
following the activation of the receptor in response to salinity and transcriptional induction of
genes by signaling intermediate compounds (Sanders, 2000). Zhu et al. (1998) first reported
three sos mutants of Arabidopsis which were hypersensitive to specific salt-NaCl.
When higher accumulation of Na+ in cytosol occurs, Na+ get sequested into the vacuole
before it arrives to a toxic point for enzymatic reactions. This pumping action is regulated by

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vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporters. Increase in level of salt induces the Na+/H+ antiporter action but it
amplifies more in salinity tolerant varieties than salinity susceptible ones. The Na+/H+ exchange
in vacuole is determined through two separate proton pumps, i.e., vacuolar H+-ATPase and
vacuolar H+-translocating pyrophosphatase. Manipulation in the levels of vacuolar transporter
(NHX1) leads to improve salinity tolerance in rice, Arabidopsis, Brassica and Tomato. One
endosomal Na+/H+ antiporter (OsNHX5) and four vacuolar Na+/H+ antiporters (OsNHX1-4) in
rice (Figure 2B).
Osmoprotectants:
Most of the organisms including plants and bacteria accumulate certain organic solutes
(such as sugars, proline etc.) due to osmotic stress. These compounds are called osmoprotectants
because even when present in high concentrations they do not hinder with cellular enzymatic
reactions. These are found in cell cytoplasm and the inorganic ions like Cl- and Na+ are
preferentially seized into the vacuole, consequently leading to the turgor preservation for the cell
under osmotic pressure. The non-reducing sugar trehalose possesses a distinctive feature of
reversible water storage ability to guard cellular molecules from dehydration stress. The
trehalose biosynthesis and accumulation in transgenic rice can provide tolerance to salinity and
drought stresses. Role of other osmoprotectants such as proline, glycine betaine, mannitol etc. in
salt stress tolerance in plants has also been well documented.
Omics-based approaches in the modern era:
Plant molecular biology seeks to study biological and cellular processes like plant
development, its genome organization, and communications with its surroundings. These
multidimensional detailed studies require large-scale experimentation linking the whole genetic,
functional and structural components. These large-scale experimentations are known as ‘omics.’
Chief contributors of ‘omics’ include genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and
phenomics. ‘Omics’ approaches are regularly used in various research disciplines of crop plants,
including rice. These approaches have enhanced very fast during the last decade as the
technologies advance. Following section describes how ‘omics-based’ approaches have helped in
understanding and dissecting out the mechanism of salinity tolerance in rice and helped in
generating several salt tolerant germplasms.
Genomics-based approach molecular marker resources and quantitative trait loci (qtl)
mapping for rice salinity tolerance:
Accessibility of the whole genome sequence of rice has contributed to the rapid
development in the area of functional genomics of salinity tolerance in rice. This information
further supported by development of a number of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
markers and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Both SSR and SNP marker analysis have
been successfully used to discover salt tolerant cultivars of rice. In the recent past, development
of next generation sequencing (NGS) has enabled the sequencing based genotyping way more
efficient. QTL studies for salt stress tolerance have been investigated by several researchers.
Genetic maps of rice have been generated using recombinant inbreed lines developed from
genetically distant varieties, such as indica and japonica rice as parents. Such combinations
generate appreciably more polymorphism than that between the same subspecies. The first rice
genetic map by restriction fragment length polymorphism technique; different fine maps have
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since been generated using various markers such as amplified SSR, random amplified
polymorphic DNA and fragment length polymorphism.
Seven QTL linked with salinity have been recognized for rice seedlings and mapped to
different chromosomes. Using F2 population obtained from a salinity tolerant mutant of rice (M-
20) and the salinity susceptible wild variety (77–170A), a key gene for salinity tolerance has
been mapped on chromosome 7. The chromosomal location selectivity traits of an ion transport
which are companionable with agronomic demands. Mapped a major Saltol QTL which is
flanked by markers RM23 and RM140 on chromosome 1, using a population raised from a cross
among Pokkali and IR29. More than 70% of the difference in salt uptake has been accounted by
this QTL. Pokkali was the basis of positive alleles for this QTL, which accounted for decreased
sodium and potassium ratio under salinity. QTL for increased shoot K+ under salt stress in the
similar position of chromosome 1. Mapping SKC1 on chromosome 1 was a breakthrough which
preserves K+ ion homeostasis in the salinity-tolerant cultivar (Nona Bokra) under salinity
conditions.
Introduction of desired gene/genes into the rice genome for salinity tolerance – the
‘reverse-genetic’ approach:
Plants react to salinity by limiting the intake of toxic ions like Na+ and regulate their
osmotic potential by producing compatible solutes (sugars, glycine betaine, proline etc.) and
partitioning toxic ions into the tonoplasts to maintain low Na+ levels in the cytoplasm. Salinity
tolerant transgenic rice plants were generated by getting ideas from the above observation.
Produced transgenic rice by introduction and over-expression of late embryogenesis abundant
(LEA) protein from barley. Their study demonstrated that the transgenic rice possessed a better
growth rate under 200 mM of salinity and better recovery upon removal of stress. Similarly,
genetically engineered rice has also been developed with the capacity to produce glycine betaine
bay gene (codA) encodes choline oxidase and it has been found to have better salt (150 mM
NaCl) tolerance than the WT.
Genome modification through mutation breeding for salinity tolerance in rice – the
‘forward-genetics’approach:
Although efforts to advance stress tolerance in plant by genetic manipulation have
resulted in some significant achievements, mutation breeding technique has been accepted as a
foremost strategy to obtain stress tolerant varieties as well as varieties with other desired traits.
Mutation breeding has a significant contribution toward production of high yielding and salt
stress tolerant rice varieties. There are many reports where mutation breeding has resulted in
enhanced salinity tolerance in various rice cultivars. For example, rice seeds irradiated with
carbon (C) or neon (Ne) ions have generated mutant variety with high salt tolerance. The Azolla-
Anabaena symbiotic system provides green manure for flooded crops, mainly rice. Mutation
breeding has produced Azolla variants tolerant to high salinity, toxic aluminium levels, and to
herbicides.
Transcriptomics approach:
Transcriptomics, also called as expression profiling, generally require a systematic and
entire study of all the RNA transcripts that signifies the spatial and temporal gene expression of a
cell, tissue of an organism under a certain biological circumstance. This technique leads to
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identification of a large number of differentially regulated transcripts due to cross talks and
overlapping pathways under particular stress/environmental situations. Microarrays have
become one of the standard tools in molecular biology and have taken as commanding approach
for the analysis of genome wide transcriptional response by studying the expression of all the
expressed genes in a single experiment.
The complete transcriptome at a given time point allow us to detect any stress-inducible
genes which can suggest the specific biological processes and/or the regulation of transcriptional
and translational machineries that are induced. In rice, EST based cDNA arrays and
oligonucleotide microarrays have been used to understand the underlying biological meaning by
studying and comparing the global gene expression patterns. In the recent past, stress (including
salinity)- inducible transcripts in rice were identified by using microarray technology (Kumari et
al., 2009).
The capability to evaluate the expression levels of whole genome in a single experiment
by microarray technique allows biologists to see what are the genes induced or repressed under
specific environmental extremes. The constraint is that in addition to the actual genes that control
the stress response, it detects enormous number of related genes which might be involved in
secondary or irrelevant downstream functions. Beside the challenge of recognizing the relevant
target genes, the transcriptomic approach offers an efficient tool of identifying the gene(s)
involved in specific stress tolerance mechanism.
Conclusion:
• There is a need for developing new rice varieties with higher and stable yield across
environments, climates and geographic locations.
• Mechanisms studied in rice have focused on Na+ exclusion of Cl–, NO3 –and their location
in the pathway from roots to shoots are yet to be addressed.
• The ideal salinity tolerant variety should possess tolerance to high amount of Na+, control
the uptake of Na+ and keep high uptake of K+, good initial vigour, agronomically superior
with high yield potential.
• Last but not the least, the salt tolerant transgenic rice should be in the hand of final user
i.e., farmer.
References:
1. Cai, X., Chen, T., Zhou, Q. Y., Xu, L., Qu, L. Q. and Hua, X. J., 2011, Development of
casparian strip in rice cultivars. Plant Signal. Behav., 6: 59-65.
2. Chinnusamy, V., Jagendorf, A. and Zhu, J. K, 2005, Understanding and improving salt
tolerance in plants. Crop Sci., 45: 437-448.
3. Garciadeblas, B., Senn, M., Banuelos, M. and Rodriguez-Navarro, A., 2003, Sodium
transport and HKT transporters: the rice model. Plant J., 34: 788-801.
4. Jeschke, W. D., 1984, “K+-Na+ exchange at cellular membranes, intracellular
compartmentation of cations, and salt tolerance,” in salinity tolerance in plant. strategies
for crop improvement, eds R. C. Staple and G. H. Toenniessen (New York: Wiley-
Interscience Publication), 33-76.

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5. Krishnamurthy, P., Ranathunge, K., Franke, R., Prakash, H. S., Schreiber, L. and Mathew,
M. K., 2009, The role of root apoplastic transport barriers in salt tolerance of rice (Oryza
sativa L.). Planta, 230: 119-134.
6. Kumari, S., Sabharwal, V. P., Khushwaha, H. R., Sopory, S. K., Singla-Pareek, S. L. and
Pareek, A., 2009, Transcriptome map for seedling stage specific salinity stress response
indicates a specific set of genes as candidate for saline tolerance in Oryza sativa L. Funct.
Integr. Genomics., 9: 109-123.
7. Lutts, S., Kinet, J. M. and Bouharmont, J., 1995, Changes in plant response to NaCl during
development of rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties differing in salinity resistance. J. Exp. Bot.,
46: 1843-1852.
8. Munns, R., 1985, Na+, K+ and Cl− in xylem sap flowing to shoots of NaCl-treated barley.
J. Exp. Bot., 36: 1032-1042.
9. Pareek, A., Sopory, S. K., Bohnert, H. J. and Govindjee., 2010, Abiotic Stress Adaptation
in Plants: Physiological, Molecular and Genomic Foundation. Berlin: Springer.
10. Ranathunge, K., Steudle, E. and Lafitte, R., 2004, Blockage of apoplastic bypass flow of
water in rice roots by insoluble salt precipitates analogous to a Pfeffer cell. Plant Cell
Environ., 28: 121-133.
11. Sanders, D. 2000, Plant biology: the salty tale of Arabidopsis. Curr. Biol., 10:R486-R488.
12. Schreiber, L., Hartmann, K., Skrabs, M. and Zeier, J., 1999, Apoplastic barriers in roots:
chemical composition of endodermal and hypodermal cell walls. J. Exp. Bot., 50: 1267-
1280.
13. Todaka, D., Nakashima, K., Shinozaki, K. and Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, K., 2012, Towards
understanding transcriptional regulatory networks in abiotic stress responses and tolerance
in rice. Rice, 5: 6.
14. Verma, D., Singla-Pareek, S. L., Rajagopal, D., Reddy, M. K. and Sopory, S. K., 2007,
Functional validation of a novel isoform of Na+/H+ antiporter from Pennisetum glaucum
for enhancing salinity tolerance in rice. J. Biosci., 32: 621-628.
15. Yeo, A. R., Yeo, M. E., Flowers, S. A. and Flowers, T. J, 1990, Screening of rice (Oryza
sativa L.) genotypes for physiological characters contributing to salinity resistance, and
their relationship to overall performance. Theor. Appl. Genet., 79: 377-384.
16. Zhu, J. K., Liu, J. P. and Xiong, L. M., 1998, Genetic analysis of salt tolerance in
Arabidopsis: evidence for a critical role of potassium nutrition. Plant Cell, 10: 1181-1191.

