MODULE 3: FABRICATION PROCESSES

3.1 Introduction to welding

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together by means of heat,
pressure or both forming a joint as the parts cool. Welding is usually used to join metals and
thermoplastics. The completed welded joint may be referred as weldment. The parts that are
joined are known as a parent material. The material added to help the joint is called filler. Fillers
are usually chosen to be similar in composition to the parent material, thus forming a
homogenous weld, but there are occasions, such as when welding brittle cast irons, when a filler
with a very different composition. These welds are called heterogeneous weld.

3.2 Common Joint Configurations

a. Butt Joint: A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle to one
another of 135-180° inclusive in the region of the joint.

b. T Joint: A connection between the end of one part and the face of the other part, the parts
making an angle 90° in the region of the joint.

c. Corner Joint: A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle to one
another of more than 30 but less than 135° in the region of the joint.

d. Edge Joint: A connection between the edges of two parts making an angle to one another of 0
to 30° inclusive in the region of the joint.
e. Cruciform Joint: A connection in which two flat plates or two bars are welded to another at
right angles and on the same axis.

f. Lap Joint: A connection between two overlapping parts making an angle to one another of 0-
5° inclusive in the region of the weld or welds.

3.3 Classification of Welding

The welding process is divided into two major categories: Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
and Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding.

3.3.1 Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding: When the metal piece acquires plastic state on
heating, external pressure is applied. Coalescence is produced without melting the base metal.
Also known as solid state welding process. The advantage of this process is the base metal does
not melt and hence the original properties are retained with the metals being joined.

3.3.2 Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding: The material at the joint is heated to a molten
state and allowed to solidify. In this process the joining operation involves melting and
solidification and external force is not applied to produce the joint. Usually fusion welding uses a
filler material to ensure that the joint is filled. All fusion welding processes have three
requirements: Heat, Shielding and Filler material.

3.4 Types of Welding

Welding process can also be classified as follows:

(a) Gas Welding: Oxy Acetylene Welding, Oxy Hydrogen Welding, Pressure Gas Welding
(b) Arc Welding: Carbon Arc Welding, Shield Metal Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding,
Metal Inert Gas Welding, Tungsten Inert Gas Welding, Electro Slag Welding, Plasma Arc
Welding

(c) Resistance Welding: Spot Welding, Flash Welding, Resistance Butt Welding, Seam Welding

(d) Solid State Welding: Forge Welding, Cold Welding, Friction Welding, Explosive Welding,
Diffusion Welding, Ultrasonic Welding

(e) Thermo-Chemical Welding: Thermit Welding, Atomic H2 Welding

(f) Radiant Energy Welding: Electron Beam Welding, Laser Welding

3.5 Electric Arc Welding

It is a process of welding in which heat is produced by creating an electric arc between electrode
and workpiece. Electric arc welding uses either DC supply or AC supply and a consumable or
non-consumable electrode.

3.5.1 Working Principle of Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc welding is based on the principle that, when electric current is passed through an air
gap from one electric conductor to another, an electric arc is produced which generates a very
intense and concentrated heat. The temperature of the arc between two conductors is
approximately 3500 °C to 4000 °C. This high temperature generates intense heat at the point of
welding, which melts a small portion of metal in the work-piece.
The electric arc keeps this molten metal pool agitated and the base metal is thoroughly mixed
with melted electrode metal, after that the metal pool cools down under a protective cover of
slag left by the electrode. On cooling, a strong weld join is formed between the two metal
pieces. A simplified circuit of electric arc welding is shown in the Fig. In electric arc welding,
either AC or DC current is obtained from a welding power supply. One terminal is connected to
the electrode, while the other terminal is connected to the workpiece and the circuit is completed
through an air gap between the electrode and the work-piece. The length of the air gap between
electrode tip and the work surface is about 3 mm to 6 mm. The electrode is moved slowly in the
desired direction to complete the weld.

3.5.2 Types of Electric Arc Welding

• DC Metallic Arc Welding

• AC Metallic Arc Welding

• Carbon Arc Welding

• Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding

• Shielded Arc Welding

3.5.3 Advantages of Arc Welding

• The electric arc welding is the suitable for high speed welds.

