SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

Group Assignments

CHAPTER 1
Classification of Words
Group 4 :
1. Florianus Barkanis (32200057)
2. Kristina Gene (32230003)
3. Angelica Stella Joeyceline Fenat (32230008)
4. Kristiani Adela Saijao (32230013)
5. Maria Yustina Saunoah (32230018)
6. Alexander Reinaldi Kolo (32230023)
7. Theresia Irene Asa (32230029)
 Classification of Words

The classification of words is the categorization of word into parts of speech

based on how they are used in sentence. The classification of words are divided into
two main categories, they are class words and function words. The class word can
be subdivided into noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. The other words which do not
belong to the four part of speech are called function words, namely, words which do not
have lexical meanings.

A. Class of Words
1. Noun
Nouns are words used to name people, places, things, animals, concepts or ideas.
Nouns can be specific or general names, and can be used as subjects, objects, or
complements in sentences.

Characteristics of Nouns:
 Mention people, places, things, animals, concepts, or ideas.
 Can be a specific or general name.
 Can be used as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence.
 Can be accompanied by adjectives to explain or describe it.

Classification of Nouns Based on Their Properties:

1) Proper Noun (Special Noun): The name of a specific person, place, or
organization, such as "John", "New York", or "Google".
2) Common Noun (General Noun): A noun that is not specific, such as "dog", "city",
or "company".
3) Concrete Noun (Concrete Noun): Nouns that can be seen, touched, or felt, such
as "apple", "chair", or "water".
4) Abstract Noun (Abstract Noun): Nouns that cannot be seen, touched, or felt, such
as "love", "happiness", or "freedom".

Classification of Nouns Based on Number:

 1) Singular Noun (Singular Noun): A noun that only has one example, such as
"book" or "cat".
2) Plural Noun (Plural Noun): A noun that has more than one example, such as
"books" or "cats".
3) Collective Noun (Collective Noun): A noun that refers to a group of people or
things, such as "family", "team", or "flock".

Classification of Nouns Based on Their Function:

1) Countable Noun: A noun that can be counted, such as "apple", "pen", or "book".
2) Uncountable Noun: A noun that cannot be counted, such as "water", "air", or
"music".
3) Possessive Noun: A noun that shows ownership or possession, usually formed
by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s) or just an apostrophe (') for plural nouns.
Example: John’s book, the cat’s tail, students’ assignments (for plural
possessive).

2. Verb
A verb is a word that expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being in a
sentence. It is the main part of a predicate and is essential for forming a complete
sentence.

Kinds of Verb:
1) Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitives verb is a verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
Example:
 She buys a book. (“book” is the object)
 He wrote a letter. (“letter” is the object)

Intransitive verb is a verb that does not require a direct object to complete its meaning.
Example:
 She sleeps early.
 They run fast.
 2) Regular and Irregular Verbs
Regular Verbis a verb that follows a consistent pattern when forming the past tense and
past participle (by adding -ed or -d).
Example:
 Play → Played
 Walk → Walked

Irregular Verb is verb that does not follow the regular pattern when forming the past
tense and past participle.
Example:
 Go → Went → Gone
 Eat → Ate → Eaten

3) Linking Verb
A linking verb connects the subject with a subject complement (adjective or noun) that
describes or identifies it. These verbs do not show action but rather a state of being.
Example:
 She is happy.
 They become doctors.
 The cake tastes delicious.

4) Active and Passive Verbs

Active Verb used When the subject performs the action.
Example:
 The teacher explains the lesson.
 She wrote a poem.

Passive Verb used When the subject receives the action.

Example:
 The lesson is explained by the teacher.
 A poem was written by her.

3. Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes or gives more information about a noun, such as
its size, shape, age, color, origin, or material.

Types of Adjectives:
1) Attributive and Predicative Adjectives
Attributive adjectives come before a noun.
For examples:
 a black cat
 a slow journey

Predicative adjectives come after a linking verb like be, become, seem.
Examples:
 The cat was black.
 The journey seemed slow.

Some adjectives only fit one position:

 She was alone that evening. (✔ is a Correct sentence)
 I saw an alone woman. (✖ is an Incorrect sentence)

2) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare two things
Examples:
 He is taller than me.
 This puzzle is easier than the last one.
 The book was more interesting than the film.

Superlative adjectives compare one thing with a whole group

Examples:
 He was the tallest boy in the class.
 This puzzle is the easiest in the book.
 It’s the most interesting book I’ve ever read.

3) Gradable and Non-Gradable Adjectives

Gradable adjectives can be modified with adverbs like very, extremely, fairly.
Examples:
 a very expensive car
 an extremely cold night

Non-gradable adjectives cannot be modified in this way.