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HORTICULTURAL BIOSTIMULANTS
Parveen*1,Chetna2, Deepak Sangwan1, Om Prakash Jiterwal1 and Ravi3
1
Department of Horticulture
2
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
3
Department of Agronomy
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Summary:
The horticultural industry is currently facing a significant challenge in enhancing
productivity to meet the needs of a growing global population. It is crucial to maintain nutritional
security while improving resource efficiency to minimize the environmental impact on
ecosystems and human health. In this context fertilizers and insecticides play a vital role by
enabling farmers to enhance output and ensure year-round productivity regardless of weather
conditions. Over the past three decades various innovative technological advancements have
emerged with the aim of promoting sustainability in horticultural production systems. These
advancements primarily focus on reducing the reliance on synthetic agrochemicals such as
pesticides and fertilizers. The utilization of natural plant bio-stimulants (PBs) represents an
innovative approach that can foster environmental sustainability while offering a range of
advantages. These bio-stimulants effectively promote flowering, enhance plant growth, fruit
development, bolster crop production and improve nutrient usage efficiency (NUE). Moreover,
they exhibit the ability to enhance resistance against various abiotic stresses. By harnessing the
potential of PBs we can foster both environmental well-being and take significant strides towards
achieving sustainability goals [1].
Introduction:
Plant biostimulants also referred to as agricultural biostimulants encompass a wide range
of compounds that can be applied to the plant's surrounding environment with the aim of
enhancing growth, nutrition and resilience to various abiotic and biotic pressures. While the
primary purpose of most plant biostimulants is to facilitate nutrient uptake in the rhizosphere
many of these substances also offer protective effects against environmental challenges such as
limited water availability, soil salinity and unfavorable temperature conditions for growth. It is
important to note that biostimulants themselves do not function as nutrients instead they assist in
nutrient absorption and contribute beneficially to stimulate growth and confer resistance against
stressors. In an online publication dedicated to turf care experts called Ground Maintenance the
term "biostimulants" made its debut to describe substances that when used in small amounts
encourage plant growth. Within the agricultural field a consensus was reached in 2012 regarding
the definition of biostimulants. According to this definition biostimulants refer to substances
and/or micro-organisms that when applied to plants or the rhizosphere (the root zone) activate
natural processes aimed at enhancing nutrient absorption, nutrient efficiency, tolerance to

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environmental stresses and overall crop quality. Biostimulants possess extensive applicability
across various agricultural techniques encompassing hydroponics, soil-based systems as well as
field and greenhouse-grown crops, conventional and organic farming. The global market value of
Biostimulants amounted to USD 3.5 billion in 2022 and is projected to soar to USD 6.2 billion
by the year 2027 (marketsandmarkets.com, 2023).
Types of biostimulants
Plant bio-stimulants are classified into two main categories: microbial and non-microbial.
A microbial plant bio-stimulant comprises either a single microorganism or a cluster of
microorganisms primarily belonging to four distinct genera: Azotobacter spp., Mycorrhizal
fungi, Rhizobium spp. and Azospirillum spp. The advantageous bacteria and fungi that inhabit
plants can confer enduring and advantageous impacts on plant growth and overall health.
Additionally, microbial bio-stimulants play a crucial role in extending the shelf life of produce
during the retailing process and enhancing the landscape performance for individuals [2]. These
bio-stimulants contribute to the improved performance of crops by enhancing various cellular
and morphological metabolic processes within the plant system [3].
Non-microbial biostimulants encompass a wide range of bioactive compounds including
humic acid, fulvic acid, protein hydrolysates and seaweed extracts etc. Protein hydrolysates can
be derived from both plants and animals. Humic and fulvic acids are formed through the
degradation of organic matter leading to the formation of acid compounds containing carboxyl
and phenolate groups. Fulvic acids belong to the category of humic acids however, they
distinguish themselves from humic acid by exhibiting a higher oxygen concentration and a lower
molecular weight.
Characteristics of biostimulants
1. Bio stimulants can be formulated using either a solitary ingredient or a combination of
multiple components.
2. They may be based on animals or plants.
3. They possess multitude of diverse physiological functions.
Biostimulants sources
Biostimulants are primarily derived from natural sources with one example being
rosemary, which is an extract obtained from the plant. Rosemary oil aids in nutrient absorption
and enhances nutrient uptake leading to increased growth and development. The fresh weight of
roots is determined by employing hydrolysis techniques, utilizing chemicals or enzymes to
generate different kinds of plant and animal biostimulants. This hydrolysis process yields a
mixture of peptides and amino acids. To produce animal-based biostimulants from materials like
bird feathers, casein (derived from cow's milk), collagen, bones, animal tissues or fish waste it is
necessary to carry out acid or alkaline hydrolysis. Given that plant-based biostimulants require
hydrolysis using different enzymes for their production and various organic materials can be
utilized. These materials include straw, legumes, vegetable or fruit waste all of which can be
employed in the production of plant biostimulants [4]. Additionally, marine algae-derived

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biopreparations and symbiotic groups of beneficial fungi or bacteria are also significant sources
of biostimulants.
Ways of using bio stimulants
Biostimulants can be utilized in diverse manners depending on their types and forms.
They can be employed through different applications such as soil preparations (powders, pellets,
or solutions mixed into the soil) or as liquid foliar applications directly on the leaves. Another
approach is fertigation where biostimulants are administered alongside water allowing plants to
absorb them similarly to how they take up water. Non-microbial biostimulants including humic
acids, fulvic acids and nitrogen-containing compounds are commonly administered to the soil
directly. Additionally, plant and seaweed extracts of different kinds are applied as foliar sprays to
the leaves of plants. To enhance the nutrient content of the soil it is customary to apply organic
matter or bone meal directly to the soil several weeks before planting. Agricultural techniques
such as ploughing are employed to incorporate biomass or meal into the topsoil for proper
mixing. Stimulants typically come in various forms but the most common ones are preparations
or powders that can be mixed with water or any other solvent to create a solution. The optimal
time to administer biostimulants is in the morning as this is when stomata are open and the
absorption rate is at its highest.
Role of biostimulants in horticulture
1. Enhances plants ability to withstand abiotic stress
Under the current circumstances of climate change it is expected that environmental
pressures will exert a stronger negative impact. This has raised significant concerns about
agricultural productivity and global food security. In order to address this challenge both non-
microbial and microbial plant boosters (PBs) have been suggested as effective and cost-efficient
means to enhance yield stability. In controlled experiments, the application of a legume-based
plant booster containing amino acids and soluble peptides was found to alleviate the harmful
effects of drought on tomato growth by improving transpiration use efficiency [8]. This was
observed when the plant booster was used as a foliar spray or applied to the soil as a drench
substrate. Hartmannibacter diazotrophicus E19 (T) has the ability to effectively establish itself
in the roots of barley even in saline environments. When the roots were inoculated with this
bacterium in saline soil a significant increase in both root and shoot mass was observed with a
respective growth of 308 and 189 per cent. The relative water content of the inoculated roots was
more than three and a half times higher compared to the control plants. Researchers found that
treating wheat with the thermotolerant Pseudomonas putida strain AKMP7 led to a remarkable
improvement in heat tolerance. Plants treated with this inoculum exhibited enhanced root and
shoot length as well as seed size [9]. Furthermore, a short-term trial demonstrated the
effectiveness of a protein hydrolysates-based biostimulant in mitigating the harmful effects of
single stresses (such as hypoxia, salinity or nutrient deficiency) and multiple stresses (such as
nutrient stress combined with hypoxia or salinity) on hydroponically grown maize [10]. The
significant enhancement of root development encompassing biomass and architecture (length and
density) was profoundly influenced by protein hydrolysates leading to the upregulation of crucial

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genes associated with nitrate transport and detoxification of reactive oxygen species.
Consequently, this substantial improvement in root development contributed to a remarkable
surge in shoot biomass [11].
2. Enhancing agronomic traits in horticultural crops
Biostimulants have been found to exert positive effects on a range of agronomic
characteristics including fruit size, shape, plant height, root length, shoot weight, root weight and
leaf number. In one study when a concentration of 3g/l of humic acids was sprayed alongside
other biostimulants it resulted in an increase in cucumber plant height as well as a higher number
of leaves and stems per plant. Moreover, the application of biostimulants to cherry trees was
observed to enhance fruit weight. Additionally, when the bio stimulant salicylic acid was used
together with calcium it demonstrated its bio stimulatory properties by increasing the yield of tart
cherries. These findings underscore the potential of biostimulants in improving various
agronomic traits and productivity in agricultural practices. A lettuce greenhouse experiment was
conducted to assess the impacts of three distinct plant biostimulants (PBs): vegetal-derived PH,
vegetal-derived PH enriched with copper and an additional PB. The application of a tropical
plant extract on plant development and the epiphytic bacterial community was investigated. In
the study three commercial plant boosters (PBs) were tested and they all showed an increase in
the fresh weight of the shoot. However, there were no statistically significant differences
observed between the three organic PBs [5]. Moreover, the utilization of biostimulants which
consist of vermicomposting, malt, dust, organic herbs demonstrated the ability to enhance plant
performance and growth by altering the microbial composition on the plants and in the
surrounding environment. When Prunus armeniaca (apricot) was treated with biostimulants
containing humic and fulvic acids along with carboxylic acids the fruit exhibited a remarkable
tenfold increase in size compared to its original size. This suggests that the biostimulants had a
profound impact on fruit development and growth. Based on the research findings it was
discovered that carboxylic acids exerted the most significant impact on fruit size and leading to
an average increase in fruit width of 2.6 mm during the second growing season. Additionally, the
color of the fruit plays a crucial role in assessing its quality [6]. Another noteworthy attribute of
silicon is its ability to stimulate biological processes. A study examined the effect of silicon-
containing Ascophyllum nodosum extract on strawberry anthocyanin levels. The fruits treated
with the bio-stimulant exhibited higher anthocyanin content during the early fruiting stage
resulting in a more vibrant red color compared to the control group [7].
3. Enhance the antioxidant properties of fruits and vegetables
Extensive research has shown that fruits and vegetables possess inherent antioxidant
properties. Moreover, the application of biostimulants has been found to amplify the antioxidant
potential in various horticultural crops. For instance, when tomato plants were treated with a
combination of earthworm-grazed substrate and Trichoderma harzianum-biofortified mushroom
substrate (SMS) notable enhancements were observed in multiple aspects. These included
increased antioxidant capacity, higher levels of total soluble sugars, carotenoids, total
polyphenols, flavonoids contents and improved mineral composition (P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and

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Zn) [12]. In another study sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus L.) were soaked in a 3 per cent
corn seed extract solution and subsequently sprayed with 1 mM of Magnesium. The result was a
notable enhancement in the sunflower's antioxidant system. Specifically, the activity of
superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase increased by 65.5 per cent, 77.8 per cent and 84.6
per cent respectively, when compared to the control plants.
The elevated levels of antioxidant enzymes were attributed to the foliar application of
magnesium ions which not only improved the speed of the photosynthesis process but also
promoted overall plant health. Similarly, the application of bio stimulants to apricot trees has
demonstrated the ability to enhance the antioxidant properties of the fruits. In the initial season
following the utilization of these stimulants the antioxidant capacity of the fruit increased
significantly, averaging at 76.8 mg/100 g. However, in the subsequent season where the
stimulants were not employed the average antioxidant capacity decreased to 66.5 mg/100 g.
Notably, a noteworthy discovery was made in the realm of olive trees wherein the foliar
application of selenium (Se) led to notable advancements in the functional and nutritional
qualities of Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO). This improvement was attributed not only to the
biofortification effect of Se but also to the observed accumulation of antioxidant molecules [13].
The introduction of Rhizophagus intraradices into soilless-grown saffron along with a mixture
of R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae to a lesser extent resulted in a significant
enhancement of the synthesis and accumulation of beneficial compounds such as anthocyanins,
polyphenols and vitamin C. Additionally, this inoculation led to increased antioxidant activity
and the presence of important bioactive components like crocin II, quercitrin and picrocrocin.
Furthermore, compost possesses biostimulatory properties revealing a diverse array of
constituents depending on the raw materials used and the composting procedures employed.
These constituents may include polysaccharides, amino acids, nitrogen and various other
substances. According to a study [14], during the autumn season lettuce leaves cultivated in
compost exhibited 1.5 times greater antioxidant activity compared to lettuce cultivated in
compost during the summer season. Additionally, the autumn-grown compost lettuce
demonstrated significantly higher antioxidant activity than lettuce grown in peat during the same
season.
4. Enhance Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE)
The utilization of biostimulants is an incredibly advantageous approach to enhance soil
nutrient levels and facilitate their absorption by plants. A significant portion of nitrogen and
phosphorus present in soils remains unavailable in their current form under scoring the
importance of converting them into accessible forms for plant utilization. Biostimulants offer a
highly effective means to achieve this objective. Numerous studies have demonstrated the
remarkable efficacy of these bioactive substances in enhancing plant nutrient use efficiency
(NUE). The utilization of biostimulants derived from Ecklonia maxima (algae) and a range of
tropical plants has demonstrated remarkable enhancements in lettuce production within
greenhouse environments. These biostimulants have effectively enhanced nutrient utilization
efficiency leading to improved overall plant growth. Moreover, they have been found to enhance

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chlorophyll synthesis thereby augmenting the photosynthetic activity of the plants. The
combined effect of these improvements ultimately results in higher lettuce yields [15].
Conclusion:
Biostimulants, derived from natural sources are utilized to enhance the growth and yield
of vegetables and fruits while prioritizing environmental sustainability. Despite the widely
recognized advantages of biostimulants they are seldom incorporated into conventional farming
practices. This lack of integration stems from farmer's limited knowledge regarding the functions
and applications of biostimulants giving rise to concerns about increased cultivation costs and
compromised plant quality and quantity. Such repercussions could ultimately harm crop
profitability. Consequently, raising awareness among farmers is of paramount importance to
promote the widespread adoption of biostimulants and their numerous benefits.
References:
1. Battacharyya, D., Babgohari, M.Z., Rathor, P., Prithiviraj, B. (2015) Seaweed Extracts as
Biostimulants in Horticulture. Scientia Horticulturae, 196: 39–48
2. Caser, M., Victorino, Í. M. M., Demasi, S., Berruti, A., Donno, D., Lumini, E. and Scariot,
V. (2018). Saffron cultivation in marginal alpine environments: how AMF inoculation
modulates yield and bioactive compounds. Agronomy, 9(1):12.
3. Castiglione, A.M., Mannino, G., Contartese, V., Bertea, C.M. and Ertani, A. (2021).
Microbial Biostimulants as Response to Modern Agriculture Needs: Composition, Role
and Application of These Innovative Products. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 10(8): 1533.
4. Colla, G., and Rouphael, Y. (2015). Biostimulants in Horticulture. Sci. Hortic., 196: 1–2.
5. Correia, S., Aires, A., Queirós, F., Carvalho, R., Schouten, R., Silva, A. P., and Gonçalves,
B. (2020). Climate conditions and spray treatments induce shifts in health promoting
compounds in cherry (Prunus avium L.) fruits. Scientia Horticulturae, 263:109-147.
6. D'Amato, Roberto and Proietti, Primo and Nasini, L. and Buono, Daniele and Tedeschini,
Emma and Businelli, Daniela. (2014). Increase in the selenium content of extra virgin olive
oil: Quantitative and qualitative implications. Grasas y Aceites, 65: 1-9.
7. Luziatelli, F., Ficca, A. G., Colla, G., Baldassarre Švecová, E., and Ruzzi, M. (2019).
Foliar application of vegetal-derived bioactive compounds stimulates the growth of
beneficial bacteria and enhances microbiome biodiversity in lettuce. Frontiers in Plant
Science, 10: 60.
8. Mahnert, A., Haratani, M., Schmuck, M., and Berg, G. (2018). Enriching beneficial
microbial diversity of indoor plants and their surrounding built environment with
biostimulants. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9: 2985.
9. Parađiković, N., Vinković, T., Vinković, V., Ivana, Ž. Irena, B., Mirza, Medić Š. Marica.
(2011). Effect of natural bio stimulants on yield and nutritional quality: An example of
sweet yellow pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants. Journal of The Science of Food and
Agriculture, 91: 2146-52.
10. Paul, D., and Lade, H. (2014). Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria to improve crop
growth in saline soils: a review. Agronomy for sustainable development, 34: 737-752.