• Apparatus required for arc welding is very simple and portable.

• The electric arc welding gives superior temperature at the point of welding.

• Electric arc welding can work on both AC and DC supply.

• It is inexpensive to install.

3.5.4 Disadvantages of Electric Arc Welding

• Electric arc welding requires skilled operators.

 • Electric arc welding cannot be used for welding of reactive metals such as aluminium,
titanium, etc.

• Electric arc welding is not suitable for welding thin metals.

3.5.5 Applications of Electric Arc Welding

• Electric arc welding is used in repairing of broken parts of machines.

• It is used for welding of cast iron or steel housings and frames.

• Electric arc welding is used in shipbuilding, automotive industries, construction

industries, mechanical industries, etc.

3.5.6 Welding machine

The welding machine used for electric arc welding can either be an AC or DC welding machine.
AC Welding Machine: The AC arc welding machine has a step-down transformer to reduce the
input supply voltage of 220 V to 80 V. It works with the power supply of frequency 50 Hz or 60
Hz. The efficiency of the AC welding transformer varies from 80% to 85% and the energy
consumed per kg of deposit is about 3 to 4 kWh. The AC welding machine has low power factor
about 0.3 to 0.4.

DC Welding Machine: The DC arc welding machine commonly consists of a motor-generator

set. Where, the motor is a squirrel cage induction motor and the generator is the differential
compound DC generator. The source of DC power may also be an engine driven generator
or transformer-rectifier welding set. In case of DC arc welding machine, the energy
consumed per kg of deposit is about 6 to 10 kWh and the output voltage may vary in between
40 to 80 Volts and the current from 30 A to 300 A. The motor used in the DC arc welding has a
power factor of 0.6 to 0.7.

Electrode Holder: The electrode holder is the equipment used for holding the electrode at a
desired angle. The electrode holders for arc welding come in different sizes depending upon the
current rating from 50 A to 500 A.
Leads or Cables: The cables or leads carry the electric current from the welding machine to the
work-piece. The cable used for welding process are made of copper or aluminium. The cable
wires are insulated by a rubber covering.

Lugs or Cable Connectors: The cable connectors are used for making the connection between
machine switches and welding electrode holder. Generally, the mechanical type connectors are
used because they can be assembled or removed easily.

3.6 Gas welding

Gas welding is a metal joining process conducted by melting the metals with the help of fuel
gases like acetylene, propane, or hydrogen mixed with oxygen to produce the weld. This welding
type is commonly known as ‘Oxy Acetylene Welding’, because oxygen and acetylene are the
most commonly used gases in this type.
3.6.1 Parts of Gas Welding Equipment

(a) Pressure Regulator: It is used to adjust the required pressure at which the gas should be
released for the operation.

(b) Fusible Plugs: It is a safety valve which is used when the pressure in the system goes beyond
the optimum. Made of Tin which has a low melting point.

(c) Hose: They are the pipes which carry various gases without reacting. Usually, every gas
welding equipment has two hoses: One for oxygen and the other for fuel gas. In India, oxygen
hose has a standard colour of black and acetylene has red.

(d) Non-return valve: These valves are essential to prevent the oxygen and fuel gas from
flowing back into the cylinder, which may cause the cylinder to explode.

(e) Check valve: It is a chamber with a ball pressed against one end through a spring. The check
valve is used to aid the flow in one direction.

(f) Torch: This is the working tool that the operator uses to make the weld. It is the getaway for
the final output of gasses from the cylinder to the metal.

3.6.2 Types of Flames in Gas Welding

Carburising Flame

• Acetylene to Oxygen ratio = 3:1, Flame temperature around 2800 0C.

• Carburizing flame has three zones: a luminous inner zone, a feather of acetylene, and a
blue outer envelope.

• It is used to weld high carbon steels (HCS) and cast iron.

Neutral Flame

• Acetylene to Oxygen ratio = 1:1, Flame temperature around 3000 0C.

• This flame consists of two cores: Inner white core and outer blue core.

• It is used to weld stainless steel, copper, cast iron, aluminium, and mild steel.

