Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Bauchi

Faculty of Engineering and Engineering Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

COURSE CODE: CE 523

COURSE TITLE: BRIDGE DESIGN
CE 523: Bridge Design

COURSE OUTLINE

Purpose of the course

The purpose of this course is to enable students understand the principles of
bridge engineering which entails design, construction and maintenance of the
bridges. The course will be limited to the design of medium span bridges using
reinforced concrete, steel and composite materials. Emphasis shall be laid on design
and detailing exercises.

Course objectives
The objectives of this course are to:
1. Introduce students to the different types of bridges;
2. Enable students understand the principles of bridge design;
3. Guide students on the design and detailing aspects of commonly applied
bridge types;
4. Provide guidelines on the available inspection, maintenance and repair
procedures of existing bridges.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, student should be able to
1. Identify and differentiate the different types of bridges;
2. Explain the principles of bridge design;
3. Carryout planning and location for bridge construction;
4. Design and detail commonly applied bridge types;
5. Describe the construction methods for bridges;
6. Outline the inspection schedule and describe the inspection procedures
of existing bridges;
7. Describe the preventive maintenance procedures of existing bridges;
8. Describe the repair procedures of existing bridges.

Course content
Chapter I: Introduction to design of bridges: General Introduction; Definitions;
Bridge design principles; Bridge design considerations; Types of bridges; Components
of a bridge; Types of loads on bridges.
Chapter II: Bridge Design Considerations: Functional considerations; Aesthetics
considerations; Economic considerations; Construction and erection considerations;
Legal considerations.
Chapter III: Design of Selected Bridges (Reinforced concrete bridges, Steel
bridges and composite bridges): Basic Assumptions of Design; Calculation of loads;
Analysis of effects of loads; Preliminary design of bridge elements; Final design of
bridge elements; Detailing of bridge elements.
Chapter IV: Construction methods: Erection and hoisting method; Balanced
cantilever method; Construct in-situ method; Construct using precast beam; Construct
using precast girder section and erected by a launching machine; Incremental
launching method
Chapter V: Inspection, Maintenance and repair of bridges: Maintenance
inspection; Acceptance inspection; Levels of assessment; Repair of concrete
structures; repair of steel structures.

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CE 523: Bridge Design

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF BRIDGES
1.1 General Introduction
A bridge is a structure built to span and provide passage over physical barriers such as a
river, chasm/valley, road, railway or any other physical hurdle and with a span length
equal to or exceeding a certain distance. This distance is defined to be in the range of 2m to
6m. In this definition, all types of structures such as road bridges, pedestrian bridges,
movable bridges, floating bridges as well as culverts, pipes and vaults in fills are defined as
bridges.
The purpose of a bridge is to carry a service such as a roadway or a railway.
The function required from the bridge and the area where it is constructed decides the
design of the bridge which includes the choice of material. Specifically, the choice of
material during preliminary design stage is influenced by: (1) spans required; (2)
execution processes; (3) local conditions; and (4) foundation constraints. The design
decisions should be based on comparisons of: (1) structural behaviour; (2) economic
aspects; and (3) aesthetics. These factors are addressed in chapter two of these lecture
notes.
Historically, the first bridges were made by nature - as simple as a log fallen across a
stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or
planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of
these early bridges could not support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was
these inadequacies which led to the development of better bridges. The first book on
bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. With the industrial
revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger
bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the
advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many
using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
The subsequent sections provide the terminologies used in bridge engineering, bridge
design principles, types of bridges, components of bridges and the types of loads for
consideration during bridge design. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the
basic principles of bridge design.

1.2 Definitions of terms used in bridge design

An important first step in understanding the principles and processes of bridge design
and construction is learning basic bridge terminology. This section summarizes the
terminologies used in bridge design and construction.
Short span bridge: Spans between 6m to 14 m. Medium
span bridge: Spans between 14m to 45 m. Large span
bridge: Total length greater than 45m
Culvert: A cross drainage structure having total length of 6 m or less between inner
faces of dirt wall.
Foot Bridge: A bridge extensively used for carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals.
High Level Bridge: A bridge, which carries the roadway above highest flood level (HFL) of
the channel.
Highest Flood Level: The level of highest flood ever recorded or the calculated level for
design discharge.
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CE 523: Bridge Design
Lowest Flood Level: The level of the water surface obtained in dry season.
Submersible Bridge: A bridge designed to be overtopped during floods.
Channel: A natural or artificial watercourse.
Freeboard: The minimum clearance between the bottom of the girders (soffit of the
superstructure) and the design H.F.L. (including afflux).
Afflux: The rise in the flood level of the river immediately on the upstream of a bridge as a
result of obstruction to natural flow caused by the construction of bridge and its
approaches.
Length of Bridge: The length of a bridge structure will be taken as overall length
measured along the centre line of the bridge between inner faces of dirt
wall.
Safety Kerb: A roadway kerb for occasional use of pedestrian traffic.
Width of Carriageway: Minimum clear width measured at right angles to the
longitudinal centreline of bridge between inside faces of roadway kerb or
wheel grades.
Super elevation/ Cant/Banking: The transverse inclination given to the c/s of a
carriageway on a horizontal curve in order to reduce the effects of
centrifugal force on a moving vehicle.
Bearings: The part of the bridge structure which bears directly all the forces from
the structure above and transmits the same to the supporting structure.
Sliding Bearings: A type of bearing where sliding movement is permitted.
Abutment: The end supports of deck of bridge, which also retains earth, fill of
approaches behind fully or partly. It is part of substructure referring to the
first and the last supports of a bridge.
Approaches: Part of bridge leading up to the main span.
Bearing Capacity: The supporting power of a soil / rock expressed as bearing stress.
Cofferdam: A structure temporary built for the purpose of excluding water or soil
sufficiently to permit construction or proceed without excessive pumping and
to support the surrounding ground.
Foundation: The part of bridge in direct contact with and transmitting load to the
founding strata.
Pier: Intermediate supports of the superstructure of a bridge.
Abutment Pier: It is designed for a condition that even if one side arch span collapses it
would be safe. Generally provided after 3 or 5 spans in multiple span arch
bridges.
Retaining Wall: A wall designed to resist the pressure of earth filling behind.
Wing Wall: Essentially is a retaining wall adjacent to abutment and sloping down up to
ground level or a little above at the other end. This is generally at 45
degrees to the alignment of road or parallel to the river and follows the
profile of earthen banks.
Superstructure: Part of the bridge structure that carries the traffic load and transfers it to
the substructure. It consists of the deck and all other permanent and
variable structures to which the loads are subjected.
Deck: The portion of the superstructure in contact with vehicle tyres.
Deck overlay: Usually a thin application (in the order of 1 to 2”) of new material across
the deck of a bridge.
Substructure: Part of the bridge structure such as pier, abutment and foundation which
supports the superstructure. It also includes return walls and wing walls but
excludes bearings.

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CE 523: Bridge Design
Skewness: The angle between the abutments and the centreline of the bridge as
demonstrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of skewness

Conceptual (Preliminary) design: the initial and most creative stage of the design
process where the basic concept is specified. This stage of design involves creation and
choice of concepts by evaluation of different solutions for not entirely specified problem.

1.3 Bridge Design Principles

Bridge design must be based on three principles: capacity, cost and safety.

a. Capacity

A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength of
the bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and heavy trucks will
be rerouted. The design should therefore be able to accommodate the traffic expected
throughout the design life of the bridge.

b. Cost

Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison to
the road. The design should therefore optimize all options in order to minimize costs as
much as possible. This can be controlled by right choice of the location, materials,
structural form etc.

c. Safety

If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function.
The design should therefore analyse all the factors that might affect the structural
integrity of the bridge. This includes the bearing capacity of the strata, the structural
connections of bridge components, the materials for bridge construction, design of
structural components, construction methods, provisions for inspection etc.
Both the Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States need to be considered. Serviceability
Limit State ensures that crack widths do not exceed values specified for different
environmental conditions, and also ensures that concrete and reinforcement stresses
are maintained below a safe limit. Ultimate Limit State ensures that the structure will
not collapse.

1.4 Types of bridges

Bridge types depend on the classification method adopted. The classification can be
according to:
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CE 523: Bridge Design
a. Construction material.
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Timber bridges
(ii) Masonry bridges
(iii) Steel bridges
(iv) Reinforced concrete bridges
(v) Prestressed concrete bridges
(vi) Composite bridges
b. Usage/ traffic/Functionality.
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Footbridges/pedestrian bridge
(ii) Highway bridges
(iii) Railway bridges
(iv) Aqueduct
(v) Viaduct
(vi) Equipment bridge
(vii) Pipeline bridge
c. Span
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Culvert: span, L ≤ 6m
(ii) Short span bridges: 7m < L ≤ 15m
(iii) Medium span bridges: 16m ≤ L ≤ 50m
(iv) Large span bridges: 50 ≤ L ≤ 150m
(v) Extra-large span bridges: L ≥ 150m
d. Life span
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Temporary bridges
(ii) Permanent bridges
(iii) Semi-permanent bridges

e. Horizontal Arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Straight/Normal bridge
(ii) Skewed bridge
(iii) Curved bridge
f. Vertical arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Horizontal/Flat/Normal bridge
(ii) Inclined bridge
g. Span arrangement
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Simply supported bridge
(ii) Continuous bridges
(iii) Cantilever bridges

h. Movements
(i) Movable bridges
(ii) Fixed bridges

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CE 523: Bridge Design
i. Structural form/Arrangement

There are six basic bridge forms: the beam, the truss, the arch, the suspension, the
cantilever, and the cable-stay. Figure 1.2 shows the basic forms for bridges.

Figure 1.2: Basic Structural Forms for Bridge Design

Various combinations of the six forms above can allow for design of numerous bridges
such as:
(i) Slab bridges
(ii) Beam/Girder bridges
(iii) Portal frame bridges
(iv) Arch bridges
(v) Truss bridges
(vi) Plate girder bridges
(vii) Cable stayed bridges
(viii) Suspension bridges
(ix) Box culverts etc.

Subsequent discussions consider classifications based on structural form.

1.4.1 Slab Bridges

The characteristic feature of a slab bridge is the fact that the slab is the main carrying
load element of the bridge and it is also the slab that transmits the loads directly to the
substructure. The load is transferred through bending action.

Bridges are referred to as slab bridges if the ratio between W/D ≥ 5, where W is the total
width and D is the depth of the slab. If W/D < 5, the structure is a beam bridge.
Slab bridges may be of either solid, voided or rib construction. The cross section can be
either rectangular, with sloping slab edges or of the cantilever type. Figure 1.3 shows
typical types of slab bridges.
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CE 523: Bridge Design

a) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge b) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge

with slopped edges

c) Cross-section of a voided slab bridg d) Cross-section of a rib slab bridge

Figure 1.3: Typical types of slab bridges

If the ratio between w/D ≥ 1 and the superstructure is solid above the supports, the type of
structure is called a Rib Slab Bridge. For this type of structure, the slab and the ribs are
cast homogeneously. If w/D < 1, the structure is defined as a Beam Bridge.
Optimal span recommended for Slab Bridge: 4 -20m.
This type of bridge is possibly the cheapest alternative: economically advantageous for
short spans, good ground conditions and low construction height. Restriction is need in
angle of skew since it introduces big torsional moments, which increases ground
stresses.

1.4.2 Beam/Girder bridges

Beam bridges are the most common and the simplest type of bridge, whether statically
determinate beams (simply supported) or continuous beams. Simply supported beams are
usually adopted only for very small spans (up to 25m). Continuous beams are one of the
most common types of bridge. The spans may vary from small (10 – 20m) to medium
(20 - 50m) or large spans (> 100m). The beam carries vertical loads by bending.
As the beam bridge bends, it undergoes horizontal compression on the top. At the same
time, the bottom of the beam is subjected to horizontal tension. The supports carry
the loads from the beam by compression vertically to the foundations. Figure1.4 shows
typical example of continuous beam bridge and corresponding load action.
The common beams/girders are I-beam girders and box-girders used in steel girder
bridges, reinforced concrete and post-tensioned concrete used in concrete beam
bridges. Examining the cross section of the I-Beam speaks for its so name. The vertical

plate in the middle is known as the web, and the top and bottom plates are referred to as
flanges.

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CE 523: Bridge Design

Figure 1.4: Typical continuous beam bridge

A box girder takes the shape of a box. The typical box girder has two webs and
two flanges. However, in some cases there are more than two webs, creating a
multiple chamber box girder. Other examples of simple girders include pi girders,
named for their likeness to the mathematical symbol for pi, and T shaped girders.
An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most
cases. However, if the bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to
twisting forces, also known as torque. The added second web in a box girder adds
stability and increases resistance to twisting forces. This makes the box girder the
ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Box girders, being
more stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer
spans, where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design
and fabrication of box girders is more difficult than that of I beam. For example, in
order to weld the inside seams of a box girder, a human or welding robot must be
able to operate inside the box girder. Figure
1.5 shows typical examples of beam bridges based on cross-sectional
shapes.