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11. Rouphael, Y., Colla, G., Graziani, G., Ritieni, A., Cardarelli, M., and De Pascale, S.
(2017). Phenolic composition, antioxidant activity and mineral profile in two seed-
propagated artichoke cultivars as affected by microbial inoculants and planting time. Food
chemistry, 234: 10-19.
12. Rouphael, Y., Kyriacou, M. C., Colla, G. (2018). Vegetable grafting: a toolbox for
securing yield stability under multiple stress conditions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8:
2255.
13. Singh, U., and Malviya, Deepti and Singh, Shailendra and Wasiullah, and Karthikeyan, N
and Imram, Mohdand Rai, Drand Sarma, Birinchi and Manna, Madhab and Chaurasia,
Rajan and Sharma, Arun and Paul, Diby and Oh, Jae-Wook. (2018). Earthworm Grazed-
Trichoderma harzianum Biofortified Spent Mushroom Substrates Modulate Accumulation
of Natural Antioxidants and Bio-Fortification of Mineral Nutrients in Tomato. Frontiers in
Plant Science. 9.
14. Suarez, C., Cardinale, M., Ratering, S., Steffens, D., Jung, S., Montoya, A. M. Z., and
Schnell, S. (2015). Plant growth-promoting effects of Hartmannibacter diazotrophicus on
summer barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) under salt stress. Applied Soil Ecology, 95: 23-30.
15. Trevisan, S., Manoli, A. and Quaggiotti, S. (2019). A novel biostimulant, belonging to
protein hydrolysates, mitigates abiotic stress effects on maize seedlings grown in
hydroponics. Agronomy, 9(1): 28.

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ROLE OF JASMONIC ACID IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND

DEFENSE RESPONSE
Anil Jadhav*1, Shruti2, Channabasava2 and V. C. Raghavendra2
1
Department of Crop Physiology, CoA, UAS Raichur, Karnataka
2
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CoA, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction:
Hormones are chemical messenger, which plays a vital role in controlling the entire life
process and other activities in the plants -like seed germination, ripening, growth, and flowering.
The term "hormone" is derived from a Greek word meaning “to stimulate or to enhance an
activity" Plant growth regulators are usually defined as organic compounds other than nutrients
that in smaller concentration, affects the physiological processes of plants.

Jasmonates are cyclo pentanone compounds or Novel plant immune hormones which is
derived from α- linolenic acid by the octadecanoid pathway. It includes group of oxygenated
fatty acids which are collectively called as oxylipins. Methyl jasmonate was first isolated from
the essential oil of Jasmoinum grandiflorum.
First isolated in culture filtrate of fungi Lasiodiplodia theobroma. Jasmonic acid initial
discovery of metyl jasmonates (MeJA) as secondary metabolite in essential oil of jasmine. Role
of plant defense was first shown by Farmer and Ryan (1990) who demonstrated the induction of
proteinase inhibitors by MeJA and JA as part of the defense respone against herbivorous insects.
Jasmonate (JA) and its derivatives are lipid-based plant hormones that regulate a wide
range of processes in plants, ranging from growth and photosynthesis to reproductive
development. In particular, JAs are critical for plant defense against herbivory and plant
responses to poor environmental conditions and other kinds of abiotic and biotic
challenges. Some JAs can also be released as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to permit
communication between plants in anticipation of mutual dangers.
Synthesis is initiated with the conversion of linolenic acid to 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid
(OPDA), which then undergoes a reduction and three rounds of β oxidation to form (+)-7-iso-JA,

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jasmonic acid. Only the conversion of linolenic acid to OPDA occurs in the chloroplast; all
subsequent reactions occur in the peroxisoxysome.

Jasmoinum grandiflorum (JASMINE) Jasmonic acid

Properties
• Chemical formula: C12H18O3
• Molecular mass: 210.27 g/mol
• Density: 1.1 g/cm3
• Boiling point: 160 °C
Functions of Jasmonic acid
JA and MeJA inhibit the germination of nondormant seeds and stimulate the germination of
dormant seeds.
JA, MeJA, ABA, and ethylene inhibit the germination of the recalcitrant seeds of Quercus
robur. When these desiccation-sensitive seeds were dried, the concentrations of MeJA and
JA increased prior to the loss in seed viability.
The increase in jasmonate was correlated with lipid peroxidation, suggesting that the
production of jasmonate may not regulate germination but rather is a consequence of
membrane damage.
The seeds of the Arabidopsis mutants show increased sensitivity to ABA suggesting that JA
may stimulate seed germination by decreasing sensitivity to ABA.
JA strongly inhibits root growth by a mechanism that is not mediated by ethylene (Berger et
al., 1995).
JA also inhibits indole acetic acid-stimulated coleoptile elongation, possibly by blocking the
incorporation of glucose into cell wall Polysaccharides.
JA activates the differential growth involved in tendril coiling in pea, a response that does
not directly involve ethylene or indole acetic acid (IAA).
That JA may play a role in the formation of flowers, fruit, and seed is suggested by the
relatively high levels of this compound in developing plant reproductive tissues. The
presence of jasmonate and related volatile fatty acid derivatives in the flower may indicate a
function in insect attraction and thus pollen dispersal.

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Other aspects of flower, fruit, and seed development that can be modulated by jasmonate
include fruit ripening, fruit carotenoid composition and the expression of genes encoding
seed and vegetative storage proteins (VSPs).
By contrast to the effects of JA on root growth, jasmonate-stimulated tomato and apple fruit
ripening most likely occurs through the activation of ethylene-forming enzyme and the
production of ethylene.
A role for JA in mediating the accumulation of secondary plant products has also been
proposed. Exogenous JA causes the accumulation of paclitaxel and related taxanes in Taxus,
alkaloids in Cantharanthus and Cinchona, anthocyanins in soybean and rosmarinic acid in
Litbospermum.
JA levels are high in vegetative sink tissues, such as soybean axes, plumules, and the
hypocotyl hook, suggesting that JA may be involved in the regulation of protein storage in
plants.
In six-week-old soybean seedlings, JA levels are higher in young growing leaves that are
importing carbon and nitrogen than they are in older, fully expanded leaves.
High levels of JA are also present in developing reproductive structures, especially pods,
with lower levels in seeds. JA or a derivative tuberonic acid has been proposed to play a role
in the formation of tubers, a specialized vegetative sink.
Jasmonates play an important role in protein storage during plant development derives from
the discovery that genes encoding VSPs are regulated by JA. VSPs accumulate in the
vacuoles of paraveinal mesophyll and bundle sheath cells in soybean leaves.
The Plant Cell JA is not essential for the production of viable ovules in Arabidopsis.
However, the fad3-2 fad7-2 fad8 and coil mutants fail to produce viable pollen unless
supplied with JA.
Application of JA to leaves decreases expression of nuclear and chloroplast genes involved
in photosynthesis. JA treatments also cause a loss of chlorophyll from leaves and cell
cultures. The ability of JA to cause chlorosis led to the suggestion that this compound plays
a role in plant senescence.
Biosynthesis of JA
Jasmonic acid synthesized from fatty acid (α-linolenicacid)
Lipoxygenase (LOX), AOS, AOC are key enzymes of JA biosynthesis in Chloroplast, and
they form OPDA.
OPDA is transported to peroxisome through ABC transporter COMATOSE (CTS)
Reduction of cyclopentanone ring of OPDA is catalyzed by peroxisomal OPR enzyme.
Three cycles of β-oxidation occur to give finally Jasmonic Acid Enzymes involved are:
• ACX1 (Acyl-CoA oxidase in tomato)
• MFP (Multi-functional Protein)
• KAT (L-3-keto acyl CoA thiolase)
The JA and its metabolic derivatives are collectively called JASMONATE.

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Intracellular locations of enzymes and intermediates in JA biosynthesis, illustrated on a

SEM of a barley mesophyll cell showing the associated cellular compartments

Biosynthesis of jasmonic acid in Chloroplast and Peroxysomes.

Metabolic fate of JA
Formation of amino acid conjugates by a JA conjugate synthase (JAR1) (Staswick and
Tiryaki, 2004) upon adenylation at the carboxylic acid side-chain of JA by the AMP-
transferase activity of JAR1.
Methylation of JA by a JA-specific methyl transferase (Seo et al.,2001).
Hydroxylation at C-11 or C-12 of the pentenyl side chain and subsequent O-glucosylation
(Swiatek et al., 2004).
Decarboxylation of JA to cis-jasmone (Koch et al., 1997).
Formation of cucurbic acids by reduction of the keto group of the cyclo pentanone ring.
Formation of jasmonoyl-1-b-glucose, jasmonoyl-1- b-gentiobiose and hydroxyjasmonoyl-
1-b-glucose (Swiatek et al., 2004).
Conjugation of the ethylene precursor ACC to JA (Staswick and Tiryaki, 2004).
Mechanism of signalling:
The central feature of JA Signaling is the repression of JA responses JAZ (JASMONATE
ZIM DOMAIN) protein family.
JAZ proteins function to inhibit the activity of transcription factors responsible for driving
the expression of JA responsive target genes.

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In the absence of JA, JAZ proteins bind to downstream transcription factors and limit their
activity.
However, in the presence of JA or its bioactive derivatives, JAZ proteins are degraded,
freeing transcription factors for expression of genes needed in stress responses.

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF JA IN BIOTIC STRESS

Mechanism of herbivores and pathogen action in biotic stress

Role of Jasmonic Acid in Plant defense and development
1. Root Growth Inhibition
2. Lateral root formation
3. Adventitious root formation
4. Tuber formation
5. Trichome formation
6. Leaf movement
7. Senescence
8. Gravitropism
9. Development of reproductive organs of dicotyledonous plants
10. Development of reproductive organs of monocotyledonous plants
11. Seed germination
1. Root Growth Inhibition
Growth inhibition and senescence promotion were the first two physiological responses
described for JA (Ueda and Kato, 1980; Dathe et al., 1981). Root growth inhibition by JA

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application has been used in mutant screens since the 1990s. The first mutant insensitive to JA
was jar1 (Staswick et al., 1992). Subsequently, JAR1 was cloned as JA-Ile synthase (Staswick
and Tiryaki, 2004). Root growth inhibition by JA was also strongly supported by short-root
phenotype of mutants with constitutive elevation of JA levels, such as cev1 (Ellis et al., 2002),
and reduced sensitivity to JA in coi1 and myc2 mutants (Xie et al., 1998; Lorenzo et al., 2004).
For inhibition of root growth, JA requires COI1, as indicated by the JA-unresponsiveness of the
coi1 mutant. However, ET and its precursor ACC, which occurs only in the light but not in the
dark, are also known to inhibit root growth. The ACC/ET-induced root growth inhibition is light-
and COI1-dependent, but JA-independent. However, JA-induced root growth inhibition needs to
be analysed in relation to other factors controlling the complex process of root development
(Petricka et al., 2012a; Ubeda-Toma´s et al., 2012). Initially, cell- and tissue-specific gene
expression maps revealed non-overlapping areas of auxin-, GA- and JA-dependent gene
expression. JA-induced gene expression appeared in outer layers of roots. But such expression
data have to be taken into account cautiously, as the cellular proteome map of
Another example of auxin/JA cross-talk is given by the axr1 mutant defective in an SCF-
complex component required for auxin signalling. Taken together, the JA-induced root growth
inhibition seems to occur preferentially via modulation of the effects of auxin in root growth and
development.
2. Lateral root formation
Most of the Arabidopsis lateral root mutants are affected in auxin homeostasis, signalling
and transport and in PINs, thereby indicating the dominant role of auxin in lateral root formation
(Petricka et al., 2012a). The various possibilities for cross-talk between JA and auxin as
described above strongly suggest a role of JA in lateral root formation. The JA-insensitive
mutant coi1-16 that produces fewer lateral roots lends further credence to this idea. Furthermore,
the high promoter activities of AtAOC3 and AtAOC4 in emerging lateral roots suggest that JA is
involved in lateral root formation. It has been shown that lateral root formation is induced by
auxin, but is inhibited by the conjugate of JA with tryptophan.
3. Adventitious root formation
Adventitious roots are formed naturally or induced by environmental stimuli in aerial
organs. Like root growth, adventitious root formation is a complex process regulated by
hormones and environmental factors. Auxin is a positive regulator mediated by ARF6 and
ARF8, which are targets of miR167 Interestingly, downstream of this auxin-induced adventitious
root formation, there is a negative COI1- and MYC2-dependent regulation via altered JA/JA-Ile
homeostasis. Whereas JAR1, which is the GH3.11 of the GH3 gene family of conjugating
enzymes, generates JA-Ile, the other members (GH3.3, GH3.5, GH3.6 ) conjugate Asp, Met and
Trp with JA. The triple-mutant of these genes has fewer adventitious roots and increased
expression of JA biosynthesis genes, whereas mutants impaired in JA perception and signalling,
such as coi1-16, myc2, myc3, myc4 and jar1 form far more adventitious roots than the wild-type.
These data are in agreement with auxin–JA cross-talk that occurs during adventitious root
formation. Here, the positive regulatory effects of ARF6 and ARF8 are increased by the GH3.3,
GH3.5, GH3.6 module that attenuates the negative regulatory effect of JA/JA-lle via conjugation