Oxidizing Flame

• Acetylene to Oxygen ratio = 1:3, Flame temperature around 3500 0C.

• These flames have the highest temperature and make a roaring noise.

• It is used for welding alloys like brass, Iron carbide, and brazing ferrous metals.
3.7 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding (also called Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, or GTAW) involves
striking an arc between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work- piece.

The weld pool and the electrode are protected by an inert gas, usually argon, supplied through a
gas cup at the end of the welding torch, in which the electrode is centrally positioned.
TIG welding can also be used with filler material. Automatic TIG welding is used for
applications such as joining pipes and welding tubes into the end plates of heat exchangers. Such
automatic welding incorporates many advanced features, including mechanized supply of filler
wire. Major advantages of TIG welding include the stable arc formation and excellent control of
the welding result. Important applications are welding of stainless steel, light metals such
as aluminium and magnesium alloys, and copper. It is suitable for welding all weldable
materials, except lead and zinc. It can be used with all types of joints and in all welding
positions. However, TIG welding is best suited to thin materials, from about 0.5 mm up to about
3 mm thick.
3.8 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding

Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc welding process, in which the weld
is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas mixtures).
Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the parent material,
is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone. The arc heats and melts both the work pieces
edges and the electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work
pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint. Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire
(electrode) the process is referred to as a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the torch
positioning and speed.

3.8.1 Advantages of MIG Welding:

• Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions)

• High level of operators skill is not required

• Slag removal is not required (no slag)

3.8.2 Disadvantages of MIG Welding:

• Expensive and non-portable

• Outdoor application are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas.

3.9 Submerged arc welding

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an automated welding process in which an AC arc is formed
between workpiece and a continuously fed electrode. The arc is shielded by a depositing granular
flux material of several varieties. This flux stream is fed over the weld zone to provide the
exclusion of atmospheric contamination and a reducing environment. It also contains some of the
arc energy in the melt pool, enhancing weld quality and improving the application of energy.
Submerged arc welding is commonly used for welding thick sections of steel, especially in
applications such as shipbuilding, structural steel fabrication, pressure vessel manufacturing, and
pipeline construction. It offers high depos
deposition
ition rates, deep penetration capabilities, excellent weld
quality, and the potential for automation.

SAW involves the formation of a steady and extremely high

high-power
power arc between a continuously
fed electrode and the workpieces
workpieces.. The arc melts the edges of the workpieces and the filler rod,
merging these into a single and consistent melt pool that is traversed along the weld path.
Oxidation and weld-degrading
degrading inclusions are prevented by a reducing flux cover that is applied
prior to the arc.

3.10 Atomic hydrogen welding

Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW or Athydo) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between
two tungsten electrodes in a shielding atmosphere of hydrogen. Electrical energy is supplied to
create an arc between two tungsten
ungsten electrodes where it is transformed into heat. The source of
electrical energy could be either DC or AC, but in practice, AC supply should be chosen as it is
commonly available. Molecular hydrogen is blown through the arc and transformed catalytically
into the atomic form which acts as a carrier for transfer of energy from the arc to the work-piece.
In the direction away from the arc, a sudden decrease of temperature causes the rapid decrease in
the concentration of atomic hydrogen and a release of the heat of recombination.

3.10.1 Working of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding:

In the atomic hydrogen arc welding, to strike and maintain the arc, an open circuit voltage of 300
Volts and a current up to 50A are required. In the atomic hydrogen arc welding process, the arc
is created between two tungsten electrodes and molecular hydrogen passes through this arc. The
molecular hydrogen changes to its atomic form due to the high temperature (about 4000 °C) of
the arc. When the atomic hydrogen travels to the cooler regions in the vicinity of the arc, it
regains its molecular form. In this process, the hydrogen gives up the energy which it had
received from the arc. Consequently, a very intense heat is produced which is used to melt the
work-piece to be welded. After cooling, the two parts of the work-piece are welded together.
Also, a filler rod may be used if extra metal is required for making the joint. The atomic
hydrogen arc welding is mainly used for welding stainless steel and most non-ferrous metals, etc.

3.10.2 Advantages of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding:

• With the atomic hydrogen arc welding quite thick sections can be welded.

