CELL STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

1. A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, whether made of one cell (like bacteria)
or many cells (like a human), is called an organism.
2. cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms. The human body is composed of trillions
of cells.
3. Cells provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions.
4. The cell is the smallest unit of matter, and it was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 and he
put forward cell theory in 1885.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS

• Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.

• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.

• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.

• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy

transactions vital for the survival of the cell.

• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.

CELL STRUCTURE

• The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry
out life’s processes.

• These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles.

• Cell Wall

• The cell wall is the outer layer covering the cell membrane. All cells have the cell membrane,
but cell wall is present in plants, fungi, algae, and most bacteria. The cell provides strength
and structural support to cells thereby protects from physical damage. It also helps in
regulating the transport of certain molecules from the cell.
• Cell membrane

• Cell membrane, thin membrane that surrounds every living cell, and the cell membrane, also
known as the plasma membrane, is a double layer of lipids and proteins that surrounds a cell.
It separates the cytoplasm (the contents of the cell) from the external environment.

• Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.

• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.

• Nucleus

• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.

• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.

• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure

• Nucleolus:The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling

cellular activities and cellular reproduction.

• Nuclear membrane:The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary

between the nucleus and other cell organelles.

• Chromosomes:Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each

human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• Endoplasmic reticulum:The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of

substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

• Golgi Bodies:Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation
of materials within the cell.

• Ribosome:Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell.

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure :The rough endoplasmic reticulum is named so

because of its appearance. associated with protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of
essential lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol.

• Mitochondria:The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because

it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

• Lysosomes: Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and
help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

• Vacuoles:Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

• FUNCTIONS OF CELL

• A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism

• Provides Support and Structure

• All the organisms are made up of cells.

• They form the structural basis of all the organisms.

• The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support
and structure to the organism.

• For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

• Facilitate Growth Mitosis

• In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.

• Allows Transport of Substances

• Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells.

• The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and
passive transport.

• Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane
along the concentration gradient this is known as passive transport.

• The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells
require a lot of energy to transport the substances.
• Energy Production

• Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

PLANT CELL

Plant cells are the fundamental units of structure and function in plants, playing crucial roles in
photosynthesis, growth, reproduction, and overall plant metabolism.

Cell Wall:
• One of the most distinctive features of plant cells is the presence of a rigid cell wall outside the
cell membrane.
• The cell wall provides structural support and protection to the cell, preventing it from bursting
under osmotic pressure.
Cell Membrane :
• Just inside the cell wall lies the cell membrane, a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
• It regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell, controlling the exchange of nutrients,
ions, and waste products with the external environment.
Cytoplasm:
• The cytoplasm fills the interior of the cell and consists of a semi-fluid matrix called cytosol.
• Within the cytoplasm are various organelles, including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and vacuoles, each performing specific functions vital to
the cell's survival.
Nucleus:
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell, housing the genetic material in the form of DNA.
• It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which contains pores that
regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized into chromosomes, which carry the instructions for
protein synthesis and cell function.
Chloroplasts:
• Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells and are the sites of photosynthesis.
• They contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that captures light energy from the sun and converts it
into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
Mitochondria:
• Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell because they generate energy through
cellular respiration.
• They convert glucose and oxygen into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the molecule used by cells
as a source of energy.
Vacuoles:
• Plant cells typically have one large central vacuole, which occupies a significant portion of the
cell's volume.
• The central vacuole stores water, nutrients, ions, and waste products, helping maintain turgor
pressure and regulating cell growth and development.
• It also plays a role in detoxification and may contain pigments that contribute to the coloration of
flowers and fruits.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Golgi Apparatus:
• The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs involved in protein
and lipid synthesis.
• Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and synthesizes proteins destined for secretion or insertion
into membranes.
• Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification.
• The Golgi apparatus receives, modifies, sorts, and ships proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER
to their final destinations within or outside the cell.
Ribosomes:
• Ribosomes are cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis.
• They can be found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ribosomes translate the genetic information from mRNA (messenger RNA) into specific amino
acid sequences, forming polypeptide chains that fold into functional proteins.
Peroxisomes:
• Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes involved in various
metabolic processes, including the breakdown of fatty acids and the detoxification of harmful
substances like hydrogen peroxide.
• They play crucial roles in lipid metabolism and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS),
which are involved in signalling and defence mechanisms.