Examples:
 electronic devices (not very electronic)
 a nuclear reactor (not extremely nuclear)

4) Qualitative and Classifying Adjectives

Qualitative adjectives describe qualities and can be graded
Examples:
 a fairly tall man
 a really long holiday
 an extremely expensive car

Classifying adjectives categorize things and cannot be graded

Examples:
 a daily newspaper (not very daily)
 an annual event (not extremely annual)
 the western hemisphere

4. Adverb
An adverb is a word or phrase that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a
sentence. It gives information about how, when, where, why, or to what degree
something happens.
Examples of Adverbs:
 slowly (how)
 often (how often)
 yesterday (when)
 there (where)
 completely (to what degree)

Types of Adverbs :

1) Adverbials and Adjuncts

An adverbial is any word, phrase, or clause that modifies a verb. It can be:
 A noun phrase: We met that afternoon.
 A prepositional phrase: We met in the café.
 A clause: We met because we needed to talk.

We use adverbials to describe:

 Place (Where?): I put my bag on the floor.
 Time (When?): The rain lasted all night.
 Manner (How?): He acted as if he were still a teenager.

An adverbial adjunct is a type of adverbial that gives extra but optional information. If
removed, the sentence still makes sense.
 I dropped my bag next to my seat and sat down. (Adjunct: next to my seat)
 I dropped my bag and sat down. (Sentence still makes sense)

2) Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Many adverbs have three forms:
 Positive Comperative (comparing Superlative
two) (comparing one to a
group)
Loudly More loudly Most loudly
Fast Faster Fastest
Well Better Best

Comparative Adverbs (used when comparing two actions):

 She ate her lunch more quickly than Joe.
 Can’t we go any faster?
 The company performed better this year.

Superlative Adverbs (used when comparing one action to a whole group):

 The first stage of the divorce passes the most quickly.
 He’s playing the role that suits him best.
 Worst of all, we didn’t have the rights to our own films.

BUT! Some adverbs cannot have comparative or superlative forms (e.g., yesterday,
here, up, very).

3) Adverb Positions in a Sentence

Adverbs can appear in three positions in a sentence:
1. Front Position (At the beginning)
 Sometimes she wonders what life’s about.
 Clearly, more research is needed.

2. Mid Position (Before the main verb or after "be")

 We always meet for coffee on Saturdays.
 She’s never been to Sweden.
 He carefully avoided my eye.

3. End Position (At the end of a sentence)

 The troops flew home yesterday.
 They’re sitting at the table over there.

4) Sentence Adverbs
Some adverbs modify the entire sentence, expressing the speaker’s attitude or opinion.
These are called sentence adverbs and are usually placed at the beginning.
Examples:
 Clearly, there have been unacceptable delays. (It is clear that delays happened.)
 Sadly, the forests are now under threat. (It is sad that forests are under threat.)
 Curiously, he never visited America. (It is curious that he never went.)

Compare with ordinary adverbs that modify verbs:

 He spoke clearly and with conviction. (Clearly = in a clear way)
 She smiled sadly. (Sadly = in a sad way)

B. Function Words
Function words are the words we use to make our sentences grammatically correct.
Pronouns, determiners, and prepositions, and auxiliary verbs are examples of function
words.

1. Articles / Determiners
Articles and determiners are two important concepts in English grammar used to modify
nouns and provide additional information about the noun.
Article definition: An article is a word used to indicate the type and quantity of a noun in
a sentence.

Types of Articles
1. The (Definite Article): used to indicate a specific noun that has been mentioned
before. Example: I'm reading the book.
2. A/An (Indefinite Article): used to indicate a non-specific noun that has not been
mentioned before. Example: I'm reading a book.

Determiner definition: A determiner is a word used to indicate the quantity, type, and
relationship between a noun and other words in a sentence.

Types of Determiners
1. My/Your/His/Her/Its/Our/Their (Possessive): used to indicate possession.
Example: My car is red.
2. This/That/These/Those (Demonstrative): used to indicate location and distance.
Example: This book is mine.
3. Every/Each/Some/Any/All (Quantitative): used to indicate quantity.
Example: Every student must attend the meeting.

Key Points
 Articles and determiners are used to modify nouns and provide additional
information about the noun.
 Articles and determiners can be used together in a sentence.
 Choosing the correct article and determiner is crucial to ensure clear and accurate
sentences.

2. Auxiliaris
Auxiliary verbs are verbs that cannot stand alone but must be used with the main verb
to form verb phrases. These verbs are used to form various tenses, moods, and voices
in English. Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb in a sentence.

Types of Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs can be divided into two main categories:
1) Primary Auxiliary Verbs
2) Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Verbs that are used to express possibility, necessity, ability or desire. Modal verbs do
not change form.
For example; can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

1) Primary Auxiliary Verbs

Is verbs that are used to help the main verb in forming various tenses.
Examples of main auxiliary verbs; be, do, and have.

a) "Be"
Used to form continuous tenses, progressive tenses and passive voice.
Example in a sentence:
 Present Continuous Tense: She is reading a book.)
 Past Continuous Tense: We were talking to them for ages.)
 Passive Voice: The car was repaired by him

b) "Have"
Used to form perfect tenses (present, past, future perfect).
Example in a sentence:
 Past Perfect Tense: The judge had asked her to speak up.
 Future Perfect Tense: In two years, we will have established community gardens.