• The atomic hydrogen arc welding gives strong, ductile and sound welds.

• Atomic hydrogen arc welding can be used for materials which are too thin for gas
welding.

• In the atomic hydrogen arc welding, the arc and the weld zone are surrounded by burning
hydrogen which protects them from atmospheric contamination.

• The tungsten electrodes remain cool because of the flow of hydrogen gas. It increases the
life of the electrodes.
3.10.3 Disadvantages of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding:

• The atomic hydrogen arc welding process is expensive than the other types of welding
processes.

• Atomic hydrogen arc welding requires skilled operator.

• Atomic hydrogen arc welding can be used in flat position only.

• As the hydrogen is highly inflammable, hence this welding process is riskier.

3.10.4 Applications of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding:

• Atomic hydrogen arc welding is used in the applications where fast welding process is
required such as for welding the stainless steel, etc.

• This welding process can be used for welding most of the ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

• It is used for very precision welding.

• It is also used for welding thin sheets of metal.

3.11 Resistance Welding

Electric Resistance welding is the technique of joining two metals by creating heat as a result of
the resistance that the junctions of the two metals present to the flow of electric current. The heat
generated by the flow of current through resistance is given as H=I2R t, Where I = Current
flowing through the electrodes, R = is the contact resistance of the interface, and t = time of
current flow.
Here, the total resistance offered to the flow of current is made up of

(i) The resistance of current flow in the work.

(ii)The resistance between the contact surfaces of the parts being welded.

(iii)The resistance between electrodes and the surface of parts being welded.

In this type of welding, the metal is reduced to a plastic or liquid form at the point of contact
between the two parts, and then the pieces are forced together under intense mechanical pressure
to fuse them together. Depending on the area, thickness, composition, etc., the input electrical
voltage to the welding varies between 4 and 12 V, and the typical power ranges from around 60
to 180 W for each sq mm of area.

3.11.1 Advantages of resistance welding:

• Resistance welding can be performed quickly, making it an efficient method for mass
production.

• Produces strong and durable welds, especially for metals with high electrical resistance
such as copper and aluminum.

• It does not require any filler material, making it less expensive than other welding
methods.

• Resistance welding does not produce fumes or hazardous materials, making it a cleaner
process.

• This process can be automated, allowing for consistent quality and reduced labor costs.

3.11.2 Disadvantages of resistance welding

• It is only suitable for welding certain types of metals, such as those with high electrical
resistance.

• It not economical for small-scale production.

• This process requires precise control over current, voltage, and pressure, making the
setup more complex than other welding methods.

• The surfaces to be welded must be clean and free of contaminants requiring additional
preparation and cleaning steps

• Resistance welding can create a heat-affected zone, potentially altering the properties of
the materials being welded.
3.11.3 Applications of Resistance welding

• Automotive manufacturing: Welding of car body parts, bumpers, exhaust systems, and
other components.

• Aerospace and defense: Welding of aircraft and spacecraft components, fuselages, wings,
and structural components.

• Electronics: Welding of electronic components, such as wires and terminals.

• Construction: Welding of steel beams and other structural components.

• Medical: Welding of orthopedic implants and surgical instruments.

• In Metal fabrication for welding of metal products, such as metal furniture and metal
frames.

3.11.4 Types of Resistance Welding:

-Spot welding -Projection welding -Seam welding

-Butt welding -Flash welding -Resistance upset welding

• Spot welding: This process involves welding two metal sheets together at specific points.

• Projection welding: A type of spot welding where the welding points are raised
projections on one of the metal sheets.

• Seam welding: This process involves welding along a continuous joint or seam between
two metal sheets.

• Butt welding: A type of welding where the edges of two metal sheets are joined together
to form a single piece.

• Flash welding: This process involves heating the metal sheets until they are nearly
melted, then bringing them into contact and applying pressure to form a weld.

• Resistance upset welding: A process where a metal rod is pressed into two metal sheets to
be joined, causing them to fuse together.