Animal cell

Animal cells are the basic structural and functional units of animal organisms, ranging from
simple unicellular organisms like amoebas to complex multicellular organisms like humans
 Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):
• The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins that surrounds the cell,
separating its internal environment from the external environment.
• It regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell, controlling the exchange of
nutrients, ions, and waste products with the extracellular fluid.
Cytoplasm:
• The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that fills the interior of the cell, excluding the nucleus.
• It contains various organelles and structures essential for cellular processes and
metabolism.
Nucleus:
• The nucleus is often referred to as the control centre of the cell, housing the genetic material
in the form of DNA
• Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope,
• The nucleus regulates gene expression, DNA replication, and the synthesis of RNA) through
processes such as transcription and RNA processing.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
• The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane-bound tubules and sacs that extend
throughout the cytoplasm.
• Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis, folding, and
modification.
• Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and plays roles in lipid metabolism, detoxification, and the
storage of calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus:
• The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs known as cisternae.
• It receives, modifies, sorts, and ships proteins and lipids synthesized in the endoplasmic
reticulum to their final destinations within or outside the cell.
• The Golgi apparatus also produces digestive enzymes involved in intracellular digestion and
waste disposal.
Mitochondria:
• Mitochondria are double-membrane-bound organelles often referred to as the powerhouses
of the cell.
• They generate energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through cellular
respiration, a process that involves the oxidation of glucose and other organic molecules.
• Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing various hydrolytic enzymes involved
in intracellular digestion.
• They break down macromolecules, old organelles, and engulfed foreign particles through
processes such as phagocytosis and autophagy.
• Lysosomes play crucial roles in cellular homeostasis, recycling, and the defence against
pathogens.
Ribosomes:
• Ribosomes are cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis.
• They can be found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ribosomes translate the genetic information from mRNA (messenger RNA) into specific
amino acid sequences, forming polypeptide chains that fold into functional proteins.
Cytoskeleton:
• The cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of protein filaments that provides structural support,
maintains cell shape, and facilitates cell motility and intracellular transport.
• It is composed of three main types of protein filaments: microtubules, microfilaments (actin
filaments), and intermediate filaments.
• Microtubules are involved in cell division, intracellular transport, and the maintenance of cell
shape.
• Microfilaments play roles in cell movement, cytokinesis, and cell signalling.
• Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and stability to cells.
Centrioles (in animal cells):
• Centrioles are cylindrical structures composed of microtubules found in animal cells,
usually in pairs called centrosomes.
• They play crucial roles in cell division by organizing the mitotic spindle, a structure that
separates chromosomes during cell division (mitosis).
 Prokaryotic cells are simpler in structure compared to eukaryotic cells and are found in
organisms belonging to the domains Bacteria and Archaea

Difference between prokaryotic

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Nucleus Absent Present

Linear DNA molecules enclosed

Genetic Material Circular DNA molecule (nucleoid region) within the nucleus

Generally absent (exception: some contain Present (e.g., mitochondria,

Membrane-Bound membrane-bound organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
Organelles mesosomes in bacteria) apparatus)

Generally larger (10 - 100

Size Generally smaller (0.1 - 5.0 micrometers) micrometers)

Ribosomes Smaller (70S in size) Larger (80S in size)

Mitosis (in most eukaryotic cells)

Cell Division Binary fission or meiosis (in sex cells)

Present, providing structural

support and facilitating cell
Cytoskeleton Absent or rudimentary movement

Asexual (e.g., mitosis) or sexual

Reproduction Asexual reproduction (binary fission) reproduction (e.g., meiosis)

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Animals, plants, fungi, protists

STEM CELLS DEFINITION

• Stem cells are unique cells present in the body that have the potential to differentiate into various
cell types.

• Stem cells are essential cells that replace damaged cells or cells lost due to diseases.
• These cells are the earliest cells of the cell lineage in all tissues and are found in both embryonic
and adult organisms.

• These cells provide a continuous supply of new cells that make up the tissues and organs of
animals and plants.

• Stem cells have been of great interest as a therapeutic method for various diseases and
conditions.

• The stem cells in adults, however, are localized to specific areas within the body like in the bone
marrow.

• APPLICATION/ USES OF STEM CELL RESEARCH

• Stem cell research has been used in various areas because of their properties. Some of the
common applications of stem cells research include;

• Stem cell research has been used in the field of regenerative medicine, which deals with the
restoration of tissues or organs in the patient suffering from severe injuries or some chronic
disease.