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of JA to JA-Asp, JA-Met and JA-Trp. However, whether this increase in JA levels is essential
for subsequent adventitious rooting remains to be elucidated.
4. Tuber formation
For a long time, tuber-inducing activities of jasmonates, particularly 12-OH-JA (TA) and
its glucoside (TAG). StLOX-1 was shown to be involved in tuber yield and tuber formation and
LOX-derived metabolites such as JA, TAand TAGaccumulate at low, tuber-inducing
temperature. There were, however, only correlative data on the endogenous content of
jasmonates in stolons and tuber formation. The cloning of a 12-OH-JA sulfotransferase from A.
thaliana and tomato and the occurrence of 12-OH-JA, 12-HSO4-JA and 12-O-Glc-JA in different
non-tuber-bearing plant species argue against a specific role of jasmonates in tuber formation.
Possibly, tuber-inducing effects might be caused indirectly via cell expansion in stolons
accompanied by changes in microtubule orientation (Abe et al., 1990), because JA biosynthesis
may occur in developing stolons. Multiple pathways are involved in tuber formation. Besides
hormonal control, tuberization in potato is strictly photoperiod-dependent. Low night
temperature and a short-day photoperiod produce a systemic signal in leaves which induces
tubers in roots. Tuberization depends on conserved function of the potato orthologue of
CONSTANS (CO) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). Both of them are key players in flower
induction. Phytochrome B-mediated photoperiodic control of tuberization is well described.
Identification of the BEL5 TF of potato shed new light on the regulation of tuber formation.
StBEL5 binds together with the potato KNOX gene product POTH1 to promoter sequences of
the gene encoding the GA-20 oxidase1, which leads to its repression and altered GA level that
affect tuber formation and other aspects of vegetative development. Initiation of cell division in
stolons by cytokinins is another hormonal control active in tuber formation (Xu et al., 1994).
5. Trichome formation
Glandular trichomes are multicellular and often involved in resistance to insects due to
formation of terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids and defence proteins. They represent a useful tool
for production of secondary metabolites. Genetic evidence for the involvement of JA in
glandular trichome formation were obtained by characterizing the tomato homologue of COI1,
the central component of JA perception. The corresponding tomato mutant jai1 is female sterile,
but is impaired in grandular trichome formation, trichome monoterpene content and spider mite
resistance. Further support for the link between trichome formation, JA and defence came from
the recessive tomato mutant odorless-2 (od-2), which exhibits altered morphology, density and
chemical composition of glandular trichomes. Under natural field conditions, od-2 plants were
highly susceptible to Colorado potato beetle larvae and the solanaceous specialist Manduca
sexta, indicating that trichome-borne compounds determine host plant selection under natural
conditions. Recently, an antagonism between herbivore-induced plant volatiles and trichome
formation has been observed in tomato. Using the JA-deficient spr2 mutant and the trichome-free
JA-insensitive jai1 mutant, preferential oviposition that was observed on trichome-free JA-
insensitive plants indicated a greater impact of trichomes over volatile emission in this tritrophic
interaction. Furthermore, glandular and non-glandular trichomes are involved in defence against
herbivores via trichome density and JA-inducible defence compounds, such as PI2,

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monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Consequently, the elevated JA level in cotton fibre activates
downstream genes involved in Ca2+ signalling and ET biosynthesis. In Arabidopsis, targets of
JAZ proteins are TFs such as MYB75, GL3 and EGL3, which are involved in anthocyanin
biosynthesis and trichome initiation. JA regulates trichome initiation in a dose-dependent manner
via the key TF in trichome formation GL3 and its interaction with JAZ proteins.
6. Leaf movement
There are several types of leaf movements. Among them are the upward leaf movement
(hyponastic growth) and the leaf movement of nyctinasty plants such as Albizzia. Both of them
are altered by JA compounds. Hyponastic growth is induced by ET, heat and low light intensity
and is stimulated by JA but inhibited by SA. Nyctinastic leaf movement depends on activity of
motor cells. Here, TAGhas a role. Among the enantiomeric forms of TAG, only one mediates
activity of motor cells of nyctinasty plants, such as Albizzia and Samanea saman in a COI1-
independent manner.
7. Leaf senescence
Leaf senescence is a complex developmental programme that depends on light/dark
conditions, nutrients, biotic and abiotic stresses, and several hormones including JA. Over the
last few years, several reviews on leaf senescence in relation to JA have been published.
Therefore, only a few aspects will be discussed here. In A. thaliana, comparative large-scale
transcript profiling between environmentally and developmentally regulated leaf senescence
revealed only limited similarities in early stages, but showed convergence and divergence of
gene expression profiles. High-resolution transcript profiling of senescing leaves identified a
distinct group of TFs that link metabolic pathways, leaf development and senescence. The JA-
linked TFs identified to be active in leaf senescence are WRKY53, WRKY54 and WRKY70 and
ANAC092/ORE1. The F-box protein ORE9 was initially identified from a screen of ABA-, JA-
and ET-induced senescence mutants, but it was found to have different regulatory properties in
photomorphogenesis, shoot branching and cell death. Leaf senescence is characterized by JA-
inducible chlorophyll breakdown. In A. thaliana, between the two key enzymes involved in
chlorophyll degradation, the gene encoding the CHLOROPHYLLASE1 is strongly induced by
JA. Moreover, a mechanistic explanation for the senescence-promoting effects of JA in leaves
was provided only recently. It has been shown that Rubisco-activase is downregulated by JA in
aCOI1-dependent manner.
8. Gravitropism
Gravitropism is a well-studied, morphogenic response, in which intra- and intercellular
communictation by auxin takes place. Traditionally, the Cholodny–Went hypothesis is used to
explain the asymmetric growth as a consequence of auxin redistribution. Regarding the
repeatedly discussed cross-talk between auxin and JA (see sections 4.7 and 9.2), it is not
surprising that JA has a role in gravitropism. Using rice coleoptiles, the Cholodny–Went
hypothesis was found to be true. In addition to an auxin gradient, gradients of JA and auxin
responsiveness were found to be involved in gravitropism. A mechanistic framework 1046
Wasternack & Hause — Biosynthesis and action of jasmonates might be given by an interaction
between auxin and JA signalling pathways. This became evident by identification of tryptophan

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conjugates of indolyl-3-acetic acid and JA as endogenous inhibitors of the gravitropic response,

one of the most prominent auxin responses. In rice a gravitropismrelated gene, LAZY1, was
identified that is required for gravity responses in leaf lamina, but not in roots. The function of its
gene product remains unknown.
9. Development of reproductive organs of dicotyledonous plants
The most diagnostic phenotype of Arabidopsis mutants impaired in JA biosynthesis and
perception, such as coi1, opr3, dde1, dde2, dad1, as and fad3-2fad7-2fad8, is male sterility.
Three characteristic phenotypes were identified: (1) insufficient filament elongation, (2) non-
viable pollen and (3) delayed anther dehiscence. In mutants impaired in JA biosynthesis, fertility
can be restored by JA treatment when applied in stages 11 and 12 of floral development, but not
by OPDA. Transcript profiling of JA-treated stamens of opr3 plants allowed detection of stamen-
and JA-specific mRNAs preferentially regulating genes involved in metabolic pathways required
for the synthesis of terpenoid volatiles, wax and pollen constituents. Most interestingly, new TFs
required for stamen developmentwere identified in the stamen transcriptome of opr3 plants.
Among them were MYB21 and MYB24. Subsequent genetic analysis identified MYB108,
which, together with MYB24, is involved in JA-regulated stamen and pollen developments.
MYB21 andMYB24 were further identified as targets of JAZ repressors. In the coi1 mutant, the
overexpression of MYB21 could partially restore the delayed anther dehiscence, but not JA
insensitivity in terms of root growth inhibition, anthocyanin formation and susceptibility to
necrotrophic pathogens. These data suggest a dominant role of MYB21 in stamen and pollen
development. The essential role of JA in stamen development is also obvious by DAD1, an
Arabidopsis PLA1 involved in JA formation of flowers. DAD1 is expressed in flowers, and dad1
shows a phenotype similar to coi1. This gene is a target of the centralTFAGAMOUS, of all the
JA cross-talks involving other hormones, the JA– auxin cross-talk is the most important in
flower development. Recently, embryo development in tomato has been shown to be OPDA-
specific, but JA-independent, implying the difference in flower development vis-a-vis fertility
between Arabidopsis and tomato. Beside its role in stamen development in Arabidopsis, JA has a
role in petal growth. The final stages of petal growth are largely dependent on cell proliferation
and/or cell expansion. The bHLH TF BIGPETALp (BPEp), expression of which is controlled by
JA, limits petal size by controlling cell expansion. Consequently, the opr3 bpe-1 mutants are
characterized by a larger petal size that can be restored by JA treatment.
10. JA in development of reproductive organs of monocotyledonous plants
JA has a central role in sex determination of maize. In maize, sex organs are located on
the same plant in the male tassel at the top and the female ear(s). Originating from a bisexual
floral meristem, the pistil primordia are aborted undergoing a tassel seed-mediated cell death.
There are two tassel seed genes in maize, namely ts1 and ts2. Whereas the ts2 gene encodes a
short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase with broad substrate specificity, the ts1 gene has been
identified recently by positional cloning and encodes a plastid-targeted 13-LOX. The
homozygous ts1 mutant is characterized by a loss of 13-LOX activity and lower JA levels in
inflorescences, but the mutant phenotype could be rescued by JA application. TS1 and TS2 are
both required for sex determination. Possibly, TS2 plays a role similar to TS1 in JA biosynthesis

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by regulating b-oxidation steps of the carboxylic acid side chain of OPDA. Cytoplasmic male
sterility (CMS), a maternally inherited phenomenon leading to pollen abortion, is associated with
JA biosynthesis. In rice, proteins of mitochondrial complexes together with a sex-determining
TASSELSEED2-like protein were found to be affected in a CMS line YuetaiB, leading to
aberrant changes in JA biosynthesis during microspore development.
11. Seed germination
Inhibition of seed germination was described for JA. However, recent genetic and
biochemical evidence has shown that OPDA is the inhibitory compound which acts together with
ABA in a COI1-independent manner.
Application of JA:
Jasmonic acid is also converted to a variety of derivatives including esters such as methyl
jasmonate; it may also be conjugated to amino acids.
According to an October 2008 BBC News report, Researchers at the UK's Lancaster
University have signed a licensing deal with an American company (Plant Bioscience
Limited) to market jasmonic acid as a seed treatment (EU Regulation).
The company has rolled out the technology progressively, starting with soybean and peanut
in the USA in 2010, and product sales have increased year after year.
Field application of JA may enhance the efficacy of parasitoids and predators as biological
control agents.
JA seed treatment stimulates the natural anti-pest defences of the plants that germinate
from the treated seeds, without harming plant growth.
Exogenous application of JA on rice plants elicits the production of proteinase inhibitors,
phytoalexins, PRs, and salt-induced and it may increase the emission of volatiles.
Exogenous application of MeJA increases the release of volatile organic compounds,
which enhances the mortality rates of the herbivores by attracting the natural enemies of
herbivores.
Conclusion:
Plant lacks an immune system like in animals but possess mechanism that recognizes
potential pathogens and initiate defense responses. During their biochemical evolution, the
plants are devised with certain magic molecules of defense (secondary metabolites) like
JAs.
Recent insights in to the Jas mediated plant defense cascade and knowledge of key
regulators of this will help us to design future crops with increased biotic stress resistance
and better adaptability.
Higher crop yields might be achieved by increasing the pathogen/ insect resistance which
can be achieved by manipulating the expression of the key genes involved in Ja’s
biosynthesis and signalling cascades.
References:
1. Berger, S., Bell, E., Sadka, A. and Mullet, J. E., 1995, Arabidopsis thaliana Atvsp is
homologous to soybean VspA and VspB, genes encoding vegetative storage protein acid