Cross-section of T concrete beam bridge Cross-section of rectangular concrete beam

bridge

Cross-section of I - steel girder bridge Cross-section of a concrete box girder

bridge
Figure 1.5: Examples of beam bridges based on shapes

1.4.3 Portal Frame /Integral abutment Bridges

This methodology of constructing bridges is a rather new approach. It is the possible
alternatives to continuous beams. The main idea is to avoid the cost of bearings and
movement joints between the sub- and superstructures.

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CE 523: Bridge Design
The deck structure can be of concrete or steel, but concrete is mostly preferred (timber
is not effective). It bears the load through bending.
This bridge type has reduced initial and lifecycle costs, due to joint-less construction;
lighter and smaller abutments; shorter time for foundation construction compared to
traditional piling; can be used for single and multiple span bridges; can resist uplifting
forces; higher redundancy; no tolerance problems (as no joints and bearings exist).
Optimal span recommended is 16-30 m. Schematic representation of integral abutment
bridge is shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Schematic representation of integral abutment bridge

1.4.4 Arch bridges

Arch bridges pose a classic architecture and the oldest after the girder bridges. Unlike
simple girder bridges, arches are well suited to the use of stone. Since the arch doesn’t
require piers in the centre, they are good choices for crossing valleys and rivers.
Examples of arch bridge are shown in Figure 1.7.

Arch bridge with deck on top Arch bridge with underlying deck
Figure 1.7: Arch bridge with deck on

Arches use a curved structure which provides a high resistance to bending forces.
Arches can only be used where the ground or foundation is solid and stable because
unlike girder and truss bridges, both ends of an arch are fixed in the horizontal

direction (i.e. no horizontal movement is allowed in the bearing). Thus when a load is
placed on the bridge (e.g. a car passes over it) horizontal forces occur in the bearings of the
arch. Like the truss, the roadway may pass over or through an arch.

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CE 523: Bridge Design

Structurally there are four basic arch types:

1. Hinge-less
2. Two-hinged
3. Three hinged
4. Tied arches

The hinge-less arch uses no hinges and allows no rotation at the foundations. As a result a
great deal of force is generated at the foundation (horizontal, vertical, and bending
forces) and the hinge-less arch can only be built where the ground is very stable.
However, the hinge-less arch is a very stiff structure and suffers less deflection than
other arches.

The two hinged arch uses hinged bearings which allow rotation. The only forces
generated at the bearings are horizontal and vertical forces. This is perhaps the most
commonly used variation for steel arches and is generally a very economical design.

The three-hinged arch adds an additional hinge at the top or crown of the arch. The
three-hinged arch suffers very little if there is movement in either foundation (due to
earthquakes, sinking, etc.). However, the three-hinged arch experiences much more
deflection and the hinges are complex and can be difficult to fabricate. The three-hinged
arch is rarely used anymore.

The tied arch is a variation on the arch which allows construction even if the ground is
not solid enough to deal with the horizontal forces. Rather than relying on the
foundation to restrain the horizontal forces, the girder itself "ties" both ends of the arch
together, thus the name "tied arch."

The arch bridges basically work as a structure under compressive stress (arches
resist forces through compression). Therefore, thrust is a major consideration. The
shape is chosen in order to minimise bending moments under permanent loads. They are
ideal structures to build in materials which are strong in compression but weak in tension
e.g. concrete. Modern prestressed concrete or steel arches exists with spans reaching
the order of 300m.

1.4.5 Truss Bridges

For this type of bridge the main load carrying element is the truss, and it is the truss
that transfer the loads to the substructure.
A single-span truss bridge is like a simply supported beam because it carries vertical
loads by bending. Bending leads to compression in the top chords (or horizontal
members), tension in the bottom chords, and either tension or compression in the
vertical and diagonal members, depending on their orientation. Schematic
representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridge is shown in Figure 1.8.
Trusses are popular because they use a relatively small amount of material to carry
relatively large loads

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CE 523: Bridge Design

Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridges

The bridge deck may be above, between or underneath the trusses. If the deck is above
the trusses, it means that the deck is above the top chord of the trusses. If the deck is
underneath the trusses, it means that the deck is situated at the same level as the bottom
chord of the trusses. If the deck is between the trusses, this means that the deck is
situated somewhere between the bottom and top chord of the trusses.

The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the ideal bridge for places where
large parts or sections cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy equipment
cannot be used during erection. Because the truss is a hollow skeletal structure, the
roadway may pass over or even through the structure allowing for clearance below the
bridge often not possible with other bridge types. Trusses are also classified by the basic
design used. The most representative trusses are the Warren truss, the Pratt truss, and the
Howe truss. The Warren truss is perhaps the most common truss for both simple and
continuous trusses. For smaller spans, no vertical members are used lending the structure
a simple look.

For longer spans vertical members are added providing extra strength. Warren trusses
are typically used in spans of between 50-100m. The Pratt truss is identified by its
diagonal members which, except for the very end ones, all slant down and in toward the
centre of the span. Except for those diagonal members near the centre, all the diagonal
members are subject to tension forces only while the shorter vertical members handle the
compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal members resulting in a more
economic design. The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss. The diagonal
members face in the opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This makes it
very uneconomic design for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen.

1.4.6 Cable stayed bridges

A cable stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or more columns (normally
referred to as towers or pylons), with cables supporting the bridge deck.

From the towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support the
girder/deck. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are very
economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure which is still able to span great
distances. Though only a few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge, their
flexibility makes them weak to a force we rarely consider: the wind.

Cable stayed bridges have been used for a range of spans generally between 100m
and
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CE 523: Bridge Design
500m, where suspension bridge is not an economical solution. However, the range span
for cable stayed bridges has been reported to be 500m to 1500m.

There are two major classes of cable stayed bridges, differentiated by how the cables
are connected to the tower(s): the harp design (cables are made nearly parallel) and
the fan design (the all cables connect to or pass over the top of the tower. These are
shown in Figure 1.9 together with the load transfer mechanism.

Load-transfer mechanism in cable

Classes of cable stayed bridges stayed bridges

Figure 1.9

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CE 523: Bridge Design
Cables and (box) girders are the primary force resisting elements. Cables resist
forces through tension and pre-stress the girders. Girders resist forces through
bending.

1.4.7 Suspension bridges

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge where the main load-carrying elements
are hung from suspension cables. Suspension bridges have two tall towers
through which the cables are strung. The tensile forces of the cables are
transmitted to the anchoring at the extreme ends of the cables as shown in Figure
1.10.

Figure 1.10: Suspension Bridge and the main Load carrying elements

A suspension bridge carries vertical loads through curved cables in tension.

These loads are transferred both to the towers, which carry them by vertical
compression to the ground, and to the anchorages, which must resist the inward
and sometimes vertical pull of the cables. The suspension bridge can be viewed as an
upside-down arch in tension with only the towers in compression. Because the deck
is hung in the air, care must be taken to ensure that it does not move excessively
under loading. The deck therefore must be either heavy or stiff or both. They
are suitable for span range between 100 m to excess of 1,500m.

1.4.8 Cantilever bridges

A beam is said to be cantilevered when it projects outward, supported only at one
end. A cantilever bridge is generally made with three spans, of which the outer
spans are both anchored down at the shore and cantilever out over the channel to be
crossed. The central span rests on the cantilevered arms extending from the outer
spans; it carries vertical loads like a simply supported beam or a truss—that is, by
tension forces in the lower chords and compression in the upper chords. Inner
towers carry those forces by compression to the foundation, and outer towers carry
the forces by tension to the far foundations.

Figure 11: Cantilever Bridge

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1.5 Components of a bridge

A schematic representation of a typical bridge is shown in Figure 1.12
featuring the major components of a bridge.

Figure 1.12: Schematic representation of a typical Bridge with important

A bridge and the ground immediately surrounding it are divided into principal
parts as follows:
• Ground
• Substructure including foundation
• Superstructure
• Structure components
• Accessories
1.5.1 Ground
The Ground in this context means that part which takes the loads from the
foundations and the surrounding area, inclusive of the approach road, which can
have an influence on the structure.
Examples of the elements which the ‘Ground’ is divided
into:
• River course
• Embankment
• Retaining walls
1.5.2 The Substructure
The substructure carries the loads from the superstructure together with its own
weight through the foundations to the supporting ground.
All elements below the superstructure inclusive of the foundation form the
substructure. Examples of elements which the Substructure is divided into
include:
• Abutments
• Piers
• Towers
• Anchoring
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CE 523: Bridge Design

1.5.3 The Superstructure

The superstructure carries the traffic together with its own weight to the
substructure through the bearings. All elements of a bridge situated above the supports
are regarded as the Superstructure.
Examples of elements belonging to the superstructure can be:
• Slab
• Beam
• Deck
Additionally, some elements which form part of a superstructure are listed under
structure components and accessories.
Insights on structural behaviour, choice and requirements for these components
are discussed in chapter 3 of these lecture notes.
1.6 Bridge Loading
Bridge loads on structures emanate from four different sources, namely, materials
(permanent loads), traffic (live load), the environmental and construction methods.
This can be structured as shown schematically in Figure 1.13.
Realistically, not all the loads shown in Figure 1.13 can be considered to
act simultaneously. They are combined under different load cases with different
load factors. More information on how these loads are considered in design is
given in chapter 3 of these lecture notes.

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CE 523: Bridge Design

Figure 1.13: Schematic representation of loads on a typica l bridge

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CE 523: Bridge Design

CHAPTER 2
BRIDGE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1-Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is highlight the major design considerations
for bridges. Important considerations for bridge location over water bodies and bridge
type selection are also discussed in this chapter.

2.1.1 General Bridge Design Considerations

Design of bridge structures should be in accordance with requirements established
by the owner, adapted to the geometric conditions of the site and in accordance
with the structural provisions of the applicable codes and specifications.

The geometry of the superstructure is dictated by the specified route alignment

and the required clearances above and below the roadway. These requirements are
in turn directly related to the type of traffic to be carried on the bridge deck, as
well as that passing under the bridge and, when the site is near an airport, low flying
aircraft. Thus, geometric requirements, in general, will be dependent on whether
the bridge is to carry pedestrian, highway, railway, transit, or airplane traffic
and whether it is to cross over a navigable body of water, a highway, a railway,
or a transit route. Drainage, lighting, and snow removal requirements should also
be considered in the geometric design of the superstructure.

Once the overall geometry of the superstructure has been established, it should
be designed to meet structural requirements. These should always
include considerations of strength, serviceability, stability, fatigue, and durability.

2.1.2 Functional considerations

The following functional considerations based on highway bridges must be taken

into account:

a) Width
The roadway width (curb-to-curb, rail-to-rail, or parapet-to-parapet distance)
is dependent on the number of traffic lanes, the median width, and the shoulder width.
The preferred roadway width should be at least that distance between approach
guardrails, where guardrails are provided, or the out-to-out approach roadway, and
shoulder width. Reduced widths are sometimes permitted where structure costs are
unusually high or traffic volumes unusually low. Where curbed roadway sections
approach a structure, the same section should be carried across the structure.

b) Clearances
The horizontal vehicular clearance should be the clear width measured between
curbs or sidewalks, and the vertical clearance should be the clear height for the
passage of vehicular traffic measured above the roadway at the crown or high
point of super- elevation.
Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the structure should be constructed
to secure the following limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic:
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CE 523: Bridge Design
i. The minimum horizontal clearance for low traffic speed and low traffic volume
bridges should be 2.4 m greater than the approach travelled way. The
clearance should be increased as speed, type, and volume of traffic dictate.
ii. Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and interstate systems in rural
and urban areas should be at least 5 m over the entire roadway width, to
which an allowance should be added for resurfacing. Vertical clearance on
all other highways should be at least 4.25 m over the entire roadway width to
which an allowance should be added for resurfacing.

c) Sidewalks
Sidewalks, when used on bridges, should be as wide as required by the controlling
and concerned public agencies, and preferably should be 1.5 m but not less than 1.25
m.

d) Curbs
There are two general classes of curbs. These are “parapet” (non-mountable)
and “vehicular mountable” curbs. Both may be designed with a gutter to form a
combination curb and gutter section. The minimum width of curbs should be 225 mm.
Parapet curbs are relatively high and steep faced. They should be designed to prevent
the vehicle from leaving the roadway. Their height varies, but it should be at least
700 mm. When used with a combination of curb and handrail, the height of the
curb may be reduced. Mountable curbs, normally lower than 150 mm, should not be
used on bridges except in special circumstances when they are used in combination
with sidewalks or median strips. Curbs and sidewalks may have vertical slits or other
provisions for discontinuity, to prevent them from participating in deck bending
moments, to reduce cracking of these elements.