• The progress made in the field of stem cell research has laid the foundation for other cell-based
therapies of disease that cannot be cured with conventional medicines.

• Studies related to the human stem cell research has enormous potential for contributing to our
understanding of fundamental human biology.

• Stem cell research has also been used for the testing of new drugs before they can be tested in
animals or humans.

• Cultured stem cells are used for the transplant of cells in the case of various diseases like bone
marrow for leukemia, nerve cells for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease, heart muscle for heart
disease, and pancreatic islets for diabetes.
 BIOMOLECULE : A biomolecule is any one of a wide range of molecules that are made by living
things, including cells.

Biomolecules come in a variety of shapes and sizes and serve a wide range of purposes.
Proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates are the four main categories of biomolecules.

LIPID: A lipid is any of various organic compounds that are insoluble in water like fats, waxes,
oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes.

It function as energy-storage of molecules and chemical messengers.

Lipids are mainly composed of hydrocarbons as when metabolized this hydrocarbons it oxidize
to release large amounts of energy. The type of lipid found in fat cells

PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS:

• Lipids are made of fats and oils, lipids are a class of organic molecules. These molecules have
a high energy and are involved in a variety of bodily processes.
• Hydrocarbon chains make up most of the diverse class of chemicals known as lipids.
• The lipids are soluble in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water.
• Lipids play a crucial role in biological systems because they create the cell membrane, a
mechanical barrier that separates a cell from its surroundings.

THE FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

• Storing Energy
1. The excess energy from the food we eat is digested and incorporated into fatty tissue.
2. Most of the energy required by the human body is provided by carbohydrates and lipids.
3. Fats are packed together tightly without water and store far greater amounts of energy in a
reduced space.

• Regulating and Signaling

1. Triglycerides control the body’s internal climate, maintaining constant temperature. Those who
don’t have enough fat in their bodies tend to feel cold sooner, are often fatigued, and have
pressure sores on their skin from fatty acid deficiency.
2. Triglycerides also help the body produce and regulate hormones.
3. For example, adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin, which regulates appetite.

• Insulating and Protecting

1. Organs such as the heart, kidneys, and liver are protected by visceral fat.
2. The brain as 60 percent fat, demonstrating the major structural role that fat plays within the
body.
3. This blanket layer of tissue insulates the body from extreme temperatures and helps keep the
internal climate under control.
 4. It pads our hands and prevents friction, as these areas frequently meet hard surfaces.
• Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability
1. The dietary fats in the foods we eat break down in our digestive systems and begin the transport
of micronutrients.
2. By carrying fat-soluble nutrients through the digestive process, intestinal absorption is
improved.
3. This improved absorption is also known as increased bioavailability.
4. Fat-soluble nutrients are especially important for good health and exhibit a variety of functions.

NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Large macromolecules called nucleic acids can be found in all viruses and organisms.
• They consist of monomers called nucleotides, which are composed of a nitrogenous base, a
phosphate group, and a 5-carbon sugar.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid are the two primary forms of nucleic acids
(RNA).

Types of Nucleic Acids

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) :

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and
functioning of an organism.
2. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other as this shape is known as a double
helix.
3. Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.
Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T).
4. The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with
thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine.
5. The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes biological information.

RIBONUCLEIC ACID

1. RNA is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to DNA.
2. Unlike DNA, however, RNA is most often single-stranded.
3. An RNA molecule has a backbone made of alternating phosphate groups and the sugar ribose,
rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA.
4. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
5. Different types of RNA exist in cells: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer
RNA (tRNA).

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS :

1. The major function of nucleic acids is to store the genetic infromation of living organisms.
2. Replication or Self-duplication of DNA is an enzyme-catalysed process, where the two strands
of DNA unwind, and each strand serves as a pattern for the new strand synthesis.
3. This new strand is identical to the original DNA. This process helps in transferring the
characteristics from one cell to another, which is also known as heredity.
4. Nucleic acids helps in protein synthesis, where RNA functions as an helper molecule. RNA
facilitates the translation of protein from DNA.
5. DNA fingerprinting is another function of nucleic acids where every individual has different
fingerprints, and this function helps in identifying one person from another.
6. Cellular metabolism is a function of DNA, where it combines a complex set of biochemical
pathways to the maintenance of cell function

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEIC ACID

1. Nucleic acids are insoluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in cold water, but readily dissolved in hot
water
2. They serve as the blueprint for genetic information storage, transmission, and expression.
3. DNA carries the genetic instructions for building and maintaining an organism, while RNA
plays roles in gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation.