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phosphatises and is regulated similarly by methyl jasmonate, wounding, sugars, light and
phosphate. Plant Mol. Biol., 27: 933–42
2. Dathe, W., Ronsch, H., Preiss, A., Schade, W., Sembdner, G. and Schreiber, K., 1981,
Endogenous plant hormones of the broad bean, Vicia faba L. (–) -Jasmonic acid, a plant
growth inhibitor in pericarp. Planta, 155: 530–535.
3. Ellis, C., Karafyllidis, I., Wasternack, C. and Turner, J. G., 2002, The Arabidopsis mutant
cev1 links cell wall signaling to jasmonate and ethylene responses. The Plant Cell, 14:
1557–1566.
4. Koch, T., Bandemer, K. and Boland, W., 1997, Biosynthesis of cis-jasmone: pathway for
the inactivation and the disposal of the plant stress hormone jasmonic acid to the gas
phase? Helvetica et Chimica Acta., 80: 838–850
5. Lorenzo, O., Chico, J. M., Sanchez-Serrano, J. J. and Solano, R., 2004, JASMONATE-
INSENSITIVE1 encodes a MYC transcription factor essential to discriminate between
different jasmonate-regulated defense responses in Arabidopsis. The Plant Cell, 16: 1938–
1950.
6. Petricka, J. J., Schauer, M. A. and Megraw, M., 2012a, The protein expression landscape
of the Arabidopsis root. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 109:
6811–6818.
7. Seo, H., Song, J. and Cheong, J. J., 2001, Jasmonic acid carboxyl methyltransferase: A key
enzyme for jasmonate-regulated plant responses. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the USA 98: 4788–4793.
8. Staswick, P. E., Su, W. and Howell, S. H., 1992, Methyl jasmonate inhibition of root
growth and induction of a leaf protein are decreased in an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:6837–40
9. Staswick, P. E. and Tiryaki, I., 2004, The oxylipin signal jasmonic acid is activated by an
enzyme that conjugates it to isoleucine in Arabidopsis. The Plant Cell., 16: 2117–2127.
10. Swiatek, A., Dongen, W. V., Esmans, E. L. and Onckelen, H. V., 2004, Metabolic fate of
jasmonates in tobacco bright yellow-2 cells. Plant Physiol., 135: 161–172.
11. Tanrikulu, M. G., Mahoney, N. E. and Rodriguezt, S. B., 1995, The plant growth regulator
methyl jasmonate inhibits aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus. Microbiology., 141:
2831-2837.
12. Ueda, J. and Kato, J., 1980, Isolation and identification of a senescence promoting
substance from wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.). Plant Physiol., 66: 246–249.
13. Xie, D. X., Feys, B., James, S., Nieto-Rostro, M. and Turner, J., 1998, COI1: An
Arabidopsis gene required for jasmonate-regulated defense and fertility. Science, 280:
1091–1094.
14. Xu, Y., Chang, P. F. L., Liu, D., Narasimhan, M. L. and Raghothama, K. G., 1994, Plant
defense genes are synergistically induced by ethylene and methyl jasmonate. Plant Cell, 6:
1077–85.

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SEED: THE SYMBOL OF BEGINNING; SEED PRODUCTION AND

CERTIFICATION IN INDIA
Richa Bora*1 and Priyabrat Hazarika2
1
Assam Seed & Organic Certification Agency, Ulubari, Guwahati, Assam-781 007, India
2
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam 785 013, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Seed, the symbol of beginning, is the most basic input for growing any plant.
Certification of seeds is a vital stage in the manufacture and marketing of seeds. This is done in
order to maintain high standards for seeds and to make them available to farmers so they may
maintain good and quality output. Varieties of crops are typically produced in this system with
the goal of evaluating the purity, viability, physical identity, and attributes of seeds. It is a
regulated legal system for examining the status of the quality of seed production and its methods
of multiplication. To achieve optimum crop output and optimal returns, high-quality seed is
essential. The national seed sector, which is made up of both public and private companies, is
crucial in ensuring that there is an adequate supply of high-quality seed by adhering to its quality
standards and regulatory framework. The fundamental tenet of the seed laws in various nations is
to prohibit dishonest practices in the seed supply chain while promoting breeding and variety
development to satisfy the need for high-quality seeds of numerous superior variations of various
crops suitable for varied agro-ecologies. Although the seed scenario, the availability of
infrastructure, and the need for qualified human resources to manage the seed system are all
taken into consideration when developing the mechanism for applying laws, operating
procedures, categorization, and quality standards. It is also desired for all participating nations to
align their domestic laws with international conventions and treaties that serve as a legal
framework to direct and oversee the interests of breeders, seed producers, and consumers
globally in light of the rapidly growing global seed trade. Equally crucial is that the
aforementioned national regulatory frameworks make it easier for farmers to obtain the highest
caliber seeds.
Keywords: Quality seed, Seed Certification, Seed Production, Tagging
Introduction:
Seed is considered as the symbol of beginning. Every farmer ought to have access to
wholesome seeds that are genetically pure, have high seed vigour, and have a high germination
rate. Farmers are guaranteed a nice harvest and a profit when high-quality seeds are readily
available when they are needed. In agriculture, seeds are essential since they serve as a carrier of
a variety's genetic potential. The expansion of our nation's food production is greatly aided by
the manufacturing of high-quality seeds that adhere to effective certification processes. Through
the Indian Seeds Act of 1966, the government established standards and introduced seed
production methods, testing, certification, and marketing procedures.

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The market is now significantly undersupplied when it comes to good quality certified
seeds. This chapter includes information on the production and acquisition of high-quality seeds.
Seed certification is a procedure created to preserve seed quality during seed production, post-
harvest management, and seed distribution. Through this seed certification, the certifying body
controls and inspects seeds destined for domestic and foreign markets to guarantee good seed
quality for consumers.
Definition of seed
A basic agricultural input, seed is an embryo that is lodged in the tissue that stores food.
A matured ovule that contains an embryonic plant with food storage and is encased in a
protective seed coat is known as a seed.
Current scenario of seed industry in India
In India, the seed sector comprises of two types viz., formal and informal. Farmers that
grow seeds without adhering to certification requirements and exchange them among themselves
work in the informal sector. To manufacture a certain kind of seed, the formal type of seed
industry adheres to certification procedures and criteria.
Major organizations involved in seed industry
One of the largest seed markets in the world is found in India, which also includes a
number of institutions and businesses from the public and private sectors as well as university
and government research facilities.
Major players in the seed industry include the Ministry of Agriculture and the
Department of Seed Certification, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), State
Agricultural Universities (SAU), National Seeds Corporation (NSC), State Farm Corporation of
India (SFCI), 15 State Seed Corporations (SSCs), 22 State Seed Certification Centres, and 104
notified Seed Testing Laboratories. The manufacturing of seeds is carried out countrywide by
around 150 significant private seed enterprises.
Seed vs. Grain
No doubt both the terms are used most often simultaneously, but there is a mark-able
difference between seed and grain; and so as seed production and crop production. When
compared to the grains that are utilised as a source of seeds, seeds that are created scientifically
are superior. Below are some of the differences between seed and grain:
SEED GRAIN
1.Seeds are produced in accordance with a 1.There is no planned seed scheme for grain
carefully thought-out seed programme. production.
2.The seed is genetically pure and can be 2.The grain's seed variety purity is unknown.
distinguished from its breeder seed by its
varietal purity.
3.Quality controls, such as the elimination of 3.The requirements for quality are not met.
off-types, sickly plants, weed plants, and other
crop plants, are carried out during the seed

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production process.
4.The physical cleanliness and germination of 4.Germination and physical purity are not
seeds are excellent. guaranteed.
5.The techniques for processing, treating, 5.Production of grains does not adhere to
packaging, and labelling seeds are used in processing, labelling, and tagging procedures.
scientific seed production.
6.Seeds are dried under carefully regulated 6.Higher temperatures are used to dry the
conditions. grains, which degrades the seeds' quality.
7.Seed vigour and viability are preserved while 7.Grain is protected during storage from pests
they are being stored. and pathogens but not from vigour and
viability.
8.Produced seeds have the appropriate 8.No certification tags or labels will be present
certification and labelling. on grains used as seeds.
9.No seeds can ever be turned into grains 9.Can be used for seed purposes and
unless the seed inspector authorises it. occasionally for commercial grain purposes.
Seed production
Characteristics of good quality seed
Seeds of good quality are the right of every farmer in the country. So as to produce good
quality seeds, the criteria for quality seeds are of utmost importance.
1. Seed health
Quality seeds are those that have a high rate of germination and seed vigour.
Seeds should be free of bacterial and fungal contamination as well as insect damage.
2. Physical purity
The seeds' physical purity needs to be kept between 96 and 98 percent, and they
must be undamaged, uniform in size, and shape. The seeds must not contain any inert
material, such as dust, stones, seeds from other crop varieties, broken seeds, weed seeds,
etc. In order to maintain the physical integrity of the seeds after harvest, they should be
separated from chaffy seeds and seeds that have been afflicted by insects or diseases.
3. Genetic purity
To guarantee the quality of the seeds, the genetic purity of the seed should be
preserved. Genetic purity is the preservation from generation to generation of the
traditional and inherent qualities of the seed. The offspring should have traits that are
identical to those of the mother plant.
4. Moisture content
High moisture content seeds quickly lose their germination vigour and viability.
In order to maintain optimum germination potential and viability, it is crucial to maintain
the proper moisture content of the seeds. Additionally, it is crucial to safeguard the seeds
from disease and pest attack. A safe moisture level for seeds to be stored at is between 9
and 13%. Using a digital moisture metre, the moisture content of the seeds is directly
measured.

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Reasons for crop deterioration

Producing high-quality, genetically pure seeds is the primary goal of seed production.
However, during seed production, the genetic purity of the seed may be compromised for a
variety of causes; this is referred to as degradation of a particular crop type. Following are some
of the causes of crop deterioration:
1. Developmental variation
Developmental variation may arise when a seed variety is cultivated for several
successive generations in agroecological conditions that are different from those found in
nature (i.e., a different habitat, different soil and fertility levels, and different elevations).
To reduce developmental variance, each and every seed type should be grown in a
location that is flexible. Nucleus and breeder seed multiplication should take place in an
environment that is capable of accommodating the plant, if it is cultivated at all in non-
adaptable regions.
2. Mechanical mixtures
This form of degradation can occur at any point in the development process, from
sowing to processing. It may occur as a result of volunteer seeds contaminating the field,
using the same seed drill for two different types, growing various varieties next to one
another, and employing an unclean threshing floor and processing equipment. The
greatest care should be taken at all phases of seed preparation to prevent these kinds of
combinations.
3. Natural crossing
In the case of crops that are sexually reproduced, this is achievable. The breeding
method of the variety, isolation distance, and its pollination agent all affect how much
contamination there is. A greater separation distance reduces the amount of
contamination brought about by natural crossing.
4. Genetic drift
When a seed crop is raised across a vast region and only a limited amount of seed
is saved for the following year's planting, all genotypes will not be present in the
following generation. This is referred to as genetic drift. By growing the seed crop in a
smaller area as needed, this kind of degradation can be minimised.
5. Disease infestation
In order to prevent pest and disease infestation, the seed production field must
maintain clear sanitation and adhere to appropriate plant protection measures.
6. Mutations
Given the rarity of spontaneous mutations, its significance is minimal. Any
obvious mutation symptom should be quickly rouged out of the field if it is found there.
Factors affecting seed production
There are some rules that must be followed when multiplying seeds; else, the seeds' quality
would suffer.

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a. Selection of suitable site
The soil in the field used for seed production should be rich, and there should be
enough irrigation and drainage systems. High weed incidence and volunteer plants should
not exist in the field (volunteer plants are undesirable plants that grew in the seed
producing field from the previous season's harvest). The same crop variety that was
grown in the field the previous season shouldn't be planted there again. For the successful
management of pests and diseases, it should receive adequate sunlight and aeration.
b. Selection of seed source
Care should be made when choosing the seed variety to choose the types that the
local farmers in that area favour. Choose healthy seeds of consistent size from a reputable
provider. Breeder seeds are needed for the creation of foundation seeds, and foundation
seeds are needed for the production of certified seeds, so seeds should be chosen based on
the type of seed production. Selected seeds ought to have a high germination rate, be
vigorous, and be genetically pure.
c. Field preparation
The soil in the chosen field needs to be suitable for the crop. The field must be
fully ploughed without any lumps. In order to improve the soil's nutrient content, green
manure crops might be grown there. To increase the fertility of the soil, organic manures
such as compost, vermicompost, and farmyard manure can be employed. Within three
days of seeding, the field should receive adequate irrigation to prevent soil hardening.
d. Selection of seed
Chaffy seeds can be separated from healthy seeds using salt solution. Place an egg
in a container with some water in it. It will continue to receive slow additions of salt until
the egg rises to the water's surface. The high-quality seeds will sink to the bottom of the
water when the seeds are dropped into it. Eliminate the seeds that aren't viable from the
water's surface. To eliminate the salt deposits, wash the chosen seeds twice or three times
in clean water. The ability of the seeds to germinate will be impacted if this is not done.
The unviable seeds can be fully eliminated with this technique. When there is more chaff,
this approach should be used.
e. Seed testing
The viability of the chosen seeds, or seed germination, should be evaluated. It is
only possible to produce and multiply seeds when the germination capability is great. In
the end, higher seed multiplication is possible if the germination rate is high.
f. Seed germination
The ability of seeds in a seed lot to germinate normally, create all the elements of
a healthy seedling, and flourish is referred to as the germination capability of the seed lot.
Well-developed primary roots, a young pair of leaves, and one or two cotyledons are
essential components of the seedling.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = x 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

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A high level of seed viability is indicated by a germination rate of 70 to 80%.