e) Medians
On major highways the opposing traffic flows should be separated by median
strips. Wherever possible, the lanes carrying opposing flows should be separated
completely into two distinct structures. However, where width limitations force
the utilization of traffic separators (less than 1.2 m wide) the following median
sections should be used:
i. Parapet sections 300 to 700 mm in height, either integral or with a rail section,
are recommended. The bridge and approach parapets should have the
same section.
ii. Low rolled curb sections or double curb units with some form of paved
surface in between are recommended for low-speed roads.

f) Railing
Railing should be provided at the edge of the deck for the protection of traffic
or pedestrians, or both. Where pedestrian walkways are provided adjacent to
roadways, a traffic railing may be provided between the two, with a pedestrian
railing outside. Alternatively, a combination traffic-pedestrian railing may be used at
the outside of the pedestrian walkway. Railings may be made of concrete, metal, timber
or a combination of these materials.
While the primary purpose of traffic railing is to contain the average vehicle using
the
structure, consideration should also be given to protection of the occupants of a vehicle
in collision with the railing, to protection of other vehicles near the collision, to
vehicles or pedestrians on roadways being over-crossed, and to appearance and
freedom of view from passing vehicles. 19Traffic railings should be designed to
CE 523: Bridge Design
provide a smooth, continuous face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail members
(including anchorage of ends) is essential.
The height of traffic railing should be no less than 700 mm from the top of the
roadway,
or curb, to the top of the upper rail members. Careful attention should be given to
the treatment of railing at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends and sharp changes
in the geometry of the railing should be avoided. The approach end of all
guardrail installations should be given special consideration to minimize the
hazard to the motorist. One method is to taper the guardrail end off vertically away
from the roadway so that the end is buried. Railing components should be
proportioned commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated pedestrian
traffic, taking account of appearance, safety, and freedom of view from passing
vehicles. The minimum design for pedestrian railing should be simultaneous loads
of 730 N/m acting horizontally and vertically on each longitudinal member. Posts
should be designed for a horizontal load of 225 N times the distance between posts,
acting at the centre of gravity of the upper rail.
The minimum height of pedestrian railing should be 1.1 m, measured from the top of
the walkway to the top of the upper rail member. Railings for walkways that are also
used as bicycle paths should have a height of 1.4 m.

g) Super-elevation
Super-elevation of the surface of a bridge on a horizontal curve should be provided
in accordance with the applicable standard for the highway. The super-elevation
should preferably not exceed 6 percent, and never exceed 8 percent.

h) Expansion joints
To provide for expansion and contraction, joints should be provided at the expansion
ends of spans and at other points where they may be desirable.
In humid climates and areas where freezing occurs, joints should be sealed to prevent
erosion and filling with debris, or else open joints should be properly designed for
the disposal of water.

2.1.3 Aesthetic considerations

A bridge should be designed to harmonize with its natural surroundings
and neighbouring structures. The attractiveness of a bridge is generally achieved
by its shape and by the proper proportioning of the superstructure and piers in
relation to the span of the bridge and its surroundings. Colour and texture may be
added for emphasis. Consideration should be given to the appearance of the bridge
from the driver’s or passenger’s point of view, as well as someone viewing it from off
the structure.

2.1.4 Economic considerations

a) Criteria for least cost

Least-cost criteria require consideration of all the factors contributing to the cost of the
project. These include length and width of superstructure, type of superstructure
including deck, railings, walks, medians; type of substructure including cofferdams,
sheeting, and bracing, approach roadways including embankment, retaining walls and
slope protection. Other factors such as special treatment for the road or stream being
spanned, and pier protection, can also influence the least cost.
20
CE 523: Bridge Design
Each type of superstructure being considered has an optimum span range where its
use is very competitive. It may, however, be used in spans outside that range and still
meet the least-cost criteria, because of the compensating costs of other factors. One
of the compensating factors often is the substructure because its contribution to the
cost of the project is inversely proportional to the span length, while the
superstructure cost increases with the span length. Wherever possible,
consideration should be given to comparing bridge layouts having different span
arrangements. Elimination of a costly river pier can usually justify a longer span.

b) Alternative designs
The general statement that a competent engineer can establish the most economical
structure by studies ignores factors which influence costs over which the engineer
has no control. The economics of any given industry cannot be exactly forecast. The
time of advertising most structures is not established at the time of design.
The reasons for preparing alternative designs are:
i. Increase competition by permitting several industries to participate.
ii. Make provisions to take advantage of the variations in the economy of
the construction industry.
iii. To provide a yardstick whereby the various industries can measure
the advantage and disadvantage of their competitive position. This results in
industry improving their procedures to reduce costs and eventually gives
additional savings to the owner.
iv. To eliminate the intangible arguments by various segments of industry that
their material would have resulted in a more economical structure.
v. Most important reason for alternative designs is that the owner saves in the
cost of the structure.

c) Value engineering
In addition to economic pressures, sociological pressures have focused more
attention on the impact that a project has on both natural and cultural environments.
Consequently, the bridge engineer is faced with the necessity of identifying a
continually growing list of design parameters, along with the accompanying possibility
of trade-offs in the process of planning and designing. Value Engineering is an
organized way of defining a problem and creatively solving it.
The Value Engineering Job Plan has five steps:
1) information phase,
2) analysis phase,
3) speculative phase,
4) evaluation phase, and
5) implementation phase.

2.1.5 Bridge types

Bridges may be categorized by the relative location of the main structural elements
to the surface on which the users travel, by the continuity or non-continuity of the
main elements and by the type of the main elements. Most of these bridge types
together with their suitabilities were discussed in section 1.4 of these lecture notes.

21
CE 523: Bridge Design

2.1.6 Construction and erection considerations

In the design of a bridge, construction and erection considerations may be of
paramount importance in the selection of the type of bridge to be built. Also, the
experience of the available contractors, the ability of local material suppliers to
furnish the specified materials, the skilled labour required for a particular structure
type, and the capacity of equipment necessary for erection should be considered.
The most economical bridge design is one in which the total cost of materials, labour,
equipment, and maintenance is minimized.
Detailed discussions on construction and erection considerations are presented
based on the available construction materials.

Cast-in-place and precast concrete

The decision to use or not to use precast concrete could be influenced by the
availability of existing precast plants within transport distance. Precast
concrete may be competitive in areas without existing pre-casting plants when a
large number of similar components are required. In large projects, a pre-casting plant
located at the site should be considered to see if it would prove more economical.
In general, precast concrete members, because of better control of casting and
curing processes, and because of the ease of inspection and rejection of an
improperly fabricated member, are a better, more durable product. For grade
separation structures, if traffic problems are not a controlling factor, cast-in- place
structures are generally more economical when the height of false work is less than
9 to 12 m high.

Reinforced, partially pre-stressed, and pre-stressed concrete

The possible use of pre-tensioning or post-tensioning should be considered during
the planning stage of a bridge project. In many cases the greatest economy can be
realized by allowing the contractor the option of using pre-tensioned, post-
tensioned, or a combination of both. In these cases, the specifications should require
submittal by the contractor of proper design data.

Composite construction
Floor systems consisting of stringers, floor beams, or combinations can be used.
Modular precast concrete planks (pre-stressed or regular reinforced) may be used as
the bottom form for the deck slab between stringers. Properly designed, these planks
can be made composite with the cast-in-place deck slab and the deck slab
composite with the stringers.
Consideration should be given in the design to construction loads supported prior to
the cast-in-place concrete attaining its design strength. For short spans within the
capacity of available handling equipment, the entire deck span may be precast in one
piece and made composite with the cast-in-place slab.

Post-tensioned segmental construction

It is normal practice to build concrete bridges in segments such as precast I-beams
with composite slabs or precast voided slabs or box beams that are attached together.
In the post-tensioned segmental type, the individual member, box girder, I-beam,
or arch is installed in several longitudinal segments and then post-tensioned together
to form one member.

22
CE 523: Bridge Design

Box girders
In general, the longer spans, because of the need for greater and variable depths,
have been cast-in-place, while the shorter spans lend themselves to constant depth
precast units. It is customary to erect these bridges by the cantilever method, avoiding
the use of false work, but some have been erected using a limited amount of false work
and placing the bridge by “pushing” the completed segments into place from one end.

I-beams
Due to shipping limitations, the length of precast pre-stressed I-beam stringer bridges
is less than 30 m. By pre-casting the I-beam in two or more pieces and post-tensioning
the pieces after erection, the feasible span can be greatly increased.

Arches
Arches of all types may be constructed of cast-in-place or precast segments. This
method of construction is most adaptable to long spans and spans where centring for
formwork is difficult to install. After constructing the arch ribs by the segmental
method, the spandrel columns or suspenders and the roadway deck may be
constructed in a more conventional manner.

2.1.7 Legal considerations

Permits over navigable Waterways-Preliminary plans of a proposed bridge crossing

any navigable waterway should be filed with the appropriate governmental
authority. A written permit with reference to horizontal and vertical clearances under
the spans, and to the location of all river piers, should be obtained.

2.2 Bridge Site Selection/Location over water bodies

2.2.1 Site selection considerations

In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to
picture.
1. The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream
side of the crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular
and the obstructions caused by piers, etc. have minimum disturbance effect on
the flow.
2. The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents. If
this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will
result in excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
3. The channel in the reach should be well defined.
4. The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
5. The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In
this case the river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity
will not cause erosion.
6. The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined
as the location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location
serves as a fulcrum about which river channel swing laterally (both upstream
and downstream)
7. The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for
founding piers and abutments.
23
8. The site should allow for constructing approach road.
CE 523: Bridge Design

9. The site should be selected where skewness can be avoided.

For a river crossing, it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are
two types of rivers namely alluvial and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have
flood plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel
banks to spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and
depositing materials on the banks and transporting sediments.
Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and
deeper than alluvial rivers.
Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize
the channel flow with in tile bridge waterway opening.

2.2.2 Data Collection

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain
field information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water
levels, navigational and other clearance requirements. Field reviews shall be made
by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most complete
survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.

a) River Survey
Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all
features that can affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will
pass the site under study.
These are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream
gauging
records, high water marks and size and performance of existing structures in
the vicinity.
High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition,
they can be identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree
branches, elephant grass or similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges,
are all high water indicators.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under
study are needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although
many of these characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found
by a field survey of the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the
geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and
flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values,
storage
values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow
values using different methods for example, Reve’s formula, rational formula, Area-
Velocity formula

b) Soil Investigation
Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc.
in cooperation with the soil investigators. 24 Soil investigation is required to get soil
CE 523: Bridge Design
profile, engineering property of the foundation material and foundation level of the
abutments and piers for design of the foundation.
This information is obtained by analysing samples taken from boreholes, test pits
or geophysical surveying.

c) Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with
approximate water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc.
including very rough dimensions with approximate measurements.
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site
as well as along the contemplated highway centreline in both directions. Details
of the streambed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing
structures in the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs
complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed
gradation.

2.2.3 Economical Span

Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there
are conditions where longer spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.
For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure
cost equals to substructure cost.

2.2.4 Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river
has a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge with
proper scour and erosion protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.
Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required
lineal waterway and navigational clearance. The alignment of piers and abutments
should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during maximum flood.

2.2.5 Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood
and the floating debris carried on it. The free board allows for uncertainty in
determining design flood level also. The minimum free board above the design water
level is given in table 2.1 unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made.

Table 2.1: Free Board

Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free

board
0 to 3.0 (m)
0.3
3.0 to 30.0 0.6
30.0 to 300 0.9
> 300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the
flow is restricted by short span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large
floating items or in case of navigational requirements.

25
CE 523: Bridge Design

2.2.6 Grade Requirements

Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of
heaviest vehicle to climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may
increase the span beyond the hydraulic requirement.

2.3 Selection of Bridge Type

In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range
there is more than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the
following factors should be considered.
a) Geometric condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend
on the horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the
clearances above and below the road way. E.g. If the alignment is on a curve, box
and slab type bridges are best options.
b) Subsurface conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine
whether abutments and piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and
etc. The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part of the
subsurface investigation because this will change details of the substructure. E.g. an
inclined leg rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation
c) Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic. E.g.
If future widening or replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is
best option.
d) Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge
tend to make that aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires
training and time. Furthermore, the following should be taken into account.
i. When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing
appearance occurs when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths
that decrease going up the side of the valley.
ii. Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be
addressed.
iii. Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as
hearing the same music with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again
can be uncomfortable.
Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic
parameter
in bridge design.

e) Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of

different bridge types, the construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken
together. A general rule is that the bridge with minimum number of spans, fewest
deck joints and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. By reducing
the number of spans, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated.
Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will
reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge. Generally, concrete structures
require less maintenance than steel structures.
f) Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to
be built is often governed by construction and erection considerations. In general,
the larger the prefabricated or precast member, the shorter the construction
time. However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport and
lift into place. The availability of skilled labour and specified materials will also
26 type.
influence the choice of a particular bridge
CE 523: Bridge Design

g) Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the
type of bridge.