3.12 Spot welding

Resistance Spot welding is the process of joining two thin metal sheets together by applying
pressure. The heat required for welding is generated by the resistance to the flow of current
through the electrode. The welding electrodes are made up of copper which is a good conductor
of electricity. The movable and fixed electrodes of the spot welding machine are held under
pressure on either side of pair of plates to be welded together. As the current passes it
experiences the resistance between the electrode and workpiece contact and generates heat. This
heat causes the interface of the workpieces to melt and the pressure fuses the two metals thus
forming a solid bond.

3.12.1 Applications of Spot welding

• This spot welding provides mechanical strength and is used for sheets having a
thickness 10-12 mm.

• It is used for welding thin sheets together in the manufacturing of fuel tanks joining
vehicle body parts radiators wire ends etc,

3.12.2 Advantages of Spot welding

• The process can be automated and is simple, no filler metal is required.

• Low or no fumes are generated during the process.

• High welding rate is possible.

3.12.3 Limitations of Spot welding

• The initial cost is high.

• Low strength due to discontinuous weld.

• This process is limited to the thickness of the metal.

3.13 Seam welding

Seam welding is a continuous spot welding process, where the workpieces are supported by a
pair of roller shaped electrodes to produce a continuous weld. The current flows easily through
the roller electrodes with a low resistance but experience a high resistance at the metal-to-metal
interface. The high resistance increases the temperature at the workpiece interface, and weld is
generated in the form of a nugget.

3.13.1 Application of Resistance seam welding process

Welding transformer, Automobile mufflers, Welding of sheet metal tanks and gasoline tanks.

3.13.2 Advantages of Seam welding

• It can generate a leak-proof weld and the production rate is high.

• Dissimilar metals can be welded together.

• No filler metal or flux is needed.

• The processes can be automatic or Semi-automatic.

• It is possible to weld thin metal sheets.

• A semi-skilled person can also produce good weld.

3.13.3 Limitations of seam welding the welding

• This process is suitable for thin sheets only up to a thickness of 3 mm, since the
electrodes are in the form of rollers they can weld only along a straight line.
3.14 Projection welding

Projection welding is the resistance welding process which joins the metal pieces together by
using the heat generated by an electric current. In this welding process, different projections are
formed on the workpieces for effective welding. It is a modified version of spot welding. The set
up used for projection welding consists of two copper electrodes. The metal pieces to be welded
are kept between these two electrodes as shown in the Fig. After that, the projections are
accurately formed in precise locations on the metal workpieces by using a special set of dies.
Once the projections are formed, the raised portions on one workpiece are pressed into contact
with another workpiece. At the same time, a high electric current is passed through the
workpieces. When the raised portions touch the second workpiece, the electric current flows
through the contact points, which heats and fuses the two metal workpieces together.

3.14.1 Advantages of Projection Welding

• Metals of any thickness can be welded with the projection welding, and it produces sound
welding with furnished appearance.

• Productivity is more, as multiple welds are performed simultaneously.

• Increased electrode life, as less current is passed through the electrodes and low pressure
is applied.

• It provides good heat balance during welding.

3.14.2 Disadvantages of Projection Welding

• The process of projection formation is complicated and time consuming.

• It requires highly skilled welders.

• Equipment used for projection welding are expensive.

3.14.3 Applications of Projection Welding

• Projection welding is used for welding studs, nuts to plates, parts of refrigerator, grills,
condensers, etc.

• Projection welding is used in automobile industries, ship building works and sheet metal
works, etc.

3.15 Resistance Butt welding

In butt welding, heat is produced by the contact resistance between two metal workpieces. The
faces of the workpieces should be machined or edge are prepared. In butt welding, the two
workpieces are brought together and mechanical pressure is applied along the axial direction by a
spring. Step down welding transformer is used for butt welding. A heavy current is passed from
the welding transformer, which creates the required heat at the joint due to comparatively high
resistance of the contact area. This heat melts the metal at the joint and the two workpieces fuse
together producing a weld joint.

3.15.1 Advantages of Butt Welding

• Butt welding provides distortion control.

• It produces welds of high strength with complete fusion.

3.15.2 Disadvantages of Butt Welding

• For butt welding, the welding geometry can limit its applications.

• Welds made by butt welding are sensitive to faying surface conditions.

• Butt welding process may require fixturing.