Seed dormancy may also have an impact on germination.
g. Seed vigour
It varies from species to species, but generally speaking, seeds with good
germination capacity and uniformity in size will have good vigour. Good vigour is the
sum total of all the seed attributes that favours rapid and uniform standard establishment
in the field under varying field conditions.
Weak seeds will not germinate well in the field and will eventually die; even if
they do, they won't produce healthy seedlings. Therefore, it is essential to check the
germination of the seeds before planting them in the main field. Small pots with
moistened soil can be filled with a countable number of seeds, and they can be set in a
sunny spot. The number of healthy seedlings in each container should be counted after a
few days.
h. Seed dormancy
Seed dormancy is the temporary cessation of a viable seed's growth together with
a decrease in internal metabolic activity. It is the stage of the seed when it is resting and it
postpones germination. Seed dormancy is caused by unfavourable climatic factors such
low temperatures, temperature fluctuation, and a lack of water. A hard seed coat, an
underdeveloped embryo, as well as the presence of germination inhibitors in the seeds
can all contribute to dormancy. The presence of chemical poisons in the seeds as well as
excessive heat, light, or darkness exposure to the seeds may also be to blame. The seeds'
dormancy can be broken using any of the following techniques:
i. Scarification – Removal of the hard seed coat by rubbing the seeds with sand paper. Eg.
Pulses
ii. Hot water treatment – Soak the seeds in hot water at 45-50°C. Eg. Tree crops.
iii. Leaching – Soak the seeds in water for overnight to remove the germination inhibiting
chemicals present in the seeds. Eg. Coriander
iv. Stratification – Subject the seeds to very low temperature of 0-5°C to break the
embryo dormancy. Eg. Cole crops.
v. Light treatment – Some seeds do not germinate in dark and periodic exposure to light
is essential to break the dormancy. Eg. Lettuce.
i. Sowing season
The ideal sowing season is influenced by the right temperature, amount of rain,
wind speed, and photoperiod. Heavy rains should not fall during the seed crop's
blossoming stage, and the maturation of the seed should take place throughout the
summer months in order to produce quality seeds. The quality of seeds gathered during
the dry season is always higher.
j. Planting density
The plant's field density has a direct impact on the seeds' quality. Diseases are
more common in plantings that are more densely populated, while plantings that are less

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densely populated have more weed infestation and uneven ripening. Therefore, it's
important to maintain the ideal plant density for each type of crop.
k. Weed management
Weeds should not be allowed to grow on the land that has been chosen for seed
production. The purity of the seed crop will be lowered because weed seeds will remain
dormant for a protracted amount of time, grow more quickly than the primary crop, and
generate seeds. Maintaining the purity of the seeds requires weed removal at all phases of
the seed producing field.
l. Disease and insect pest management
Insects will disperse pathogen-producing microorganisms and specifically harm
the seeds. To keep the field free of pests and diseases, special care and attention should
be given at every step of the seed development.
Other factors influencing seed production
1. Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR): When a seed is sowed and harvested, it will generate
a certain number of seeds.
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑆𝑀𝑅 =
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
2. Seed Replacement Rate (SRR): The percentage of crop grown in the season that was
seeded with certified, high-quality seeds rather than farm-saved seeds is known as the
seed replacement rate.
𝑋
𝑆𝑅𝑅 = x 100
𝑌
Where, X = Quantity of seeds with the farmer
Y = Quantity of quality seeds of a particular variety to cover a given area.
This is necessary to preserve genetic purity and produce high-quality seeds. The
rate of seed replacement provides information about the number and quality of seeds
utilised by farmers.

Sl. No. Name of the crop SMR SRR

1. Paddy 17 1:80
2. Bajra (Pearl Millet) 8 1:200
3. Maize 6 1:80
4. Redgram 6.1 1:100
5. Blackgram 17.7 1:40
6. Greengram 11.7 1:40
7. Cowpea 14.2 1:40
8. Groundnut 5 1:8
9. Sunflower 50 1:50
10. Sesame 15 1:250

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Seed certification
Classes of Seed
The Association of Official Seed Certification Agency has
established four primary categories of seeds. Those are:
1. Nucleus Seed
2. Breeder Seed
3. Foundation Seed
Certified seed
1. Nucleus seed
The fundamental seed types for seed production are nucleus seeds. The breeder keeps
track of these seeds for future reproduction. It is made directly under the direction of the
responsible plant breeder. It is created using several crop multiplication techniques and
procedures. The genetic purity of nucleus seeds is quite high (100%).
2. Breeder seed
Under the direction of a breeder, breeder seeds are created utilising nucleus seeds in
research facilities or universities. The National Seed Corporation's officials as well as the
scientists and officers of the Seed Certification Department will keep an eye on the entire
production process. The given tag for the breeder seed is golden yellow in colour and the
breeder seeds are 100% genetically pure.
3. Foundation seed
Breeder seeds are used to create foundation seeds. It is made either at government farms
or by commercial seed companies. By obtaining the appropriate breeder seeds, farmers can
also start producing it. The foundation seeds are 99.5% genetically pure, and their
certification sticker is white in hue.
4. Certified seed
Certified seeds are those that are grown from foundation seeds. The National and State
Seed Corporation, private seed firms, and farmers all participate in the manufacture of
certified seeds. The Department of Seed Certification's definitions of uniformity and purity
should be met by the certified seeds. The given certification sticker is blue, and the certified
seeds have 99% genetic purity.
5. Truthfully labelled seed
It is accurate to say that there is another category of seeds. The Department of Seed
Certification is not responsible for this category of seeds. These seeds are merely examined
for germination and physical purity. By using this technique, any farmer can create seeds and
sell them as seeds with accurate labels. Certification is optional but labelling is not.
Seed certification
The organisation with legal authority to oversee seed production, multiplication, and
quality control is the Seed Certification Department. The Seed Act of 1966 stipulates that seed
certification is optional. The term "certified seeds" refers to seeds that have received certification
from the Seed Certification Agency and have met all applicable field and seed criteria. While

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seed certification procedures and costs vary from State to State, seed standards are set and
standardised across the nation.

Steps involved in seed certification

Aim of seed certification
The primary goal of the Seed Certification Department is to produce good quality seeds
of the crop varieties that have been announced by the Central and State Governments and make
them available to farmers.
Steps in seed certification
1. Application for seed production
2. Registration of sowing report
3. Field inspection
4. Seed processing
5. Seed sample and seed analysis
6. Tagging and sealing
1. Application for seed production
A sowing report in triplicate along with the required certification fees and registration
cost of Rs. 50/- (Rupees fifty only) should be submitted to the Assistant Director of Seed
Certification by anyone wishing to start producing certified seeds. The cost is for a single crop
variety, up to 25 acres, and a single growing season. The label of the seed source must be
submitted along with this price for seed certification.
For different crop kinds, classes, and stages, separate sowing reports are necessary. If the
seed production fields are more than 50 metres apart, the sowing or planting dates are more than
7 days apart, or the seed farm area is more than 25 acres, separate sowing reports for the same
crop variety must be registered. Within 35 days after the sowing date or 15 days before to
flowering, whichever comes first, the sowing report must be delivered to the appropriate
Assistant Director of Seed Certification. The sowing report for a transplanted crop should be sent
15 days prior to flowering.
2. Registration of sowing report
The Assistant Director of Seed Certification examines and registers the seed farm after
receiving the application for the sowing report, and then properly assigns a Seed certification
number for each sowing report.

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3. Field inspection
The goal of the field examination is to look for any elements that might compromise the
seeds' genetic integrity and physical well-being. The Seed Certification Officer (SCO) assigned
to the particular seed farm will carry out the field inspection. The Seed Certification Officer will
send him a copy of the planting report together with information on the inspection date and the
seed farm. Based on the crop's growth stages, the number of field inspections will vary from crop
to crop. The following crop growth stages are often when field inspections are conducted.
i. Pre flowering stage
ii. Flowering stage
iii. Post flowering stage
iv. Pre harvest stage
v. Harvest stage
4. Seed processing
The seeds should be transported to the processing plant after being gathered from the
seed farm in accordance with the necessary field standards. Only authorised seed processing
facilities should be used for processing. Each seed lot in the unit is checked with this report,
which should be included with each processing report. Cleaning, drying, grading, treatment, and
other processes are included in processing to raise the seed quality. The processing facility will
be inspected by a Seed Certification Officer to rule out any potential mechanical combinations.
The estimated yield and the seed lot should be correlated. Lots of seeds should be properly
labelled and have the required moisture level. For paddy, perform a float test (take 400 processed
paddy seeds, place them in a water-filled tumbler, and count how many paddy seeds float). The
maximum allowable float is 5%; if it is higher, additional processing must be done to ensure that
it was done correctly. The seed lots in the processing facility must be processed within three
months of the delivery date. Permission should be requested from the Assistant Director of Seed
Certification in the event of processing delays. Seeds that have been processed need to be
accurately weighed, packed, sealed, and labelled. At this point, lot numbers are assigned as
follows:
E.g. DEC 22-03-01-25-209
Where, DEC 22 represents seed harvested in December 2022.
03 represent seed crop raised in Assam
01 represent seed processing unit number
25 represent seed produce code
209 represent bag number
Along with the Seed Certification Officer's signature, the processing label contains
information on the S.C.No., kind, variety, class of seed, lot number, date of sampling, quantity in
kgs, and number of bags/total bags.
5. Seed sample and seed analysis
Through the Assistant Director of Seed Certification, a seed sample shall be forwarded to
the seed testing laboratory for examination. When registering a seed farm, the Rs. 30/- (Rupees

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Thirty Only) charge for seed analysis must be paid. The producer must pay the Assistant Director
of Seed Certification a fee of Rs. 200/- (Rupees just two hundred) in order for the Assistant
Director to examine the genetic purity of the seed sample.
Only seed batches that are pure, devoid of inert materials, at a certain percentage of
moisture, and capable of germination will be given the certification label. When purchasing
certified seeds from the Assistant Director of Seed Certification, you should pay Rs. 3 for
foundation seeds and Rs. 2 for certified seeds.
6. Tagging and sealing

Various types of tags used in certification of all the classes of seeds

Within two months of receiving the seed analysis result or within 30 days of the date of
the genetic purity test being conducted, approved seed batches must be marked with a
certification tag. The Seed Certification Officer verifies the seed tags after receiving them. The
tag is filled out completely with all the required information. Along with the certification tag, the
producer tag in green (10–15 cm in size) needs to be fastened to the seed lot. On the tags, avoid
stitching them more than once. The Seed Certification Officer should be present for the entirety
of the tagging procedures. With prior approval from the Assistant Director of Seed Certification,
confirmation samples may be taken if tagging has not been completed within the specified time
frame. In these situations, the seed lot's validity will be fixed as of the initial date of seed
analysis and tagged. In these situations, there is a price of Rs. 50/- (Rupees fifty only) for the
delayed tagging as well as a Rs. 30/- (Rupees thirty only) fee for the seed analysis.
Validity period
For all seed crops, the certified tagged seed is only valid for a short time, say nine months
from the date of seed sample testing. If the specific seed lot is not sold out within this time
frame, it may be revalidated for an additional six months, but only if it satisfies our required seed
requirements.
References:
1. Agarwal, P.K. and Tunwar, N.S. (1990). Seed certification and quality control in India.
Plant Varieities & Seeds, 3(3), 165-171.

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2. Agarwal, V.K. and Sinclair, J.B. (1997) Seed treatment. Principles of seed pathology. CRC
Press Inc/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, 423–460.
3. Copeland, L.O., McDonald, M.B. (1999). Seed Certification. Principles of Seed Science
and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1783-2_12
4. Dadlani, M., Tonapi, V.A. and Prasad, R. (2013) Seed Quality Assurance Book, 185
5. Doyer, L.C. (1938) International seed testing Association Veenman H, Zonen Wageningen,
Holland, 58.
6. Kumar, A., Gaur, A., Gurjar, M.S., Kumari, P. and Kiran, R. (2020). Seed Health Testing
and Seed Certification. Kumar, R., Gupta, A. (eds) Seed-Borne Diseases of Agricultural
Crops: Detection, Diagnosis & Management. Springer, Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9046-4_27
7. Malhotra, S.K. and Vaishishtha, B. B. (2007). Seed certification standards for seed spices.
Production, Development, Quality and Export of Seed Spices. 84-91.
8. Singh BD. Plant Breeding: Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India,
2020, 254-266.
9. Dadlani, M. and Yadava, D.K. (2023). Seed Science and Technology: Biology, Production,
Quality. 267-298. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5888-5
10. Agrawal, R. L. (1995). Seed Technology. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

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ORGANIC AGRICULTURE: PROMOTING HEALTH IN INDIA

Rajanigandha V. Gawande
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth (VNMKV), Parbhani, M.S.