2.4 Summary of the bridge design requirements

The designer should have first seen and studied many bridges in the course of a
long learning process. He should know what type of bridge may be suitable in the
available conditions, either a beam bridge an arch bridge or a suspended one. He
should also know the influence of foundation conditions on the choice of spans
and structural systems etc. hence, the designer of the bridge should not only be a
learned person but also an experienced one. At auspicious moments an intuitive
flash may provide a new solution, which fulfills the task better than known
conventional solutions (intuition, creativity leading to innovations).

Data needed for designing a bridge:

1. A plan of the site showing all obstacles to be bridged such as rivers, streets,
roads or railroads, the contour lines of valleys and the desired alignment of
the new traffic route.
2. Longitudinal section of the ground along the axis of the planned bridge with
the conditions for clearances or required flood widths. Desired vertical
alignment of the new route.
3. Required width of the bridge, width of lanes, median, walkways, safety rails etc.
4. Soil conditions for foundations, results of borings with a report on the geological
situation and soil mechanics data. The degree of difficulty of foundation work
has a considerable influence on the choice of the structural system and
on the economical span length.
5. Local conditions like accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials
and
structural elements. Which materials are available and economical in that part
of the country? Is water or electric power at hand? Can a high standard
of technology be used or must the bridge be built with primitive methods
and a small number of skilled labourers?
6. Weather and environmental conditions, floods, high and low tide levels,
periods of drought, range of temperatures, and length of frost periods.
7. Topography of the environment - open land, flat or mountainous land, scenic
country. Town with small old houses or city with high rise buildings. The scale
of the environment has an influence on the design.
8. Environmental requirements regarding aesthetic quality. Bridges in towns
that affect the urban environment and that are frequently seen at close
range - especially pedestrian bridges - need more delicate shaping and
treatment than bridges in open country. Is protection of pedestrians against
spray and noise needed? Is noise protection necessary for houses close to the
bridge?

27
CE 523: Bridge Design

CHAPTER 3
BRIDGE DESIGN
3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses how to calculate the loads for a bridge and also the design
of different components of a bridge. The discussion is biased towards highway
bridge designed using concrete material. However, students are encouraged to
read more on steel and composite bridges.

3.2 Calculation of Loads

The loads considered for bridge design were already reported in section 1.6 of
this report. In this section, the procedure of taking into account these loads based
on BS 5400 is discussed.

3.2.1 Permanent Loads

Permanent loads are defined as dead loads from the self-weight of the structural
elements and superimposed dead loads from all other materials such as road surfacing,
waterproofing, parapets, kerbs etc. Also included are loads due to imposed
deformations such as differential settlement and loads imposed due to shrinkage
and creep. The following are regarded as permanent loads:
1) Dead Loads
2) Superimposed dead loads
3) Ground loads
4) Differential settlement
5) Loading effects due to external action (e.g. shrinkage and creep)
6) Normal water flow loads
Further discussions on permanent loads are limited to dead loads and superimposed
dead loads.
a) Dead loads
These are loads due to the self-weight of the various structural components of the
bridge such as deck, beam, column, e.tc. It should be noted here that a preliminary
estimation of the sizes of the various structural components is necessary at
preliminary design stage. The nominal dead load is first calculated based on the
densities of the materials. The design dead loads are then derived using load factors
based on appropriate five load combinations stated in the BS 6400.
b) Superimposed dead loads
These are loads consisting of items like deck surfacing, road furniture (parapets,
gantries etc.), weight of services (water mains, telecoms cables, electric cables,
etc.). Again, the nominal superimposed dead loads can be calculated based on
28
CE 523: Bridge Design
densities of materials. These loads are then increased using load factors from
appropriate load combinations to obtain design loads.

3.2.2 Transient loads

Transient loads are all loads other than permanent loads and are of short duration,
such as traffic, temperature, wind loads, and erection loads. The following
loads are considered transient:
a) Primary live loads
b) Secondary live loads
c) Exceptional loads
d) Wind loads
e) Erection loads
f) Thermal effects

a) Primary live loads

These are vertical loads due directly to the mass of traffic and are considered as
static loads. Traffic comprises a random mix of cars, vans, trucks and heavy goods
vehicles. Both the density of vehicles and intensity of loading is constantly varying. For
simplicity, standard vehicular loading consists of type HA and HB loading.
The Standard normal highway loading is called HA loading and the standard
abnormal highway loading, the HB loading.
Normal traffic is represented by a theoretical HA loading model consisting of a
uniformly distributed load (HA-UDL) combined with a knife edge load (HA-KEL).
The knife edge load is an attempt to model the effect of a single localized heavy axle
and is placed on the span where its effect is maximized for bending and shear.
Type HB loading caters for the safe passage of an abnormally heavy vehicle of up to
180 tonnes gross laden weight with a certain configuration of wheels and axle as
shown in Figure 3.3. Type HB loading is usually expressed in Units per axle. The
full type HB loading (180 tonnes) is commonly expressed as 45 units (1 unit - 10KN)
or part of it, 37.5 units (150 tonnes) or 30 units (120 tonnes).

In applications, the structure and its elements shall be designed to resists the
more severe effects of the following load combinations:
1) Type HA loading alone
2) HB-30 loading combined with type HA loading
3) HB -45 combined with type HA loading on other carriageways
In order to apply HA and HB loading types, the carriageway width and the width
and number of notional lanes must be defined.

Carriageway width: The carriageway width is the width between parapets or the
width between parapet and raised kerb29where there is centre median. This is
 CE 523: Bridge Design
measured perpendicular to the line of the parapets. Figure 3.1 depicts the definition
of carriageway width.

Figure 3.1: Carriageway width

Notional lanes: the notional parts of the carriageway are used for purposes of
applying the specified live loads. The notional lane width shall be measured in a
direction parallel to the carriageway width. Table 3.1 shows the allocated number
of notional lanes depending on the carriageway width.
Table 3.1: Number of notional lanes

The width of notional lanes, bL, can be derived from:

Carriageway _width
bL =
N
Where N is the number of notional lanes as read from table 3.1.
For carriageway widths of less than 5.0m, the carriageway shall be taken to have
one notional lane with a width of 2.50m. The load on the remaining carriageway
width shall be taken as 5 kN/m2.

Nominal HA uniformly distributed load (HA-UDL):

For loaded lengths, L ≤ 50 m,
1 .
− = 336
kN/m per notional lane width. 30
 CE 523: Bridge Design
For loaded lengths 50 m ≤ L ≤ 160 m but less than 1 600 m,
.
1
− = 336

kN/m per notional lane width.

For loaded lengths above 1 600 m, the UDL shall be agreed with the relevant
authority. The HA-UDL shall be uniformly distributed over the full width of the
notional lane.
The nominal HA-KEL per notional lane shall be taken as 120 kN. It shall be
uniformly distributed over the full width of the notional lane.
The design HA loading shall be derived from different load combinations using
load factors. Figure 3.2 shows the representation of HA-UDL and KEL on a notional
lane.

Figure 3.2: HA-UDL combined with HA-KEL

Nominal HB loading: One unit of type HB loading shall be taken as equal to 10kN
per axle (i.e. 2.5 kN per wheel). The nominal loads for typical multiples of type HB
loading are given in Table 3.2:
Table 3.2: Nominal type HB loads

31
CE 523: Bridge Design

The inner axle spacing of the type HB vehicle shall be taken as 6, 11, 16, 21, or 26 m
and the effects of the most sever of these cases shall be adopted. The overall width
shall be taken as 3.5 and the overall length as 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 m for the respective
inner axle spacing. The longitudinal axis of the HB vehicle shall be taken as parallel
with the lane markings. Figure 3.3 shows the plan and axle arrangement for type HB
vehicle.

Figure 3.3: The plan and axle arrangement for type HB vehicle

The design HB loading shall be derived from load factors for different load
combinations.

b) Secondary Live Loads

Secondary live loads are the horizontal loads resulting from change of speed or
direction of vehicular traffic e.g., centrifugal, longitudinal (traction), skidding and
collision loads. They are considered in load combination 4 together with the
associated primary live load, but need not be taken as coexistent with other secondary
live loads.
Centrifugal loads:
,
A nominal centrifugal load, Fc, shall be taken as: =

Where r is the radius of curvature of the lane (m) Each centrifugal load shall be
combined with: 32
 CE 523: Bridge Design

40,000
!"# # $ #%"& = ⁄,-
)* × 6

This load shall be distributed over the width of the notional lane for length of 6m.

Tractive/Braking Loads
The longitudinal force on a bridge structure result from the traction or braking
of vehicles at the level of the carriageway surface. It is applied horizontally to
the carriageway surface.
The nominal braking load for type HA loading shall be as follows:
Nominal braking load = 10 kN/m X L + 200 kN ≤ 800 kN.
The nominal braking load for type HB shall be 25 % of the total associated nominal
HB load. This load shall be equally distributed between the eight wheels of 2 axles
of the vehicle, 1.8 m apart.
Skidding load
The nominal accidental skidding load shall be taken as 300 kN
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets
The following loads shown in Figure 3.4 shall be regarded as the nominal load
effects to be applied to structural elements supporting parapets, according to
parapet type and construction.

Loads for low and normal containment

parapets Loads for high containment parapets

Figure 3.4: Loads for low and normal containment parapets

c) Wind Loads
Wind forces though rarely significant in small-span and medium-span bridgeworks, can
be critical in bridges like the suspension type where the span is large. Generally
any structure which is sensitive to stability problems will inevitably tend to be
more sensitive to wind loading.

33
CE 523: Bridge Design

d) Load due to shrinkage temperature & creep

These are horizontal loads due to forces generated in the beams/slab caused
by shrinkage, temperature changes and creep in the concrete.

e) Seismic Loads
These are loads due to earthquakes. For Bridges designed in this country no seismic
force are taken into consideration.
Each element and structure shall be examined under the effects of loads that can
coexist in each combination.

3.3 Load combinations

There are generally five load combinations described in BS 5400. These are:
Combination 1: The loads to be considered are the permanent loads, together with
the appropriate primary live loads.
Combination 2: The loads to be considered are the loads in combination 1, together
with those due to wind and, where erection is being considered, erection loads.
Combination 3: The loads to be considered are the loads in combination 1, together
with those arising from restraint due to the effects of thermal range and gradient, and,
where erection is being considered, erection loads.
Combination 4: the loads to be considered are the permanent loads and the
secondary live loads, together with the appropriate primary live loads associated
with them. Secondary live loads shall be considered separately and need not be
combined. Each shall be taken with its appropriate associated primary live load.
Combination 5: The loads to be considered are the permanent loads, together with
the loads due to friction at bearings.
Table 3.3 shows a summary of the various load combinations and the corresponding
partial load factors.

34
CE 523: Bridge Design

Table 3.3: Loads and partial load factors to be taken in each load combination

35
CE 523: Bridge Design

3.4: Tutorials on Load Calculations

3.4.1 HA & HB Loading Example

Problem
:
Calculate the HA and HB loading and bending moment for a bridge deck of width 6m
and length 34m measured centre to centre of bearings for a simply supported single
span based on BS 5400 Part 2: 2006. Assume 30 units type HB loading.

Solution:
Clause 6.2 addressed the type HA Loading

Design for a metre width of deck:

Cl 3.2.9.3.1. Number of notional lanes = 2
Notional lane width = 6.0/2 = 3.0m
Cl 6.2.1. Loaded length = 34m
W = 336(1/L)0.67 kN/m (per notional
lane) W = 31.6 kN/m (per notional lane)
Cl 6.2.2. Knife Edge Load = 120 kN (per notional lane) Cl 6.4.1.1.
Table 14. α2 = 0.0137[bL(40-L)+3.65(L-20)]
α2 = 0.0137[3.0(40-34.0)+3.65(34.0-20)] = 0.947
Note: For loaded lengths less than 20m the load is proportioned to
a standard lane width of 3.65m, i.e. 0.274bL = bL/3.65.
For a metre width of deck:
W = (31.6 x 0.947)/3.0 = 10.0 kN/m
KEL = (120 x 0.947)/3.0 = 37.88 kN
Maximum mid span Bending Moment with KEL at mid
span: M = (10.0 x 342)/8 + (37.88 x 34)/4 = 1767 kNm
Cl 6.2.7. γfL = 1.20 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.50 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HA moment for a metre width of deck:
Msls = 1767 x 1.2 = 2120 kNm
Mult = 1767 x 1.5 = 2650 kNm

Note: Use of γf3

BS 5400 Pt.3 & Pt.5 - γf3 is used with the design strength so Mult = 2650
kNm. BS 5400 Pt.4 - γf3 is used with the load effect so Mult = 1.1 x 2650 = 2915kNm.

Clause 6.3 addresses type HB Loading

Cl 6.3.1 Nominal load per axle = 30units x 10kN = 300kN

The maximum bending moment will be achieved by using the shortest

HB vehicle i.e. with 6m spacing (see BS 5400-2:2006 Fig 12).
The maximum moment for a simply supported span occurs under
the inner axle when the vehicle
36 is positioned such that the mid span
CE 523: Bridge Design
bisects the distance between the centroid of the load and the
nearest axle. With a 34m span and the 6m HB vehicle with equal axle
loads, the inner axle is placed at 1.5m from the mid span.