CARBOHYDRATES:

1. Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides.

2. Carbohydrates are biomolecules formed with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are
the most common chemical components required for all living things to exist.
3. Sources of Carbohydrates include fresh fruits, vegetables, corn, potatoes, milk, and milk
products.
4. Soda, white bread, artificial sugar, pastries, and other highly processed meals are unhealthy
sources. Sources of carbohydrates can be plant-based as well as animal-based.

• Simple Carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates are generally there in cold drinks, biscuits, chocolates, etc. they include
processed sugar. Simple carbohydrates also include naturally occurring sugars, like fruits. These
are called simple because they break easily, causing problems in the body.

• Complex Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are an important source of energy, and they are important for body
function. They are polysaccharides and take time to break down; they provide energy for a long
time hence being important.

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES IN OUR BODY:

1. Carbohydrates are an essential part of our diet.

2. Most importantly, they provide the energy for all the functions of our body, such as moving or
thinking.
3. carbohydrates also play an important role in the structure and function of our cells, tissues and
organs.
 Carbohydrates as energy source and their storage:

1. The primary function of carbohydrates is that they provide nutrients to cells like glucose.
2. Carbohydrates broken down to mainly glucose as a source of energy for our body, as cells in
our brain, muscle and all other tissues directly use monosaccharides for their energy needs.
3. Approximately 130 g of glucose is needed per day to cover the energy needs of the adult brain
alone.
4. Carbohydrates also act as form by which energy is stored in cells example: glycogen is storage
form of energy in animal cell whereas cellulose is storage form of energy in plant cells.
5. Carbohydrates function in providing as structural components of cells and tissue example:
chitin found in insects and cellulose found in plants.

The glycemic response and glycemic index:

1. When we eat a carbohydrate-containing food, blood glucose level rises and then decreases, a
process known as the glycemic response.
2. It reflects the rate of digestion and absorption of glucose.
3. The impact of different foods on the glycemic response, usually white bread or glucose, within
two hours after eating. This measurement is called the glycemic index (GI).

Gut function and dietary fiber:

1. Although our small intestine is unable to digest fiber, fiber helps to ensure good gut function by
increasing the digestion of the food.
2. Once the indigestible carbohydrates pass into the large intestine, some types of fiber such as
pectin and oligosaccharides are broken down by the gut microflora.
3. This increases bowel movement and has a beneficial effect on the make-up of our gut
microflora.
4. It also leads to formation of bacterial waste products, like the short-chain fatty acids, which
are released in the colon with beneficial effects on our health.

PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. Carbohydrates act as energy reserves, also stores fuels, and metabolic intermediates.
2. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars form the structural frame of the genetic material, RNA and DNA.
3. Polysaccharides, like cellulose, are the structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria and
plants.
4. Carbohydrates are linked to proteins and lipids that play important roles in cell interactions.
 PROTEIN:

1. protein molecule is very large compared with molecules of sugar or salt

2. It contain many amino acids joined together to form long chains, There are about 20 different
amino acids that occur naturally in proteins.
3. Protein molecules contain nitrogen, carbon hydrogen and oxygen.
4. Proteins are the basis for the major structural components of animal and human tissue.
5. They act as biological catalysts (Enzymes), form structural parts of organisms.
6. Participate in deferent cell reaction. Act as molecules of immunity and provide fuel.
7. A protein is a macronutrient that is present in all living beings and is directly involved in various
metabolic pathways.

8. Proteins are species-specific and are unique to each organism.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

The body uses proteins for a variety of purposes, and their structure determines how they
work. Several notable functions include:

1. Digestion – The digestive enzymes, which are primarily proteinaceous in origin, carry out
digestion.

2. Movement – Muscles include a protein called myosin, which helps muscles contract,
allowing for movement.
 3. Structure and Support – The structural protein known as keratin is what gives humans and
other animals hair, nails, and horns.

4. Cellular communication – Through receptors on their surface, cells can communicate with
other cells and the outside world. These receptors are made of proteins.

5. Act as a messenger – These proteins serve as chemical messengers that facilitate

communication among cells, tissues, and organs.

PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS

Solubility in Water:

1. The interaction between proteins and water is complicated.

2. Hydrogen bond interactions between peptide bonds and water play a major role in the
secondary structure of proteins.
3. Water and protein can also create hydrogen bonds.