Organic farming, sometimes referred to as ecological farming or biological farming, is a

type of agriculture that emphasizes crop rotation and companion planting while using organic
fertilizers including compost manure, green manure, and bone meal. It began in the early 20th
century as a response to rapidly evolving farming methods. Sustainability, openness, self-
sufficiency, autonomy and independence, health, food security, and food safety are all argued to
be benefits of organic farming.
Based in large part on the standards established by the International Federation of
Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic
farming organizations founded in 1972, organic agricultural practices are internationally
regulated and legally enforced by many nations. An integrated farming system that priorities
sustainability, improving soil fertility and biological diversity while, with very few exceptions,
forbidding synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified organisms,
and growth hormones.
On a local level, organic farming can help to maintain the environment and biodiversity.
But because organic farming produces lower yields than conventional farming, more agricultural
land must be created elsewhere in the world, which requires converting natural area to
agricultural land. The resulting biodiversity loss and unfavorable climate changes may
overwhelm any local environmental improvements.
Agriculture has been practiced for thousands of years without the use of artificial
chemicals. Man-made fertilizers were first developed in the mid-19th century. These early
fertilizers were cheap, strong, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred for
chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade known as the "age of pesticides". These
new farming techniques, while beneficial in the short term, have serious long-term side effects
such as soil compaction, erosion, and overall decrease in soil fertility, as well as other problems.
Environmental health problems due to the entry of hazardous chemicals into the food supply. In
the late 1800s and early 1900s, soil biologists began looking for ways to address these side
effects while maintaining higher yields.
The growing environmental awareness of the general population in modern times has
turned the original supply-driven organic movement into a demand-driven movement. High
prices and some government subsidies have attracted farmers. In developing countries, many
growers use traditional methods that are equivalent to organic farming, but are not certified and
may not include the latest scientific advances in organic farming. In other cases, farmers in
developing countries have converted to modern organic methods for economic reasons.

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"Organic agriculture” is a production system that supports the health of soils, ecosystems
and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles that adapt to local
conditions, instead of using inputs that have harmful effects. Organic agriculture combines
tradition, innovation and science to benefit the common environment and promote equal
relationships and quality of life.
Although organic farming is fundamentally different from conventional farming due to
the use of carbon-based fertilizers versus highly soluble synthetic fertilizers and biological pest
control instead of synthetic pesticides, organic farming and large-scale conventional farming are
not entirely mutually exclusive. Many of the methods developed for organic farming have been
borrowed by more conventional farming. For example, integrated pest management is a
multifaceted strategy that uses as many biological pest control methods as possible, but in
conventional agriculture, synthetic pesticides can only be used as a last resort. Examples of
beneficial insects used in organic farming include ladybugs and beetles, both of which feed on
aphids. The use of IPM reduces the likelihood that pests develop resistance to pesticides applied
to crops.
Organic farming encourages crop diversity. The science of agroecology has revealed the
benefits of polyculture (many crops grown in the same space), commonly used in organic
farming. Growing a variety of vegetable crops supports a variety of beneficial insects, soil
microorganisms and other factors that contribute to the overall health of the farm. Crop diversity
helps the environment thrive and protects species from extinction.
Organic farming relies more on the natural breakdown of organic matter than the average
conventional farm, using techniques such as green manure and composting, to replace nutrients
taken from the soil of previous crops. This biological process, fueled by microorganisms such as
mycorrhizae and earthworms, makes nutrients available to plants throughout the growing season.
Farmers use a variety of methods to improve soil fertility, including crop rotation, mulching,
reduced tillage, and organic fertilization. By reducing fuel-intensive land use, less soil organic
matter is lost to the atmosphere. This has the added benefit of sequestering carbon, reducing
greenhouse gases and helping to reverse climate change. Reducing tillage can also improve soil
structure and reduce the likelihood of soil erosion.
Need of organic farming
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers reduces soil fertility.
• The excessive use of chemicals has resulted in soil, water and air pollution.
• Ecosystem conservation.
• Promote sustainable development.
• Farming is inexpensive.
• Increased demand for organic products due to food safety.
Objectives of organic agriculture
• To increase genetic diversity.
• To encourage greater use of natural pesticides.
• To make sure to do the soil at the right time.

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• To maintain and develop good soil structure and fertility.

• To fix nitrogen in the soil with legumes
• To control pests and weeds. Protect soil quality with organic matter and encourage
biological activity
• To provide nutrients indirectly to plants by soil microorganisms
• To control weed and pest based on methods such as crop rotation, biodiversity, enemies,
organic fertilizers and appropriate chemical, thermal and biological interventions.
• To encourage Animal husbandry, barn care, nutrition, health, breeding and reproduction.
• To Concern for the wider environment and conservation of natural habitats and wildlife.
Benefits of organic farming
Strong demand:
There is a huge demand for organic products in India and around the world, generating
more revenue through exports.
Nutrition:
Compared to chemicals and fertilizers, organic products are more nutritious, tastier and
better for your health.
Ecological:
Growing organic produce does not use chemicals and fertilizers, so it is not harmful to
the environment.
Long term durability:
Many of the changes observed in the environment are long-term and occur slowly over
time. Organic agriculture examines the medium and long-term effects of agricultural
interventions on agro-ecosystems. It aims to produce food while at the same time establishing an
ecological balance to prevent problems with soil fertility or pests. Organic farming takes a
proactive approach instead of dealing with problems after they arise.
Soil:
Soil building practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, symbiotic associations, cover
crops, organic fertilizers and minimal tillage are central to organic practice. These encourage soil
flora and fauna, improve soil formation and structure, and create more stable systems. In turn,
nutrient and energy cycles are increased and soil holding capacity for nutrients and water is
improved, compensating for the absence of mineral fertilizers. These management techniques
also play an important role in soil erosion control. The time the soil is exposed to the forces of
erosion decreases, the biodiversity of the soil increases and the loss of nutrients, all of which help
maintain and improve soil productivity. The export of plant nutrients is generally offset by
renewable resources of agricultural origin, but sometimes additional soil organic matter with
potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium and trace elements is required. In many agricultural
areas, groundwater contamination by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides is a major problem.
Since their use is prohibited in organic farming, they are being replaced by organic fertilizers
(e.g. compost, animal manure, green manure) and through greater use of biodiversity (of
cultivated species and permanent vegetation), improving soil structure and water infiltration.

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Well-managed biological systems with better nutrient holding capacity will greatly reduce the
risk of groundwater contamination. In some areas where pollution is a real problem, the
transition to organic farming is strongly encouraged as a recovery measure (for example, by the
French and German governments).
Atmosphere and climate change
Organic farming reduces the use of non-renewable energy by reducing the need for
agrochemicals (these needs require the production of large amounts of fossil fuels). Organic
farming contributes to greenhouse gas reduction and global warming through its ability to
sequester carbon in the soil. Many management practices are used by organic agriculture (e.g.,
minimal tillage, return of crop residues to the soil, use of cover crops and rotations, and greater
integration of legumes. nitrogen fixation), which increases the return of carbon to the soil,
increases yield and promotes carbon storage. Several studies have found that soil organic carbon
levels in organic farming are significantly higher. The more organic carbon is retained in the soil,
the greater the agricultural potential to mitigate climate change. However, more research is still
needed in this area. There is a lack of soil organic carbon data for developing countries, no
comparative data from African and Latin American farming systems, and only limited data on
soil organic carbon stocks, which is very important in determining carbon sequestration rates for
agricultural activities.
Biodiversity
Organic farmers are both stewards and users of biodiversity at all levels. At the genetic
level, traditional and adapted seeds and varieties are favored for their better disease resistance
and resilience to climate stress. At the species level, different combinations of plants and animals
optimize nutrient and energy cycling for agricultural production. At the ecosystem level,
maintaining natural areas in and around biological fields and free of chemical inputs creates
favorable habitats for wildlife. Regular use of underutilized species (usually crop rotation to
increase soil fertility) reduces erosion of agro-biodiversity, creating a healthier genetic stock –
the basis for adaptation in future. The provision of structures that provide food and shelter, and
without the use of pesticides, attract new or recombinant species to the biosphere (permanent and
migratory), including flora and fauna. wildlife (e.g. birds) and organisms beneficial to biological
systems. as pollinators and predators of pests. The number of studies on organic agriculture and
biodiversity has increased significantly in recent years. A recent study involving a meta-analysis
of 766 scientific articles concluded that organic farming produces more biodiversity than other
agricultural systems.
Ecological services
The impact of organic agriculture on natural resources promotes interactions in agro-
ecosystems that are vital to both agricultural production and nature conservation. Derived
ecological services include soil formation and conditioning, soil stabilization, waste recycling,
carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, predation, pollination and habitat. By choosing organic
products, consumers through their purchasing power promote a less polluting agricultural

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system. The potential environmental costs of agriculture in terms of natural resource degradation
are minimized.
Disadvantages of organic farming
Not enough ability:
The main problems with organic farming are lack of infrastructure and inadequate
product marketing.
Less production:
The products obtained from organic farming are less in the first years than chemical
products. Thus, it is difficult for farmers to adapt to large-scale production.
Shorter shelf life:
Biological products have more defects and shorter shelf life than chemical products.
Limited production:
Off-season crops are limited and less selective in organic farming.
Organic agriculture and food security
Persisting world hunger has demonstrated that agriculture alone (be it conventional or
not) cannot alone solve food insecurity. Still, many questions are asked with regards to the
ability of organic agriculture to provide food: and many speculations are made, without any
comprehensive data basis. FAO held An International Conference on Organic Agriculture and
Food Security in May 2007 to examine food security in terms of food availability, access to food,
stability of food supply systems and food utilization; material and empirical experience discussed
demonstrate that organic agriculture has the potential to feed the world, under the right
circumstances.
What is a certified organic product?
Certified organic products are those that have been produced, stored, processed, handled
and placed on the market to exact specifications (standards) and are certified “organic” by a
certification body. Once compliance with organic standards has been verified by the certification
body, the product will be issued a label. This label will vary depending on the certification body
but can be seen as assurance that the essential elements constituting an "organic" product have
been respected from farm to market. It is important to note that the organic label applies to the
manufacturing process, ensuring that the product has been produced and handled in an
environmentally friendly manner.
Organic agriculture in India:
• According to the World Organic Agriculture Report 2018, India is home to 30% of the
total organic farmers in the world, but only 2.59% (1.5 million ha) of the total farming
area. 57.8 million hectares of organic farming.
• At the same time, most organic farmers are struggling due to weak policy measures, rising
input costs and limited markets, according to a study by the Association of Indian
Chambers of Commerce and Industry. Degree (ASSOCHAM) and global consulting firm
Ernst & Young.

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Why does India need organic farming?

• The main reason farmers give to practice organic farming is that they are worried about the
use of agrochemicals in traditional farming systems.
• Since many agrochemicals require energy-intensive production processes that are highly
dependent on fossil fuels, there is an issue of the amount of energy used in agriculture.
Organic farmers find their farming methods profitable and personally beneficial.
Indian organic market:
• India is the world's largest exporter of organic cotton.
• More than 30% of the world's organic producers are in India
• India exported 1.35 million tons of “certified organic” food in 2015-16.
• Oilseeds account for half of India's total organic food exports, followed by processed foods
with 25%.
Conclusion:
Organic farming can be a viable alternative production method for farmers, but
challenges remain.
References:
1. Organic Agriculture: What are certified organic products? (fao.org) on 9th July 2023
2. Organic Farming - meaning, types, advantages, importance, limitations (byjus.com) on 10th
July 2023
3. Organic farming - Wikipedia on 06th July 2023
4. Types, Benefits and Limitations of Organic Farming – Secure IAS on 05th July 2023

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BIOCHAR MEDIATED HEAVY METAL REMEDIATION FROM SOIL

Sangya Singh*1 and Shubham Singh2
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
1
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
2
Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Heavy metal soil degradation has risen to be a major worry due to heavy metals build up
in the soil as a result of rising urbanization, agricultural inputs, and growing industry. Heavy
metals are likely to infiltrate the food chain due to their non-degradable nature, speciation, and
bioavailability to living species. Metals from the environment are removed using a variety of
heavy metal remediation processes. Among the methods, the use of biochar, which is energy-
efficient, inexpensive, and environmentally friendly, is developing as a new strategy for heavy
metal remediation. A solid compound rich in carbon known as biochar is prepared by pyrolyzing
waste biomass from forestry and agriculture. Biochar is a solid material with a porous structure
that is produced when biomass is processed thermo-chemically in a sealed container with oxygen
at a minimum. Numerous studies have shown how efficiently biochar works to immobilise
metals in contaminated soils, and its potential application in soil remediation is growing.
Biochar's attributes, such as its low cost of manufacture, high cation exchange capacity, pH,
surface functional groups, and porosity, make it a viable option as an adsorbent for the removal
of heavy metals from soil.
Keywords: Biochar, Heavy metals, Heavy metal remediation, Bioavailability
Introduction:
Chemicals that are more prevalent in one area of the environment than another are known
as environmental contaminants. Numerous pollutants, including inorganic ions, organic
pollutants, organometallic compounds, radioactive isotopes, gaseous pollutants, and
nanoparticles, have severely harmed the ecosystem. One of them is pollution from heavy metals.
Due to either their high atomic weight or their high density, they are classified as heavy metals
(HM’s). The term "heavy metal" is now used to refer to metallic chemical elements and
metalloids that are harmful to both humans and the environment. Anthropogenic activity, which
is the main cause of pollution, has led to the emergence of heavy metal contamination. Heavy
metal use in agriculture, such as the use of pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and other
chemicals, has been a secondary source of heavy metal pollution. The heavy metals
bioaccumulate in our systems after being ingested or inhaled into them. As a result, they are
considered dangerous.
To accomplish this goal, various approaches have been used in recent years, including
physical remediation (washing, thermal desorption, solidification), chemical remediation
(leaching, immobilisation and electrokinetic methods), and biological remediation
(microorganisms and plants). However, each of these approaches has its own drawbacks, such as

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a difficult to master technique, low efficacy, poor viability, short duration, high cost, high
secondary risk, and so on. Currently, one of the most promising remediation methods is adding
amendments to heavy metal contaminated soil such as biochar which is often utilized soil
additives (Derakhshan et al., 2018).
Because of eco-friendly nature, biochar has been effectively used to remove heavy
metals from water and soil. Application of biochar is a less environmentally disruptive and less
expensive, and hence potentially attractive as a future option.