c) "Do"
Used in negative sentences, questions, and emphasis.
Examples in sentences:
 Interrogative sentences: Do you want a coffee?
 Emphasis (emphasis): He did look tired.
 Negative sentences: I don't like meat.
 Negative interrogative sentences: Didn't he know how to play football?
 2) Commonly used modal verbs:
Consist of: Must, shall, will, should, would, ought to, can, may, might, could

Characteristics of Modal Verbs:

a) Does not change form (does not have -ing, -ed, or -s forms)
b) Must be followed by a base verb (bare infinitive) without "to" (except "ought to")
Example Sentences:
 Obligation: You must act promptly.
 Ability: Can you speak Italian
 Possibility: I would go if I could afford it.
 Possibility: He said he might reconsider his decision.
 Obligation: I ought to visit my family.
 Suggestions: We should get to Korea before midday
 Permission request: May I come in?

5. Differences between Primary Auxiliary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Category Primary Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Indicating possibility,
Function Helps from tense and voice permission, necessity,
etc.
Can, must, shall, will,
Example Be, have, do
should, etc.
Can change from (is, am,
Shape change was, were, has, had, does, Does not change shape
did)
Always followed by a
Can be used alone as a
Combination with verb base verb without ”to”
main verb
(except ought to)

3. Intensifiers
Intensifiers are words or phrases that strengthen or amplify the meaning of an adjective
or adverb. They add emphasis to the qualities being described, making statements
more forceful or expressive.

Function: Intensifiers modify adjectives and adverbs to convey a greater degree of the
quality.
For example:
 "She is very talented." (compared to "She is talented.")
 "He runs extremely fast." (compared to "He runs fast.")

Common Intensifiers:
 Very
 Really
 Extremely
 So
 Absolutely
 Totally
 Completely

While intensifiers can enhance expression, overusing them may lead to exaggeration or
weaken the impact of the statement. It's often best to use them judiciously.
Examples in Sentences:
 "The movie was incredibly exciting."
 "She is absolutely right about that."
 "I was really surprised by the outcome."

Intensifiers play a significant role in communication by allowing speakers and writers to

express strong feelings or highlight specific qualities.

4. Prepositions
Prepositions are words used before nouns or pronouns to show their relationship with
other words in a sentence.
For example:
After, In, To, On, With, Up, For, From

Types of Preposition
1) Position of Something
Prepositions indicate where something is located.
For examples:
 Her bag was under the chair.
 The dog crawled between us and lay down at our feet.
 His flat is over the shop.

2) Time When Something Happens

Prepositions can show when an event takes place.
For examples:
 They arrived on Sunday.
 The class starts at 9 a.m.
 Shortly after their marriage, they moved to Canada.

3) The Way in Which Something Is Done

Prepositions describe how something happens.
For examples:
 We went by train.
 They stared at each other without speaking.
 She wrote the letter with a blue pen.

4) Prepositions Made Up of More Than One Word

Some prepositions consist of multiple words.
For examples:
 They moved here because of the baby.
 We sat next to each other.
 The hotel is perched on top of a cliff.
 5. Conjuction
Conjunctions are words used to connect other words, phrases or sentences in a
sentence. Conjunctions have several functions, namely:

Main Functions of Conjunctions:

1) Connecting Words or Phrases: Conjunctions are used to connect words or
phrases that have the same or related meaning.
2) Connecting Sentences: Conjunctions are used to connect sentences that have
the same or related meaning.
3) Showing Relationships Between Words or Sentences: Conjunctions are used to
show relationships between words or sentences, such as time, cause-effect, or
contrast.

Types of Conjunctions:
1) Coordinating conjunction (coordinating conjunction): used to connect words or
sentences that have the same or related meaning, such as "and", "or", "but".
2) Subordinating Conjunction (subordinating conjunction): used to connect
sentences that have related meanings, such as "because", "so", "although".
3) Correlative Conjunction (correlative conjunction): used to connect words or
sentences that have related meanings, such as "either...nor", "not only...but
also".

Examples of Using Conjunctions:

 I like eating pizza and sushi. (coordinating conjunction)
 I can't go to the concert because I'm sick. (subordinating conjunction)
 Both my friend and I like to play football. (correlative conjunction)

6. Question Words
Question words, also known as WH-words, are used to ask for specific information.
Here are the most common question words and their functions:
1) What → Asking about things, information, or descriptions
Example : What is your name?, What do you want to eat?
2) Where → Asking about places or locations
Example : Where do you live?, Where is the nearest bank?
3) When → Asking about time or dates
Example : When is your birthday?, When did you arrive?
4) Who → Asking about a person (subject of the sentence)
Example : Who is your teacher?, Who called you last night?
5) Why → Asking for reasons or explanations
Example : Why are you late?, Why did you quit your job?
6) Which → Asking about choices or options
Example : Which color do you like, red or blue?, Which one is yours?
7) How → Asking about manner, condition, or process
Example : How are you?, How do you cook pasta?
8) Whose → Asking about possession or ownership
Example : Whose phone is this?, Whose book did you borrow?
9) Whom → Asking about a person (object of the sentence, formal use)
Example : Whom did you invite to the party?, To whom should I send this letter?