Denaturation

1. proteins can be denatured by heat, shaking, radiation strong pH changes, salt of heavy
metals, organic solvents, detergents
2. Proteins strongly absorb UV radiation

Isoelectric point

1. The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which the number of positive charges equals the
number of negative charges, and the overall charge on the amino acid is zero.
2. At this point, when subjected to an electric field the proteins do not move either towards
anode or cathode, hence this property is used to isolate proteins.

ENZYME:

1. Enzyme, a substance that acts as a catalyst.

2. In living organisms, it regulates the rate at which chemical reactions proceed without itself
being altered in the process.
3. Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of reaction by lowering the energy of activation.
4. They catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions taking place in the cells of the body.
5. Enzymes have unique three-dimensional shapes that fit the shapes of reactants.
6. Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, in
which large nutrient molecules are broken down into smaller molecules.
7. the conservation and transformation of chemical energy
8. The construction of cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors.
9. Many inherited human diseases from because of the deficiency of a particular enzyme.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

• Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.

• They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell.

• They help in the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules

• Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.

• Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction.

• Enzymes are specific in action.

• Enzymatic activity decreases with an increase in temperature.

• They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

The enzymes perform several functions in our bodies. These include:

1. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by
the body.

2. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in the
synthesis of energy.

3. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.

4. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,

hydrolysis, etc.

5. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular activities.
VITAMINS:

1. Vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities.

2. It plays a major role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining
healthy bones and tissues.
3. For the proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions these
essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions.

Types of Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Vitamins.

Water-Soluble Vitamins.

Fat-soluble vitamin

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name suggests, these vitamins require fat in
order to be absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.

Water-soluble vitamin

Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete through the urine.
Therefore, these vitamins need to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-
soluble vitamins.

FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS : Based on their role in biological processes and their effect different
vitamins have different functions, their function can be best understood by knowing about
their deficiency diseases.

• Vitamin A – Hardening of the cornea in the eye, night blindness.

• Vitamin B1 – Deficiency may cause beriberi and dwarfism.

• Vitamin B2 – Deficiency can cause disorders in the digestive system, skin burning sensations.

• Vitamin B6 – Deficiency of B6 causes tingling, burning or numbness usually in the hands and
feet. sometimes neurological disorders.

• Vitamin B12 – Its deficiency can cause anemia and a decrease in red blood cells in
hemoglobin.

• Vitamin C – It is a water-soluble vitamin; its deficiency causes bleeding in gums.

• Vitamin D – It is obtained by our body when exposed to sunlight. Its deficiency causes
improper growth of bones, soft bones in kids, and rickets.

• Vitamin E – Deficiency of vitamin E leads to weakness in muscles and increases the damage
of red blood cells.
• Vitamin K – It plays an important role in blood clotting. The deficiency of vitamin K increases
the time taken by the blood to clot. Severe deficiency may cause death due to excessive blood
loss in case of a cut or an injury.

PROPERTIES OF VITAMINS

• Organic chemicals

Vitamins are organic chemicals, meaning they have at least one carbon atom in their
molecular structure.

• Small quantities

Vitamins are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function.

• Not part of other groups

The term vitamin does not include minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.

• Fat soluble or water soluble

Vitamins are generally classified as either fat soluble or water soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins
dissolve in fat and tend to accumulate in the body.

HORMONES :

1. Hormones are chemicals synthesized and produced by the specialized glands to control and
regulate the activity of certain cells and organs.
2. These specialized glands are known as endocrine glands.
3. These endocrine glands are distributed throughout the body.
4. These messengers control many physiological functions as well as psychological health.
5. They are also quite important in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

• Following are some important functions of hormones:

• Food metabolism.

• Growth and development.

• Controlling thirst and hunger.

• Maintaining body temperature.

• Regulating mood and cognitive functions.

• Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.

PROPERTIES OF HORMONES

1. Hormones are produced by a specialized glands and are secreted directly into the blood
stream.

2. Hormones are transported by the blood stream from the endocrine cells as they act as
chemical messenger.

3. which act on target cells or organs by regulating the rates of specific metabolic reactions.

4. Hormones are required in very small amounts and their effect may be depending upon their
concentration and the physiological state of the responding tissue.

5. Hormones belong to different types of chemical structure. They may be steroids, proteins,
peptides, or amino acid derivatives