Figure 1: The remediation of contaminated soil by biochar derived from varied biomass
sources
Biochar is a kind of carbon-rich, porous material has a neutral to alkaline pH value, large
specific surface area, a negative surface charge, and an abundance of active organic functional
groups and carbon aromatic structures (Cheng et al., 2020). Numerous studies show that adding
biochars to HM-contaminated soil greatly boosted seed germination, plant growth, crop yields,
and microbial activity and population. Meanwhile, numerous pot studies and field trials have
validated the effects of biochar on the immobilization/mobilization for various types of HMs.
Additionally, the creation of biochar is thought to be an effective management technique for
getting rid of a lot of organic waste, which has some advantages in terms of feasibility and
economic benefits.
Characterization of biochar
These are the characteristics of biochar, as described by Chen et al., (2014).
Index Value Index Value
Specific surface area (m2/g) 6.86 Ash (wt%) 42.25
2
Micropore area (m /g) 0.17 C (wt%) 48.45
Total pore volume (mm3/g) 22.29 H (wt%) 1.78
3
Micropore volume (mm /g) 0.02 N (wt%) 1.47
pH 10.09 S (wt%) 0.78

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Properties of biochar that affect HM remediation
Feedstock and pyrolysis: Almost any type of organic material, including crop residues,
byproducts from forestry, industrial byproducts, animal manure, and sewage sludge, can be
pyrolyzed to create biochar under a variety of circumstances. In general, biochars made from
crop residues, manures, and seaweeds are more nutrient-rich, have a higher pH, and have less
stable carbon than biochars made from lignocellulose-rich woody biomass. Various
thermochemical processes, such as pyrolysis (slow and fast), can produce biochar. For slow
pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of air from ambient temperatures up to around 500
°C, with residence times ranging from minutes to hours. The properties of biochar made at lower
pyrolysis temperatures are thought to be advantageous for the stability of heavy metals and the
subsequent immobilisation of metals in soil.
Surface area and pore distribution: Highly porous structure allows biochar for physical
sorption of metals. In general, biochar's surface area increases as pyrolysis temperature rises. For
biochar's adsorption capacity, large surface area, highly porous structure, and high pore volume
are regarded advantageous. The surface area of biochar is increased by the release of volatiles
and the deformation of raw material components during pyrolysis, creating a porous structure
resembling a honeycomb. Depending on the substance used to produce the biochar, the pore size
varies.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): The majority of biochars have an alkaline character, and as
the pyrolysis temperature rises, the ash content rises as well, intensifying the biochar's alkaline
nature and raising its pH. pH >7 is typically seen in biochar. According to reports, adding
biochar raises soil pH, which lowers HM's mobility and bioavailability. The addition of biochar
raises the pH of the soil, causing the precipitation of metal hydroxide and the adsorption of
heavy metals.
Inorganic composition and pH: The majority of biochars have an alkaline character, and as the
pyrolysis temperature rises, the ash content rises as well, intensifying the biochar's alkaline
nature and raising its pH. The biochar's non-organic ash component is made up of elements
including Mg, Ca, O, N, S, and K, among others. The pH of the biochars is greater when there
are more alkaline salts, alkali metals (Na, K, Ca, and Mg), and CaCO3. The phenomenon is
referred to as the "liming effect" because the addition of biochar raises soil pH, which decreases
the mobility and bioavailability of Cd, Zn, and Pb (Wu et al. 2017). The ash concentration and
pH of biochar are primarily influenced by the type of source material and pyrolysis temperature.
Biochar made from grass, grain husks, straw, and animal manure and sludge have a higher ash
content than woody biochar.
Surface functional groups: Several functional groups, such as hydroxyl -OH, amino-NH2,
ketone -OR, ester -(C=O) OR, methyl -CH3, nitro -NO2, aldehyde -(C=O) H, and carboxyl -
(C=O) OH, are formed on the surface of biochar as a result of the reformation and rearrangement
of chemical bonds that occur during the thermal treatment of biomass. Biochars can have acidic,
basic, hydrophobic, or hydrophilic qualities due to their nature as electron donors or acceptors.
More oxygen-containing surface functional groups (-OH, -CO, -COOH) are present in biochar

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produced at lower pyrolysis temperatures (400 °C), and these groups form complexes with metal
cations. Metal-ligand complex formation in soil may result in mineral precipitation on soil
particle surfaces, changing soil porosity and altering the physical structure.
Soil type: The key soil characteristics influencing the development of metal-biochar complexes
include soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, pH, and mineral concentration. Due to
their innate inability to store heavy metals, tropical soils are more easily phytotoxic than soils
from temperate climates as they are extremely weathered, acidic, deficient in organic carbon, and
predominately contain kaolinite and iron: or aluminum-oxyhydroxides.

Figure 2: Biochar preparation process

Mechanism of heavy metal remediation

Adsorption, complexation, electrostatic attraction, ion exchange and precipitation
processes, which cause the redistribution of HM’s (Heavy metals) from soil liquid phases to
solid phases, restrict their mobility and bioavailability, are the key techniques for
capturing HM’s.
➢ Complexation: Acidic functional groups (phenolic, carbonyl, carboxylic, phenolic, and
hydroxyl) and basic functional groups found in biochar, which are abundant in oxygen,
play a critical role in the complexation of heavy metals and metalloids on the surface and
within the pores of biochar. Compared to biochar manufactured through higher
temperature pyrolysis, low temperature biochar has more polar functional groups. Due to
the development of inner and outer sphere complexes containing oxygenated (acid)
functional groups, it effectively results in metal immobilisation. For metals with soluble
nature, complexation is thought to be the most frequent route for adsorption with biochar.
➢ Adsorption: The removal of heavy metals through physical or surface adsorption entails
the diffusion of metal ions into the pores of the sorbent. No chemical bond formation is
connected to this technique. High surface areas and pore volumes in biochars will be
preferred when carbonization temperatures rise (over 300 °C) for both animal and plant
biochars. The heavy metal’s radius is substantially smaller than biochar's typical particle
size. In fact, smaller the radius of heavy metal, more it will penetrate into the pores of

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biochar, and greater will be the inducement for adsorption (Shi et al. 2020). The
characteristics and precise surface area of the biochar have a direct impact on the physical
adsorption rate. Larger pores enable direct immobilisation of metal ions through diffusion
and retention within the pore. In general, when pyrolysis temperature rises, the surface
area and porosity of the biochar similarly rise, increasing its potential for adsorption.
➢ Precipitation: The most frequent processes for the immobilisation of heavy metals by
biochar are thought to be precipitation. Precipitation is the creation of solid(s), either in
solution or on a surface, during the sorption process. The pH of the soil is markedly
raised by the addition of biochar (with pyrolysis temperature > 300 °C), and the heavy
metal ions in the soil may react with the oxide, phosphate, and carbonate (OH, PO4, CO3,
HCO3) fractions of the biochar, reducing the mobilisation of heavy metals into the soil by
precipitation.

Figure 3: Mechanism of Heavy Metal remediation through Biochar (Guo et al. 2020)

➢ Electrostatic attraction: When biochar is produced at greater pyrolysis temperatures, its

surface is negatively charged. Strong electrostatic interactions between negatively
charged biochar surface and positively charged metal ions in soil reduce metal
bioavailability.
➢ Ion exchange: The functional groups on the surface of biochar have a significant impact
on CEC. These groups are abundant in low temperature biochars and bind with metal
ions on the surface of the biochar. Metal ions may also combine with the inorganic
minerals contained in the biochar matrix, such as Na, K, Mg, P, and Ca.
Effect of biochar on soil properties
➢ Bulk density: Because biochar has a relatively lower bulk density than soil, adding it to
the soil caused the soil's bulk density to decrease and its porosity to increase.
Additionally, biochar has significant porosity as a result of maintaining the biomass

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feedstock's cell wall integrity (Yadav et al. 2018) Being a porous material, it increases
the soil's porosity and reduces bulk density when applied to the soil. According to Hseu
et al. (2014), the creation of macropores and the rearranging of soil particles caused the
change in porosity in soils that had been treated with biochar. It improves soil quality.
➢ Water holding capacity: Biochar typically has a water retention capacity of between
75.0% and 247% (Solaiman et al. 2012) The soil's moisture content rises after the
application of biochar. This is due to enhanced aggregation that resulted in the formation
of more pore spaces as a result of increased earthworm digging, or to biochar soils having
more micropores to physically retain water. It is suggested that the rise in moisture
content on increasing biochar rates is due to an increase in surface area that could absorb
more moisture.
➢ Cation exchange capacity: The CEC and amount of exchangeable cations in the
amended soils both rise significantly after the addition of biochar, indicating an
improvement in soil fertility and nutrient retention. Biochar increases soil fertility by
allowing extra nutrients to be retained in the soil and by preventing nutrient loss by
holding them inside pores. The soil can now serve as a nutrition reservoir for plant roots
owing to biochar. The observed CEC of biochar ranges from 8 to 40,000 c mol/kg, and as
go by on, these values will rise following soil application.
The CEC gets improved as a result of its porous nature. The biochar's delayed
oxidation also led to a rise in carboxylic groups, which in turn raised the treated soil's
CEC. In soil biochar can help the soil's exchangeable cation status, particularly calcium.
➢ Anion exchange capacity: oxonium functional groups support AEC independent of pH
and can be helpful in lowering nitrate (NO3) and phosphate leaching when applied to
soils (Lawrinenko and Laird, 2015) observed that. Biochar may be able to absorb PO43:
and NH4+ from wastes like dairy effluent, making it helpful as a waste recycling that
might later be put to the soil as a nutrient amendment (Sarkhot et al. 2013).
➢ pH: Biochar can alter soil chemical characteristics by raising pH, CEC, nutrient
utilisation efficiency, and nutrient concentrations (Lehmann and Joseph, 2015). While all
these results lessen the demand for lime treatment and boost crop productivity in severely
weathered, infertile tropical soils and decrease the availability of heavy metals in soil.
➢ Biological properties: Biochar with high high porosity would be the most favorable for
microorganism habitat because the pore spaces in biochar provide a good habitat.
Microbes can be protected from parasitism and desiccation by biochar, which also
contains labile C and mineral nutrients that promote growth. The ability of biochar to
enhance pH and the addition of labile organic C to the soil (Farrell et al. 2013), which
results in wider C/N ratios, have both been linked to this shift in the microbial
community.
Cons of biochar application
➢ The use of contaminated raw materials, municipal garbage, or sewage sludge might
cause toxic metals to build up in the biochar. If applied to soil, this heightens the risk

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of phytotoxicity and soil pollution. During the pyrolysis process, biochar may
produce dioxins, carbonaceous nanoparticles, volatile organic compounds (VOC),
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and VOCs. High molecular weight PAHs
typically occur at high temperatures (>500 °C), whereas low molecular weight PAHs
typically arise at low temperatures (500 °C).
➢ The ability of biochar to immobilise heavy metals may change over time when
competing contaminants or native soil organic matter occupy the sorption sites.
➢ The biochar's ability to effectively immobilise heavy metals can also immobilise a
number of essential micro and macronutrients, reducing soil fertility and decreasing
the bioavailability of those nutrients to plants.
➢ Due to the source material or production process, metal buildup in biochar may leak
into the soil or water, increasing their concentration in the environment and causing
biomagnifications or bio-accumulation into the food chain.
➢ In order to fully grasp the impacts of biochar, which are still being investigated in the
laboratory, field trials are required.
Conclusion:
Thus, it can be concluded that although the total amount of toxic metals in the soil did not
decrease as a result of the addition of biochar, it did reduce the mobility of Pb, Cr, and Cd as
well as the bioavailability of Zn, Pb, and Cd. Biochar has the potential to enhance the agronomic
value and quality of soil while reducing the harmful effects of toxic metals. Biochar affects the
physical characteristics of soil, which may subsequently have an ongoing effect on plant growth.
Additionally, biochar increases the availability of nutrients for plants and decreases the
bioavailability of harmful metals while reducing the leaching of soil resources.
For the treatment of water and soil contaminated with toxic metals, biochar is a viable
and environmentally beneficial technique. The ability of biochar to effectively adsorb toxic
metals and other pollutants in water and soil makes it a great, environmentally friendly, and
economically viable method for reducing environmental contaminants in water and soil.
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carbon. Sci Total Environ 465:288-297.

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