3.15.3 Applications of Butt Welding

• Butt welding is used, where the metal pieces are joined end to end or edge to edge.

• Butt welding is used for welding such articles whose cross-sectional area is as much as
6.25 cm2 such as steel rails.

• Butt welding is also used for welding pipes, wires and rods, etc.

3.16 Flash welding

Flash welding, also called flash butt welding, is a resistance welding process, in which the ends
of the workpieces are pressed together and a heavy electric current is passed through the joint
during the welding process. In flash welding process, the two workpieces to be welded are
clamped strongly in a flash welding machine. Electrical current is applied to the workpieces
before they are brought together, so that when they meet arcing (or flashing) takes place. As
soon as melting temperature of the workpieces reches, the supply of current is cut off and the
workpieces are rapidly brought together under high mechanical pressure which forces the fused
metal and slag out of the joint and making a good solid weld. When the ends of the workpieces
collide, the squeezed molten metal flashes out in the outward direction, and this outward
direction of the metal causes a flashing effect.

3.16.1 Advantages of Flash Welding

• In flash welding, the power consumed is less, as the arc also produces some heat required
for welding.

• Flash welding is economical.

• It can be used for welding metals having different melting temperatures.

 • Flash welding produces neat, clean and strong welds.

3.16.2 Disadvantages of Flash Welding

• The welding machine used for flash welding is bulky.

• Chance of fire hazards is high.

• In flash welding, metal is lost during flashing.

3.16.3 Applications of Flash Welding

• Flash welding is used extensively in production work, particularly in welding rods and
pipes together.

• Flash welding is widely used in automobile construction on the body, axis, wheels,
frames and other parts.

• Flash welding is also used in welding motor frames, transformer tanks and many other
types of steel containers.

3.17 Thermit Welding

Thermit welding, also known as Exothermic welding that uses heat from an exothermic reaction
between metal oxides and reducing agents to produce coalescence between two metals. The
powder consists of aluminium and the oxide of other metals like iron. Once heated, it gives off
an enormous amount of heat which is a result of the chemical combination of aluminium with the
oxygen of the oxide. Reacting agents of thermite welding are aluminium powder (22%) and iron
oxide (78%), and the reaction is as follows:

8Al + Fe3O4→ 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + Heat (3000˚C, 35 kJ/kg of mixture)

The mixture of fine aluminium powder and iron oxide in a ratio of about 1:3 by weight is known
as Thermit mixture.

3.17.1 Application

Repair of steel castings and forgings, joining railroad rails, steel wires and steel pipes, for joining
the large cast and forged parts.

3.17.2 Advantages of thermite welding

• Simple process to join two similar or dissimilar metals quickly.

• Does not require electric power.

• As no costly power supply is required, this process is economical and convenient.

3.17.3 Disadvantages of thermite welding

• Used for parts of every section of ferrous metals.

• Slow welding rate.

• High temperature may cause distortion and change in grain structure in the welded
region.

• The welded region contains slag contamination and hydrogen gas.

3.18 Electro-slag Welding

Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is generated by an electric current
passing between a consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag
covering the weld surface. Prior to welding, gap between the two work pieces is filled with a
welding flux. The Welding is initiated by an arc between the electrode and the work piece. Heat,
generated by the arc, melts the flux powder and forms molten slag. The slag is maintained in
liquid state due to heat produced by the electric current. The slag reaches a temperature of about
1930°C), which is is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and work piece edges.
Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the work pieces.

3.18.1 Advantages : High deposition rate (up to 20 kg/h), Low slag consumption (about 5% of
the deposited metal weight), Low distortion, Unlimited thickness of work piece.

3.18.2 Disadvantages : Coarse grain structure of the weld, Low toughness of the weld, Only
vertical position is possible
3.19 Electro-gas Welding

Electrogas arc welding (EGW) is a consumable-electrode-type welding method developed to

enable vertical position welding of thick plates at high efficiency through stable penetration.
The shielding gas used for EGW is mostly CO2, but argon gas or mixture of argon and CO2,
oxygen or helium are used as well. Flux-cored wires that form slag are mostly used, but solid
wires are also used in some cases. The welding power supply is a DC constant-voltage or DC
constant-current (drooping) type. The process encloses the weld pool with the end of the base
material, a copper shoe and a fire-resistant backing and performs upward vertical position
welding while preventing the dropping of molten metal. This allows the welding of a thick plate
in one pass.