RL = 300(10.7+12.5+18.5+20.3)/34 = 547 kN RR = 4x300-547 = 653kN

Moment at X = 547x15.5 - 300x1.8 = 7939kNm
Cl 6.4.2 The HB vehicle occupies one lane with HA load in the adjacent lane.
Assume for the example that the HB load is carried by a standard
lane width of 3.65m.

Hence the moment per metre width of deck = 7939/3.65 = 2175kNm

Cl 6.3.4. γfL = 1.10 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.30 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HB moment for a metre width of deck:
Msls = 1.1 x 2175 = 2393 kN/m (compared to 2120 for HA load)
Mult = 1.3 x 2175 = 2828 kN/m (compared to 2650 for HA load)
Hence in this case HB load effects would govern although a grillage
or finite element type distribution would reduce the HB
moment considerably.

37
CE 523: Bridge Design

3.5 Design of different components of a bridge

3.5.1 Bridge Deck

a) Preliminary Design
In selecting the correct bridge type it is necessary to find a structure that will perform
its required function and present an acceptable appearance at the least
cost. Decisions taken at preliminary design stage will influence the extent to which
the actual structure approximates to the ideal, but so will decisions taken at detailed
design stage. Consideration of each of the ideal characteristics in turn will give some
indication of the importance of preliminary bridge design.

i. Safety.
The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying
the loading required of it with the appropriate factor of safety. This is
more significant at detailed design stage as generally any sort of preliminary
design can be made safe.
ii. Serviceability.
The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure,
from excessive deflection or vibration, and it must not interfere with sight
lines on roads above or below it. Detailed design cannot correct faults
induced by bad preliminary design.
iii. Economy.
The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost
as little as possible to build and maintain. At preliminary design stage it
means choosing the right types of material for the major elements of the
structure, and arranging these in the right form.
iv. Appearance.
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials
are made at preliminary design stage; the sizes of individual members are
finalised at detailed design stage. The preliminary design usually settles the
appearance of the bridge.

b) Preliminary Design Considerations

1. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating
construction depths.
2. Continuity over supports
i. Reduces number of expansion joints.
ii. Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth or
the material used.
iii. Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
3. Factory made units
i. Reduces the need for soffit shuttering or scaffolding; useful
when headroom is restricted or access is difficult.
ii. Reduces site work which is weather dependent.
iii. Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
iv. Specials tend to be expensive.
v. Special permission needed to transport units of more than 29m long
on the highway.
38
CE 523: Bridge Design
4. Length of structure

i. The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length
of the structure the embankment, retaining wall and abutment costs may
be reduced, but the deck costs will increase.
5. Substructure

c) Reinforced Concrete Decks

The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are:

Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and
are easily adaptable for high skew. Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are
used for larger, single or multi-span bridges. In circular voided decks the ratio of [depth
of void] / [depth of slab] should be less than 0.79; and the maximum area of void
should be less than 49% of the deck sectional area.

d) Prestressed Concrete Decks

There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete:
i. Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete.
ii. Post-tensioned concrete.
The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the
tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred
to the concrete when a suitable cube strength is reached.
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned after
the concrete has reached a suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against
the hardened concrete immediately after prestressing.
There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete:
i. Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material. By applying
this concept concrete may be regarded as an elastic material, and may be
treated as such for design at normal working loads. From this concept the
criterion of no tensile stresses in the concrete was evolved. In an economically
designed simply supported beam, at the critical section, the bottom fibre stress
under dead load and prestress should ideally be the maximum allowable
stress; and under dead load, live load and prestress the stress should be the
minimum allowable stress. Therefore under dead load and prestress, as the
dead load moment reduces towards the support, then the prestress moment
will have to reduce accordingly to avoid exceeding the permissible stresses.
39
 CE 523: Bridge Design
In post-tensioned structures this may be achieved by curving the tendons, or
in pre-tensioned structures some of the prestressing strands may be deflected
or de-bonded near the support.
ii. Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete
with the steel taking tension and concrete compression so that the two
materials form a resisting couple against the external moment. (Analogous
to reinforced concrete concepts).
This concept is utilized to determine the ultimate strength of prestressed
beams.
iii. Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing.
It is possible to arrange the tendons to produce an upward load which
balances the downward load due to say, dead load, in which case the concrete
would be in uniform compression.

e) Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks

Types of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams and Y beams.
Inverted T-beams are generally used for spans between 7 and 16 meters and the
voids between the beams are filled with insitu concrete thus forming a solid deck.
M-Beams are used for spans between 14 and 30 metres and have a thin slab cast
insitu spanning between the top flanges with the aim of forming a voided slab
type deck. The top face of the bottom flange of M-Beams cannot be readily
inspected, also the limited access makes bearing replacement difficult. As a
consequence of these restrictions the Y-beam was introduced in 1990 to replace
the M-beam. This lead to the production of an SY-beam which is used for spans
between 32 and 40 metres. The U-beam is used for spans between 14 and 34
metres and is usually chosen where torsional strength is required.

f) Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of insitu concrete in which
ducts have been cast in the required positions.

40
CE 523: Bridge Design
When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the tendons are threaded
through the ducts and tensioned by hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the
member. The ends of the tendons are then anchored.

Tendons are then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after
the stressing has been completed. It is possible to use pre-cast concrete units which
are post-tensioned together on site to form the bridge deck.
Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for continuous
structures rather than insitu reinforced concrete at spans greater than 20 metres.
For simply supported spans it may be economic to use a post-tensioned deck at
spans greater than 20 metres.

g) Analysis of Deck

For decks with skew less than 25° a simple unit strip method of analysis is generally
satisfactory. For skews greater than 25° then a grillage or finite element method
of analysis will be required. Skew decks develop twisting moments in the slab
which become more significant with higher skew angles. Computer analysis will
produce values for Mx, My and Mxy where Mxy represents the twisting moment in the
slab. Due to the influence of this twisting moment, the most economical way of
reinforcing the slab would be to place the reinforcing steel in the direction of the
principal moments. However these directions vary over the slab and two directions
have to be chosen in which the reinforcing bars should lie. Wood and Armer have
developed equations for the moment of resistance to be provided in two
predetermined directions in order to resist the applied moments Mx, My and Mxy.
Extensive tests on various steel arrangements have shown the best positions as
follows:

41
CE 523: Bridge Design

h) Example: Reinforced Concrete Deck Design to BS 5400 Part 4

Problem:
Design a simply supported reinforced concrete deck slab using a unit strip method.
The deck carries a 100mm depth of surfacing, together with a nominal HA live
load udl of 17.5 kN/m2 and knife edge load of 33kN/m. The deck should also be
designed to carry 30 units of HB load. The span of the deck is 12.0m centre to centre
of bearings.

γconc. = 25kN/m3
30 units of HB also to be considered. Use
C32/40 concrete to BS 8500.
Use Grade B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.
BS 8500-1 cl. A.2.1 Table A.1 Exposure Class XD1 used for bridge deck soffits.
cl. A.3 Fixing tolerence for reinforcement Δc = 15mm for insitu concrete.
Table A.5 Nominal cover for C32/40 concrete = 45 + Δc = 60mm with maximum
water-cement ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m3

Loading per metre width of deck (unit strip)

(Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method
of designing the slab (See BS 5400 Pt2, or BD 37/01 for full design
loading).

Nominal Dead Loads :

• deck slab = 25 × 0.65 × 1.0 = 16.3 kN/m
• surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m
Nominal Live Load :
• HA = 17.5 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 17.5 kN/m(udl) + 33kN(kel)
• 30 units HB = 30 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 75 kN per wheel
Load factors for serviceability and ultimate limit state from BS 5400 Part
2 Table 1:

SLS ULS
Comb 1 Comb 3 Comb 1 Comb 3
Dead Load γfL concrete 1.0 1.0 1.15 1.15
Superimposed Dead Load γfL surfacing 1.2 1.2 1.75 1.75
γfL HA 1.2 1.0 1.50 1.25
Live Load γfL HB 1.1 1.0 1.30 1.10
Temperature Difference γfL - 0.8 - 1.00#
CE 523: Bridge Design
Key: # It’s usually assumed that there is local plasticity at the
critical sections at Ultimate Limit State and the self-equilibrating
stresses due to nonlinear temperature distribution can be ignored
in combination loadings.

Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per metre width of deck)

SLS = Serviceability Limit State
ULS = Ultimate Limit State

Design SLS moment = ∑(γfL×M)=[(1.0×16.3)+(1.2×2.4)]×122/8

= 345 kNm

Design ULS moment = γf3×∑(γfL × M)=1.1×[{(1.15×16.3)+(1.75 ×

2.4)}×122 /8] = 454 kNm

Live Loading (per metre width of deck)

Nominal HA mid span moment = 17.5×12.02/8+33.0×12.0/4 = 414kNm

The maximum moment for the HB vehicle occurs at point X in the
diagram below with the vehicle positioned as shown.

(CG = position of the centre of gravity of the three 75kN wheel

loads) Nominal HB moment at X = 99.4 × 5.3 - 75 × 1.8 = 392kNm
Combination 1 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.2 × 414 = 497 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.1 × 392 = 431 kNm < 497 kNm
∴ HA critical

Total Design SLS Moment (Dead+Live) = 345+497 = 842

kNm

Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1×1.5×414 = 683kNm

Design HB ULS moment = γf3 ×γfL×M = 1.1×1.3×392 = 561kNm<683kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 683 = 1137
kNm

Combination 3 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 414 = 414 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 392 = 392 kNm <414 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
 CE 523: Bridge Design
Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 414 = 759kNm

Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.25 × 414 = 569 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3×γfL×M = 1.1×1.1×392 = 474 kNm<569 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 569 = 1023
kNm

Ultimate Capacity of Deck Slab

Ultimate Design Moment = 1137 kNm

BS 5400 Pt 4 cl. 5.1.2.1: It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ultimate
limit state and check for serviceability conditions.
cl. 5.4.2 Use clause 5.3.2 for the resistance moments in slabs
cl. 5.3.2.3 Try 32mm dia. reinforcement at 125mm centres:
Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit =
60mm d = 650 - 60 -32/2 = 574
As = Π162 × 1000 / 125 =
6434mm2/m fy = 500N/mm2
fcu = 40N/mm2
z = [1 - ({1.1fyAs}/{fcubd})]d
z = [1 - ({1.1 × 500 × 6434}/{40 × 1000 × 574})]d = 0.85d < 0.95 d
∴ z = 0.85 × 574 = 488mm
MuSteel = 0.87fyAsz = 0.87 × 500 × 6434 × 488 × 10-6 = 1366
kNm/m
MuConcrete = 0.15fcubd2 = 0.15×40×1000×5742×10-6 = 1977
kNm/m>1366
∴ Mu = 1366 kNm/m > 1137kNm/m ∴ OK.

Check Serviceability Limit State

Combination 1 SLS Design Moment = 842 kNm (345DL + 497LL)

Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3 Young’s Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec =31
kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2 Young’s Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2
Case 1) When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount
of creep has occurred):
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 31 = 6.45
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 6.45 × 6434 × (574 - X)500X2 + 41510X - 23.83×106 = 0
X = 177 mm
 CE 523: Bridge Design
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx = 1000×1773 / 3 + 6.45×6434×(574-177)2 = 8.39×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive stress in concrete=842×106 ×177/8.39×109
=17.8 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm2 > 17.8 ∴ OK

Case 2) When creep and shrinkage in the bridge are substantially complete:
cl. 4.3.2.1(b) Young’s Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2
= 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 497LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 497 × 31) / 842
= 24.65 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2 Young’s Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 24.65 = 8.1
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.1 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 52115X - 30×106 = 0
X = 198 mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx = 1000×1983 / 3 + 8.1×6434×(574-198)2 = 9.96×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×106 × 198 / 9.96×109
= 16.7 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm2 > 16.7 ∴ OK
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 842×106 × (574 -198) × 8.1/9.96×109
= 257.5 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 257.5 ∴ OK

Crack Control:
Strain in reinforcement = ∈1 = 257.5 / 200000 = 0.00129
Table 13 Notional surface for crack calculation = 35mm cover to reinforcement

5.8.8.2 acr = √[(125/2)2 + (16+35)2] - 16 = 65

Allow for stiffening effect of concrete:
eqn 25 ∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8bth(a'-dc)} / {∈sAs(h-dc)}] × [(1-Mq/Mg)×10-9]
∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8×1000×650×(625 - 198)} / {0.00129×6434×(650 -
198)}] × [(1 - 497/345)×10-9]
∈m = ∈1 - [-0.00012] but not greater than ∈1 Hence no stiffening
effect
∈m = ∈1 = 0.00129 × (625 - 198) / (574 - 198) = 0.00146
Design crack width = 3 × 65 × 0.00146 / [1 + 2 × (65 - 35) / (650 - 198)]
= 0.25 mm
CE 523: Bridge Design

eqn 24 Design crack width = 3acr∈m / [1+2(acr-cnom)/(h-dc)]

Table 1 Maximum allowable crack width = 0.25 mm ∴ OK

Combination 3 SLS Design Moment = 759 kNm (345DL + 414LL)

Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3 Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec
= 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.1(b) Young’s Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2
= 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 414LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 414 × 31) / 759
= 23.95 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2 Young’s Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 23.95 = 8.35
Taking first moments of area about the neutral
axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.35 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 53724X - 30.84×106
X = 200 mm

Second Moment of Area of cracked section:

Ixx = 1000×2003 / 3 + 8.35×6434×(574-200)2 = 10.18×109 mm4>
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive bending stress in concrete = 759×106 ×200/
10.18×109
= 14.9 N/mm2
Max compressive stress due to positive temperature difference
= γfL × 2.31 = 0.8 × 2.31 = 1.8 N/mm2
Total compressive stress in concrete = 14.9 + 1.8 = 16.7 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm2 > 16.7 ∴ OK
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 759×106 ×(574-200)×8.35/ 10.18×109
= 232.8 N/mm2
Tensile stress due to reverse temperature difference
= γfL × 8.35×[{(1.43+0.06)×(130-60-16)/130}-0.06] = 0.8×4.7=3.8
N/mm2
Total tensile stress in reinforcement = 232.8 + 3.8 = 237 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 237 ∴ OK

Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for the mid span.