3.19.1 Advantages: Fast deposition rate and high efficiency.

3.19.2 Application: Welding vertical butt joints of products, such as ship's shell plates, bridges,
storage tanks, and pressure vessels.

3.20 Brazing

Brazing is a process for joining two metal pieces, which involves application of heat with
addition of a filler metal of low melting point and good flowability. The molten filler enters into
the joint by capillary action. The temperature of the molten filler used for brazing exceeds 450
°C. In a related process called soldering, the filler metal remains below that temperature. Brazed
joints are usually stronger than soldered joints. Heating by torch in air is satisfactory, provided
the joint is adequately fluxed. Other forms of heating include inductive heating, electrical
resistance heating etc. Combinations of borates, fluoborates, fluorides, chlorides, borax,
and boric acid are commonly used as fluxes. Brazed joints are highly reliable and are used
extensively on rockets, jet engines, and aircraft parts.
3.21 Soldering

Soldering is a metal joining process by melting solder. Solder is a metal alloy usually made of
tin and lead which is melted using a hot iron. The iron is heated to temperatures above 600 0F
which then cools to create a strong electrical bond. Use of flux helps to prevent oxidation and
can sometimes chemically clean the metal. Commonly used flux is rosin flux which improves
the mechanical strength and electrical contact of joints. Sometimes it is also possible to apply a
‘wetting agent’ to reduce the surface tension.

3.21.1 Types of Soldering:

-Soft soldering (90 °C - 450 °C)

-Hard (brass or silver) soldering (>450 °C)

-Brazing (>450 °C).

3.22 Welding defects

The lack of training to the operator or careless application of welding technologies may cause
defects in welding, which deteriorates the weld quality and joint properties. These defects may
result in sudden failures of joints. The common weld defects include Porosity, Lack of fusion,
Inclusions, Cracking, Undercut, Lamellar tearing.

3.22.1 Porosity: It occurs when the solidifying weld metal has trapped gases within it. Presence
of dirts on the metal surfaces or use of damp consumables also causes porosity. It is found in the
shape of sphere or as elongated pockets. Porosity can be avoided by storing the consumables in
dry conditions, degreasing and cleaning the surfaces before welding.

3.22.2 Lack of Fusion: Due to too little input or too slow traverse of the welding torch, lack of
fusion arises. By increasing the temperature, by properly cleaning the weld surface before
welding and by selecting the appropriate joint design and electrodes, a better weld can be
obtained. On extending the fusion zone to the thickness of the joints fully, a good quality joint
can be obtained.

3.22.3 Inclusions: Due to the trapping of the oxides, fluxes and electrode coating materials
in the weld zone the inclusions are occurred. Inclusions occur while joining thick plates in
several runs using flux cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally
removed after every run and before the next run starts. By maintaining a clean surface before the
run is started, providing sufficient space for the molten weld metal between the pieces to be
joined, the inclusions can be prevented.

3.22.4 Cracking: Due to thermal shrinkage, strain at the time of phase change, cracks may
occur in various directions and in various locations in the weld area. Due to poor design and
inappropriate procedure of joining, high residual stresses and cracks are observed. A stage-wise
pre-heating process and stage-wise slow cooling will prevent the crack formation. A schematic
diagram of centerline crack is shown in Fig. The cracking can be minimized by using fillers
with low carbon and low impurity.

3.22.5 Undercutting: The undercut is caused due to incorrect settings or using improper
procedure. Undercutting can be detected by a naked eye and the excess penetration can be
visually detected.

3.22.6 Lamellar Tearing: Due to non metallic inclusions, the lamellar tearing occurs through
the thickness direction. This is more evidently found in rolled plates. As the fusion boundary is
parallel to the rolling plane in T and corner joints, the lamellar tearing occur. By redesigning the
joint and by buttering the weld area with ductile material, the lamellar tearing can be minimized.