Shear Design

Shear is designed for ultimate limit state. cl.

5.4.4 V = shear force due to ultimate loads.
Maximum Dead Load V = γf3 × 12 × (1.15 × 16.3 + 1.75 × 2.4) / 2
Maximum Dead Load V = 1.1 × 137.7 kN = 151 kN

Determine shear effects at distance d away from the

support.
Try 32mm dia. bars at 125 c/c : d = 574mm
 CE 523: Bridge Design

Maximum HA V = γf3 × 1.5×(12×17.5/2+33×11.426/12-

17.5×0.574) Maximum HA V = 1.1 × 190 kN = 209 kN

Maximum HB V = γf3 × 1.3 × 75 × (11.426 + 9.626 + 3.626 + 1.826) / 12

Maximum HB V = 1.1 × 215 kN = 237 kN > 209

∴ HB loading critical
Maximum V = 151 + 237 = 388 kN

Shear stress = V / bd = 388×103 / (1000 × 574) = 0.68 N/mm2

Design for no shear reinforcement condition then ξsvc > 0.68

N/mm2
Table 9 ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500/574)1/4 = 0.97
Table 8 vc = 0.27/γm(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3
vc = (0.27/1.25)×[100×6434/(1000 × 574)]1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.77 N/mm2
ξsv√ = 0.97 × 0.77 = 0.75 N/mm2 > 0.68 ∴ OK
cl 5.3.3.1 Check that the maximum allowable shear stress is not exceeded:
Maximum allowable shear stress = 0.75√fcu or 4.75 N/mm2
0.75√fcu = 0.75√40 = 4.74 > 0.68 ∴ OK

Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for shear at the ends
of the deck.

Note: Intermediate sections between mid span and the ends of the
deck will have a smaller moment than at mid span and a small shear than
at the ends of the deck. These sections need to be checked to determine
where the reinforcement may be reduced to B25 at 125c/c.
cl. 5.8.4.1 Minimum area of reinforcement
= 0.15% of bad = 0.15 × 1000 × 574 /100
= 861 mm2/m ∴ use B12 bars at 125 centres (As = 905 mm2/m)
for distribution reinforcement.
CE 523: Bridge Design

3.5.2 Bridge Abutment Design

Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment

are:
i. Vertical loads from self-weight of deck.
ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions.
iii. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc. and wind.
iv. Horizontal loads from braking and skidding effects of vehicles.
These loads are carried by the bearings which are seated on the abutment bearing
platform. The horizontal loads may be reduced by depending on the coefficient
of friction of the bearings at the movement joint in the structure.
However, the full braking effect is to be taken, in either direction, on top of the
abutment at carriageway level.
In addition to the structure loads, horizontal pressures exerted by the fill material
against the abutment walls is to be considered. Also a vertical loading from the weight
of the fill acts on the footing.
Vehicle loads at the rear of the abutments are considered by applying a surcharge
load on the rear of the wall.
For certain short single span structures it is possible to use the bridge deck to prop
the two abutments apart. This entails the abutment wall being designed as a
propped cantilever.

a) Earth Pressures
• Active earth pressures (Kaγ h) are considered to ensure that the abutment
is stable.
• At rest earth pressures (Koγ h) are considered to ensure that the
structural elements are adequate.
• Passive earth pressures (Kpγ h) are only considered for integral abutments
or where shear keys are provided.

At rest pressures are initially developed on the back of the abutment wall during
construction and whilst the backfill is compacting. Consequently the structural
elements have to be designed to resist the effects of these pressures.

Any movements in the structure caused by the at rest pressure, either through rotation
or deflection will reduce the pressure on the back of the wall; a state of equilibrium
is reached when the pressure reduces to the active earth pressure value. Consequently
the stability of the structure can be checked by using active earth
pressures. Passive pressures are developed when the structure pushes against
the soil. Since movements required to develop passive pressures are considerably
greater than that for active pressures, and the structure is designed to ensure that
the foundations do not slide under active pressures, then it is unlikely that passive
pressures will be developed in front of the abutment. There is also the chance that, at
some time in the future, the soil in front of the abutment may be removed
temporarily. This could happen if services, such as drainage pipes, water or gas
mains, are installed or repaired in front of the abutment. Consequently the structure
needs to be designed to be stable with no soil in front of the concrete footings.
If shear keys are required to prevent sliding then the key should be located under
the rear half of the base and a factored value of passive pressure is used.
CE 523: Bridge Design
Integral bridges experience passive pressures on the back of the abutment wall
when the deck expands.

b) Abutment Construction
Departmental Standard BD 30 gives recommendations for the layout of backfilled
cantilever retaining walls with spread footings or piled foundations. The layout of
the abutment will have implications on the design which need to be considered.

The provision of a drainage layer will allow pore water pressures to be ignored
(unless there is a possibility of a large water main bursting). However the
drainage layer separates the backfill soil from the wall so back of wall friction should
not be included. Traffic vibration will also affect any vertical friction effects on the back
of the wall.

Foundation level is usually set at least one meter below ground level to avoid
deterioration of the foundation material through frost action. If services, such as
gas pipes, water mains, electricity cables etc., may be installed in front of the abutment
wall then the depth to foundation level may need to be increased to allow the services
to be installed above the concrete footing.

It is usual to provide granular backfill to the back of the wall which limits the material
to Class 6N or 6P. A typical value for the effective angle of internal friction (ϕ') for Class
6N or 6P material is 35o. This equates to serviceability limit state values of:
Ka = (1-Sinϕ') / (1+Sinϕ') = 0.27
Ko = (1-Sinϕ') = 0.43

c) Loading
Loading from the deck is applied to the abutment through the bearings. Maximum
vertical bearing loads are obtained from the deck analysis; these loads, together with
the type of restraint required to support the deck, will dictate the type of bearing
provided.
CE 523: Bridge Design

Horizontal loads from the deck are produced by wind loading, temperature effects,
creep movements, traction, braking and skidding loads, collision loads when high
level of containment parapets are used, and centrifugal loads if the horizontal
radius of curvature of the carriageway is less than 1000 metres. Longitudinal loads
from temperature effects in the deck will be determined according to the type of
bearing used. Elastomeric bearings are effectively 'glued' in place between the deck
soffit and the abutment bearing plinth so that the bearing has to distort when the
deck expands and contracts. The longitudinal force produced by this distortion is
proportional to the shear stiffness of the bearing and the magnitude of the movement.
Sliding bearings, on the other hand, produce a longitudinal load which is proportional
to the dead(permanent) load reaction and the coefficient of friction between the
sliding surfaces. The cofficient of friction (μ) varies between 0.01 and 0.08 depending
on the type of bearing and bearing stress (see BS 5400 Part 9:1, Tables 2 and 3).

The longitudinal load from the temperature effect will act equally on both abutments.
If sliding bearings are used then the load transmitted is equal to the friction at the
bearing under dead and superimposed dead loads (permanent actions). If elastomeric
bearings are used then the load transmitted is equal to the force required to distort
the bearing by the distance the deck expands or contracts.

The deck is very stiff in the axial direction so horizontal loads will have negligible effect
on the length of the deck. Hence longitudinal loads due to traction, braking and
skidding are assumed to be transmitted to the fixed abutment only. If only elastomeric
bearings are used, i.e. there is no fixed abutment, then the loads due to traction,
braking and skidding are shared between the two abutments.
CE 523: Bridge Design
Transverse loads on the deck will be transmitted to the abutment through the fixed
and sliding-guided bearings only. These loads are unlikely to have an effect on the
stability of a full height abutment, but the bearing plinths need to be designed to
resist the loads. The stability of small abutments, such as bank seats, may need to be
checked for these loads.
Live loading at the rear of the abutment is represented by a surcharge loading.
The
curtain wall (also called up stand wall or ballast wall) does however need to be
designed for braking forces.

Vehicle collision on abutments need not normally be considered as they are assumed
to have sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes.

d) Stability
Stability of the abutment is determined by considering:
• Sliding
• Overturning
• Failure of the foundation soil
• Slip failure of the surrounding soil
A comprehensive Ground Investigation Report is essential for the design of the
bridge structure. Boreholes need to provide information about the nature of the
ground below the foundations. Adequate sampling and testing also need to be
carried out to obtain design parameters for allowable bearing pressures, together
with friction and cohesion values of the soil at foundation level.
When using BD 30 sliding and overturning effects are calculated using nominal
loads and active earth pressures. A factor of safety of 2.0 is used to ensure that the
abutment is stable against sliding and overturning.
Several load cases need to be considered to ensure all loading conditions are catered
for.

Construction sequences also need to be considered. The abutment wall will often
be constructed and backfilled up to bearing shelf level; this provides good access
for the deck construction. A surcharge load can be applied to the wall by the
construction plant used to compact the backfill. This surcharge load, together with
the active backfill earth pressures, will be acting on the back of the wall without
the stabilising effects of the dead load from the deck and can result in a critical loading
case.
Allowable bearing pressures are obtained from the Ground Investigation Survey.
An allowable pressure is usually determined to limit settlement to about 20 to
25mm. As the allowable pressure will be dependent on the size of foundation and
loads applied then there will need to be an initial assessment of the loads and
CE 523: Bridge Design
foundation sizes before an allowable pressure can be given. This results in some
redesigning until the correct base size, applied loads and allowable bearing pressures
are obtained.
BS 8002 says that instability of the earth mass involving a slip failure may occur
where:
• the wall is built on sloping ground which itself is close to limiting equilibrium;
or
• the structure is underlain by a significant depth of clay whose undrained
strength increases only gradually with depth; or
• the strata is founded on a relatively strong stratum underlain by weaker
strata;
or
• the structure is underlain by strata within which high pore water pressures
may develop from natural or artificial sources.
If none of these conditions are present then a slip failure analysis will not be
necessary.
CE 523: Bridge Design

e) Abutment Design Example to BD 30

Design the fixed and free end cantilever abutments to the 20m span deck shown to
carry HA and 45 units of HB loading. Analyse the abutments using a unit strip
method. The bridge site is located south east of Oxford (to establish the range
of shade air temperatures).
Vehicle collision on the abutments need not be considered as they are assumed to have
sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes (See BD
60/04
Clause 2.2).

The ground investigation report shows suitable founding strata about 9.5m below
the proposed road level. Test results show the founding strata to be a cohesionless
soil having an angle of shearing resistance (φ) = 30o and a safe bearing capacity
of 400kN/m2. Backfill material will be Class 6N with an effective angle of internal
friction (ϕ') = 35o and density (γ) = 19kN/m3.

The proposed deck consists of 11No. Y4 prestressed concrete beams and concrete deck
slab as shown.
 CE 523: Bridge Design

Loading From the Deck

A grillage analysis gave the following reactions for the various load cases:
Critical ReactionUnderOneBeam

Total ReactiononEach Abutment

Nominal loading on 1m length of abutment:

Deck Dead Load = (1900 + 320) / 11.6 = 191kN/m
HA live Load on Deck = 1140 / 11.6 = 98kN/m
HB live Load on Deck = 1940 / 11.6 = 167kN/m

From BS 5400 Part 2 Figures 7 and 8 the minimum and maximum shade air
temperatures are -19 and +37oC respectively.
For a Group 4 type strucutre (see fig. 9) the corresponding minimum and maximum
effective bridge temperatures are -11 and +36oC from tables 10 and 11. Hence
the temperature range = 11 + 36 = 47oC.
From Clause 5.4.6 the range of movement at the free end of the 20m span deck = 47 × 12
× 10-6 × 20 × 103 = 11.3mm.
The ultimate thermal movement in the deck will be ± [(11.3 / 2) γf3 γfL] = ±[11.3 × 1.1 × 1.3
/2] = ± 8mm.

Option 1 - Elastomeric Bearing:

With a maximum ultimate reaction = 230 + 60 + 500 = 790kN then a suitable
elastomeric bearing would be Ekspan's Elastomeric Pad: Bearing EKR35:
• Maximum Load = 1053kN
• Shear Deflection = 13.3mm
• Shear Stiffness = 12.14kN/mm
• Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Note: the required shear deflection (8mm) should be limited to between 30% to 50% of the
thickness of the bearing. The figure quoted in the catalogue for the maximum shear deflection
is 70% of the thickness.
A tolerance is also required for setting the bearing if the ambient temperature is not at the
mid range temperature. The design shade air temperature range will be -19 to +37oC which
would require the bearings to be installed at a shade air temperature of [(37+19)/2
-19] = 9oC to achieve the ± 8mm movement.

If the bearings are set at a maximum shade air temperature of 16oC then, by proportion the
deck will:
 CE 523: Bridge Design

expand 8×(37-16)/[(37+19)/2] = 6mm and

contract 8×(16+19)/[(37+19)/2] = 10mm.

Let us assume that this maximum shade air temperature of 16oC for fixing the bearings is
specified in the Contract and design the abutments accordingly.
Horizontal load at bearing for 10mm contraction = 12.14 × 10 = 121kN.
This is an ultimate load hence the nominal horizontal load = 121 / 1.1 / 1.3 = 85kN at
each bearing.
Total horizontal load on each abutment = 11 × 85 = 935 kN ≡ 935 / 11.6 = 81kN/m.

Alternatively using BS 5400 Part 9.1 Clause 5.14.2.6: H =

AGδr/tq
Using the Ekspan bearing EKR35
• Maximum Load = 1053kN
• Area = 610 × 420 = 256200mm2
• Nominl hardness = 60 IRHD
• Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Shear modulus G from Table 8 = 0.9N/mm2
H = 256200 × 0.9 × 10-3 × 10 / 19 = 121kN
This correllates with the value obtained above using the shear stiffness from the
manufacturer's data sheet.

Option 2 - Sliding Bearing:

With a maximum ultimate reaction of 790kN and longitudinal movement of ± 8mm then a
suitable bearing from the Ekspan EA Series would be /80/210/25/25:
• Maximum Load = 800kN
• Base Plate A dimension = 210mm
• Base Plate B dimension = 365mm
• Movement ± X = 12.5mm

BS 5400 Part 2 - Clause 5.4.7.3:

Average nominal dead load reaction = (1900 + 320) / 11 = 2220 / 11 = 200kN
Contact pressure under base plate = 200000 / (210 × 365) = 3N/mm2
As the mating surface between the stainless steel and PTFE is smaller than the base
plate then the pressure between the sliding faces will be in the order of 5N/mm2.
From Table3 of BS 5400 Part 9.1 the Coefficient of friction = 0.08 for a bearing stress of
5N/mm2
Hence total horizontal load on each abutment when the deck expands or contracts =
2220 × 0.08 = 180kN ≡ 180 / 11.6 = 16kN/m.

Tractionand Braking Load - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.10:

Nominal Load for HA = 8kN/m × 20m + 250kN = 410kN
Nominal Load for HB = 25% of 45units × 10kN × 4axles = 450kN
450 > 410kN hence HB braking is critical.

Braking load on 1m width of abutment = 450 / 11.6 = 39kN/m.

When this load is applied on the deck it will act on the fixed abutment only.
 CE 523: Bridge Design

SkiddingLoad - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.11:

Nominal Load = 300kN
300 < 450kN hence braking load is critical in the longitudinal direction.
When this load is applied on the deck it will act at bearing shelf level, and will not affect the
free abutment if sliding bearings are used.

Loading at Rear of Abutment

Backfill
For Stability calculations use active earth pressures = Ka γ h
Ka for Class 6N material = (1-Sin35) / (1+Sin35) = 0.27
Density of Class 6N material = 19kN/m3
Active Pressure at depth h = 0.27 × 19 × h = 5.13h kN/m2
Hence Fb = 5.13h2/2 = 2.57h2kN/m

Surcharge - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 5.8.2: For HA loading

surcharge = 10 kN/m2
For HB loading surcharge = 20 kN/m2
Assume a surchage loading for the compaction plant to be equivalent to 30 units of HB
Hence Compaction Plant surcharge = 12 kN/m2.
For surcharge of w kN/m2 : Fs = Ka w h = 0.27wh kN/m

1) Stability Check
InitialSizingfor BaseDimensions
There are a number of publications that will give guidance on base sizes for free
standing cantilever walls, Reynolds's Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook being one
such book. Alternatively a simple spreadsheet will achieve a result by trial and error.
CE 523: Bridge Design

LoadCombinations

CASE1 - Fixed Abutment

Density of reinforced concrete = 25kN/m3.

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 = 52kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.27 × 19 × 7.52 / 2 = 144kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.27 × 12 × 7.5 = 24 kN/m
CE 523: Bridge Design

Restoring Effects:

Overturning Effects:

BD 30 Clause 5.2.4.2 refers to CP 2: 1951 Earth retaining structures for Safety

Factors. Factor of Safety Against Overturning = 3251 / 452 = 7.2 > 2.0 ∴ OK.
For sliding effects:
Active Force = Fb + Fs = 168kN/m
Frictional force on underside of base resisting movement = W tan(φ) = 906 × tan(30o)
= 523kN/m
Factor of Safety Against Sliding = 523 / 168 = 3.1 > 2.0 ∴ OK.

Bearing Pressure:
Check bearing pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e / Z) where P × e
is the moment about the centre of the base.
P = 906kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 452 = 2799kNm/m
Eccentricity (e) of P about centre-line of base = 3.2 - (2799 / 906) = 0.111m
Pressure under base = (906 / 6.4) ± (906 × 0.111 / 6.827)
Pressure under toe = 142 + 15 = 157kN/m2 < 400kN/m2 ∴
OK. Pressure under heel = 142 - 15 = 127kN/m2

Hence the abutment will be stable for Case 1.

Analysing the fixed abutment with Load Cases 1 to 6 and the free abutment with
Load
Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:
CE 523: Bridge Design

Fixed
Abutment:

Free
Abutment:

It can be seen that the use of elastomeric bearings (Case 2) will govern the critical
design load cases on the abutments. We shall assume that there are no specific
requirements for using elastomeric bearings and design the abutments for the lesser
load effects by using sliding bearings.

2) Wall and Base Design

Loads on the back of the wall are calculated using 'at rest' earth pressures.
Serviceability and Ultimate load effects need to be calculated for the load cases 1 to
6 shown above. Again, these are best carried out using a simple spreadsheet.
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations:

Wall Design

Ko = 1 - Sin(ϕ') = 1 - Sin(35o) = 0.426

γfL for horizontal loads due to surcharge and backfill from BS 5400 Part 2 Clause
5.8.1.2: Serviceability = 1.0
Ultimate = 1.5
γf3 = 1.0 for serviceability and 1.1 for ultimate (from BS 5400 Part 4 Clauses 4.2.2
and 4.2.3)
Backfill Force Fb on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 19 × 6.52 / 2 = 171kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 12 × 6.5 = 33kN/m
At the base of the Wall (tension in the rear face):
Serviceability moment = (171 × 6.5 / 3) + (33 × 6.5 / 2) = 371 + 107 = 478kNm/m
Ultimate moment = 1.1 × 1.5 × 478 = 789kNm/m
Ultimate shear = 1.1 × 1.5 × (171 + 33) = 337kN/m
CE 523: Bridge Design

Analyzing the fixed abutment with Load Cases 1 to 6 and the free abutment with
Load Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained
for the design moments and shear at the base of the wall:

Fixed
Abutment:

Free
Abutment:

Concrete to BS 8500:2006
Use strength class C32/40 with water-cement ratio 0.5 and minimum cement content
of 340kg/m3 for exposure condition XD2.
Nominal cover to reinforcement = 60mm (45mm minimum cover plus a tolerance Δc
of 15mm).
Reinforcement to BS 4449:2005 Grade B500B: fy = 500N/mm2

Design for critical moments and shear in Free Abutment:

Reinforced concrete walls are designed to BS 5400 Part 4 Clause

5.6. Check classification to clause 5.6.1.1:
Ultimate axial load in wall from deck reactions = 2400 + 600 + 2770 = 5770 kN
0.1fcuAc = 0.1 × 40 × 103 × 11.6 × 1 = 46400 kN > 5770
∴ design as a slab in accordance with clause 5.4
CE 523: Bridge Design
Bending
BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.4.2 → for reisitance moments in slabs design to clause 5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B40 @ 150 c/c in rear face at base of wall: As = 8378mm2/m,
d = 1000 - 60 - 20 = 920mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 8378) / (40 × 1000 × 920) ]} d = 0.875d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 8378 × 0.875 × 920 × 10-6 = 2934kNm/m >
2175kNn/m
∴ OK

Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width of
0.2mm < 0.25mm.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required
in clause 4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.

Shear

Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.4.4:

v = V / (bd) = 619 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.673 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is required when v < ξsvc
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 920)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 ×
920})1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.72
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.72 = 0.62 N/mm2 < 0.673 hence shear reinforcement should be
provided, however check shear at distance H/8 (8.63 / 8 = 1.079m) up the wall.
ULS shear at Section 7H/8 for load case 4 = 487 kN
v = V / (bd) = 487 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.62
Hence height requiring strengthening = 1.073 × (0.673 - 0.62) / (0.673 - 0.53) = 0.4m
< d.

Provide a 500 × 500 splay at the base of the wall with B32 @ 150c/c bars in
sloping face.

Early Thermal Cracking

Considering the effects of casting the wall stem onto the base slab by complying
with the early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 horizontal lacer bars
@ 150 c/c will be required in both faces in the bottom half of the
wall. Minimum area of secondary reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.2 = 0.12% of bad =
0.0012 ×1000 × 920 = 1104 mm2/m (use B16 @ 150c/c - As = 1340mm2/m)

BaseDesign

Maximum bending and shear effects in the base slab will occur at sections near the
front and back of the wall. Different load factors are used for serviceability and ultimate
limit states so the calculations need to be carried out for each limit state using
'at rest pressures'
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations
CASE1 - Fixed Abutment Serviceability Limit State
CE 523: Bridge Design

γfL = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.0 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.0 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.0 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.0 = 52 kN/m
B/fill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.0 / 2 = 228 kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.0 = 38 kN/m

Restoring Effects:

Overturning Effects:

Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e /Z) P = 906kN/m

A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 713 = 2538kNm/m
Eccentricity (e) of P about centre-line of base = 3.2 - (2538 / 906) = 0.399m
Pressure under base = (906 / 6.4) ± (906 × 0.399 /
6.827) Pressure under toe = 142 + 53 = 195kN/m2
Pressure under heel = 142 - 53 = 89kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 177kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 160kN/m2

SLS Moment at a-a = (177 × 1.12 / 2) + ([195 - 177] × 1.12 / 3) - (25 × 1.0 × 1.12 / 2)
= 99kNm/m (tension in bottom face).
CE 523: Bridge Design
SLS Moment at b-b = (89 × 4.32 / 2) + ([160 - 89] × 4.32 / 6) - (25 × 1.0 × 4.32 / 2) -
(531
× 4.3 / 2) - (52 × 4.3 / 2) = -443kNm/m (tension in top

face). CASE1 - Fixed Abutment Ultimate Limit State

γfL for concrete = 1.15

γfL for fill and surcharge(vetical) = 1.2
γfL for fill and surcharge(horizontal) = 1.5
Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.15 = 187kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.15 = 184kN/m

Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.2 = 637kN/m

Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.2 = 62kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.5 / 2 = 341kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.5 = 58 kN/m

Restoring Effects:

Overturning Effects:
CE 523: Bridge Design

Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P x e / Z)

P = 1070kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3859 - 1071 = 2788kNm/m
Eccentricity (e) of P about centre-line of base = 3.2 - (2788 / 1070) = 0.594m
Pressure under base = (1070 / 6.4) ± (1070 × 0.594 / 6.827)
Pressure under toe = 167 + 93 = 260kN/m2
Pressure under heel = 167 - 93 = 74kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 228kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 199kN/m2

γf3 = 1.1
ULS Shear at a-a = 1.1 × {[(260 + 228) × 1.1 / 2] - (1.15 × 1.1 × 25)} = 260kN/m
ULS Shear at b-b = 1.1 × {[(199 + 74) × 4.3 / 2] - (1.15 × 4.3 × 25) - 637 - 62}
= 259kN/m
ULS Moment at a-a = 1.1 × {(228 × 1.12 / 2) + ([260 - 228] × 1.12 / 3) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0
×1.12 / 2)} = 148kNm/m (tension in bottom face).

ULS Moment at b-b = 1.1 × {(74 × 4.32 / 2) + ([199 - 74] × 4.32 / 6) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0
×4.32 / 2) - (637 × 4.3 / 2) - (62 × 4.3 / 2)} = -769kNm/m (tension in top face).

Analysing the fixed abutment with Load Cases 1 to 6 and the free abutment with
Load Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:

Fixed Abutment
Base: Section a-a
CE 523: Bridge Design

Section b-b

Free Abutment
Base: Section a-a

Section b-b

Design for shear and bending effects at sections a-a and b-b for the Free
Abutment:

Bending

BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.7.3 → design as a slab for resistance moments to clause
5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B32 @ 150 c/c:
As = 5362mm2/m, d = 1000 - 60 - 16 = 924mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 5362) / (40 × 1000 × 924) ]} d = 0.92d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 5362 × 0.92 × 924 × 10-6 = 1983kNm/m >
1922kNm/m
CE 523: Bridge Design

∴ OK
(1983kNm/m also > 1834kNm/m ∴ B32 @ 150 c/c suitable for fixed
abutment.

For the Serviceability check for Case 3 an approximation of the dead load moment
can be obtained by removing the surcharge and braking loads. The spreadsheet result
gives the dead load SLS moment for Case 3 as 723kNm, thus the live load moment =
1233 -
723 = 510kNm.
Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width
of 0.27mm > 0.25mm ∴ Fail.
This could be corrected by reducing the bar spacing, but increase the bar size
to B40@150 c/c as this is required to avoid the use of links (see
below). Using B40@150c/c the crack control calculation gives a crack width of
0.17mm < 0.25mm ∴ OK.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required
in clause 4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.

Shear
Shear on Toe - Use Fixed Abutment Load Case 6:
By inspection B32@150c/c will be adequate for the bending effects in the toe (Muls
= 365kNm < 1983kNm) Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.7.3.2(a)
checking shear at d away from the front face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:

ULS Shear on toe = 1.1 × {(620 + 599) × 0.5 × 0.176 - 1.15 × 1 × 0.176 × 25} =
112kN
v = V / (bd) = 112 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.121 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is required when v <ξsvc
Reinforcement in tension = B32 @ 150c/c
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 ×
924})1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 > 0.121N/mm2
∴ OK
Shear on Heel - Use Free Abutment Load Case 3:
Shear requirements are designed at the back face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:
CE 523: Bridge Design

Length of heel = (6.5 - 1.1 - 1.0) = 4.4m

ULS Shear on heel = 1.1 × {348 × 0.5 × (5.185 - 2.1) - 1.15 × 1 × 4.4 × 25 - 1.2 ×
4.4 × (8.63 × 19 + 10)} = 559kN
Using B32@150 c/c then:
v = V / (bd) = 559 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.605 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is required when v < ξsvc
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 ×
924})1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.605N/mm2
∴ Fail
Rather than provide shear reinforcement try increasing bars to B40 @ 150 c/c
(also required for crack control as shown above).
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 ×
920})1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.716
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.716 = 0.616 N/mm2 > 0.605N/mm2 ∴ OK

Early Thermal Cracking

Considering the effects of casting the base slab onto the blinding concrete by complying
with the early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 distribution bars @
250 c/c will be required.
Minimum area of main reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.1 = 0.15% of bad = 0.0015 × 1000
× 924 = 1386 mm2/m (use B20 @ 200c/c - As = 1570mm2/m).

LocalEffects

Curtain Wall
This wall is designed to be cast onto the top of the abutment after the deck has
been built. Loading will be applied from the backfill, surcharge and braking loads on
top of the wall.
HB braking load to BS 5400 clause 6.10 = 25% × 45units × 4 × 10kN on 2 axles =
225kN per axle.
To allow for load distribution effects assume a 45o dispersal to the curtain wall and
a 45o dispersal down the wall, with maximum dispersal of the width of the
abutment (11.6m).

This crude analysis will slightly underestimate the peak values in the wall below
the load, but allowance can be made when designing the reinforcement to ensure
there is spare capacity. Then:
CE 523: Bridge Design

1st axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 3.0 = 75kN/m

Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 9.0 = 25 kN/m
2nd axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 6.6 = 34.1kN/m
Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 11.6 = 19.4
kN/m For load effects at the top of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 75 + 34.1 = 109.1kN/m
For load effects at the base of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 25 + 19.4 = 44.4kN/m

BendingandShearat Baseof 3m HighCurtain Wall

Horizontal load due to HB surcharge = 0.426 × 20 × 3.0 = 25.6 kN/m

Horizontal load due to backfill = 0.426 × 19 × 3.02 / 2 = 36.4 kN/m
SLS Moment = (44.4×3.0) + (25.6×1.5)+(36.4×1.0) = 208 kNm/m (36 dead + 172
live)
ULS Moment = 1.1 × {(1.1×44.4 ×3.0) + (1.5×25.6×1.5)+(1.5×36.4×1.0)} = 285 kNm/m
ULS Shear = 1.1 × {(1.1 × 44.4) + (1.5 × 25.6) + (1.5 × 36.4)} = 156kN/m
400 thick curtain wall with B32 @ 150 c/c:
Mult = 584 kNm/m > 285 kNm/m ∴
OK SLS Moment produces crack width of 0.14mm < 0.25
∴ OK
ξsvc = 0.97 N/mm2 > v = 0.48 N/mm2 ∴ Shear OK
CE 523: Bridge Design

3.5.3 Bridge Bearings

Bridge bearings are an important element of the bridge and require careful
consideration.
Up to the middle of the 20th century, bridges relied on steel bearings (rollers, rockers,
or sliding bearings) to allow movement. With more advanced designs to make better
use of the materials employed and the increased use of curved and skewed bridges,
it was necessary to develop the bearings to allow for movement in more than one
direction. New types of bearings were developed making use of new materials
and improved technology. This brief note covers bearings types other than the steel
roller and rocker bearings.
Bearings are required to fulfil the following
functions:
1) Transfer forces from one part of the bridge (superstructure) to
another (substructure).
2) Allow movement (translation or rotation) of one part of the bridge with
respect to another.
3) Allow free movement in a certain direction but not in others, in order
to constrain the movement of the bridge to specific direction(s).

Design Requirements for bearings:

Bearings ensure the functionality of a bridge by allowing translation and rotation
to occur while supporting vertical loading. The main design requirements are:
1. Movements:
Consideration of movement is important for bearing design. The sources of
movement include bridge skew and curvature effects, initial comber, misalignment or
construction tolerance, settlement of support, thermal effects, construction loads, and
traffic loading. Restraints that restrict the translation movement of a structure may be
provided as part of or separate from the vertical load bearings. Restraints may be
provided by separate dowels, keys, or side restraints on sliding bearings. Table
(1) defines the symbolic representation of bearing displacement and rotation
restraints.

Table (1): Symbolic representation of bearing functions.

CE 523: Bridge Design

2. Design life:
Bearings should be designed to last as long as the bridge itself. However, with some
non- metallic materials in use today, it is difficult to ascertain this requirement.
Inadequate maintenance of metallic parts of bearings may reduce their service life. It
is thus important to allow for inspection and replacement of bridge bearings, in whole
or in part. Provisions should be made for installation of jacks necessary for the
removal of bearings, insertion of shims, or any other operations requiring lifting the
bridge deck from the bearings. Adequate space should be provided around bearings
to facilitate inspection and replacement. If there is a possibility of differential
settlement, provisions should be made for jacking up the bridge deck and inserting
metal shims.
3. Durability:
Bearings should be detailed without recesses and enclosures that may trap moisture
and dirt. The materials used in their manufacture and the method adopted for
protection against corrosion should ensure that the bearings function properly
throughout their life.

4. Limit states:
To meet the serviceability limit state for bearings the design should be such that they
do not suffer damage that would affect their proper functioning or incur
excessive maintenance during their working life. In the ultimate limit state, the
strength and stability of the bearings should be adequate to resist the ultimate
design loads and movements of the structure.

Types of Bearing:
Bridge bearings may be divided into four basic
categories;
1) Elastomeric pads.
2) Pot bearings.
3) Sliding surfaces.
4) Curved sliding surfaces.

1. Elastomeric Pads:
Elastomers are used in both elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced
elastomeric bearings. The behavior of both pads and bearings is influenced by the
shape factor, S, defined as:
A
S=
P
where A is the plan area and P is the area of the perimeter free to bulge.
Elastomeric bearing pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearings have several
advantages. They have a low cost and require minimal maintenance. Further,
the components can sustain higher values than the design loads, which is useful in
case of extreme events that have a low probability of occurrence (earthquakes, for
example). Natural rubber or neoprene may be used in the bearings. Elastomers are
visco-elastic nonlinear materials and thus their properties vary with strain level, rate
of loading and temperature. Elastomers are flexible under shear and uniaxial
deformation, but are very stiff against volume changes. This feature allows for the
design of a bearing that is stiff in compression but flexible in shear. The shear
stiffness of the bearing is the most important property, since it affects the forces
transmitted between the superstucture and substructure.
CE 523: Bridge Design
CE 523: Bridge Design

Types of Bearings for Bridge Design

Elastomeric bearings:
Elastomeric bearing pads include plain elastomeric pads (PEP), cotton duck
reinforced pads (CDP), and layered fiberglass reinforced bearing pads (FGP).
Elastomeric bearings can accommodate small to moderate compressive loads
with limited or no rotation and translation, so they are best suited for bridges with
small lengths (less than 40 m). CDP may support somewhat larger compressive loads
than PEP and FGP. Translations less than 25 mm and rotations of a degree or
less may be accommodated with GFP, whereas smaller values are possible for
PEP, and no sign significant movements are practical with CDP.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings:
The steel reinforcement within elastomeric pads makes their behavior quite
different from plain elastomeric pads. Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings have
uniformly spaced layers of steel and elastomer. The bearing accommodates
translation and rotation by deformation of the elastomer. Under uniaxial
compression, the flexible elastomer would shorten significantly and sustain large
increases in its plan dimension, but the stiff steel layers restrain this lateral expansion.
This restraint induces a bulging pattern and provides a large increase in stiffness
under compressive loads. This permits a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing to
support relatively high compressive loads while accommodating large translations
and rotations. The stress in the steel plates and the strain in the elastomer are
controlled by the elastomer thickness and the shape factor of the bearing. Large
rotations and translations require taller bearings. Translations and rotations may
occur about either horizontal axes, thus these bearings are suitable for bridges where
the direction of movement is not precisely defined.

2. Pot bearing:
The basic components of a pot bearing are a shallow cylinder, a pot, an elastomeric
pad, a set of sealing rings and a piston. Pot bearings are fixed against all translation
unless they are used with a PTFE sliding surface. The pot and piston are made from
structural carbon steel, whereas the sealing ring is usually made of a single circular
brass ring or a set of two or three flat brass rings. The brass rings are placed in a
recess on the top of the elastomeric pad.
Vertical load is carried through the piston of the bearing and is resisted by
compressive stress in the elastomeric pad. The pad is deformable but almost
incompressible and is often idealized as behaving hydrostatically, however, in
practice; the elastomer has some shear stiffness. Deformation of the pot wall is a
concern, since this deformation changes the clearance between the pot and the
piston and may lead to binding of the bearing or to elastomer leakage.
Rotation about any axis is accommodated by deformation of the elastomeric pad.
Pot bearings are usually designed for a maximum compressive strain of 15%
in the elastomer due to rotation. To achieve 0.02 radians, the ratio D/t must not exceed
15. Increasing the pad thickness accommodates larger rotations but increases the
required depth, and thus the cost of the pot. During rotation, the elastomeric pad
compresses on one side and expands on the other, so the elastomer is in contact with
the pot wall and slips against it. This may cause elastomer abrasion and sometimes
contributes to elastomer leakage.

Lateral load is transferred from the piston to the pot by contact between the rim of
the piston and the wall of the pot. The contact stress may be high because the piston
CE 523: Bridge Design
rim may be relatively thin to avoid binding when the piston rotates and the rim
slides against the pot. The pot wall must transfer the load down into the base plate
(combined shear and bending). The load is then transferred to the substructure
through friction under the base of the bearing and shear in the anchor bolts.

3. Sliding surfaces:
Lubricated bronze and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) are commonly used
as components of bridge bearings. Sliding surfaces develop a frictional force that
acts on the superstructure, substructure, and bearing. The frictional force, F, can be
computed as F = μ N
where μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal force on the sliding surface.
Lubricated bronze sliding surfaces are used to accommodate very large translation,
and the load capacity is also big as it is only limited by the surface area. The
coefficient of friction is typically 0.07 under initial lubricated conditions. However,
it increases to 0.1 as the surface dissipates with time and movement. Coefficient of
friction in the order of
0.4 may be expected after the lubrication has completely dissipated.
Recommended design coefficients of friction for bearings with stainless steel sliding
on pure PTFE continuously lubricated are given in Table (2) below. For design
purposes, the coefficient of friction for pure unlubricated PTFE on stainless steel
should be taken as twice the values given in the Table.
Table (2): Coefficient of friction for stainless steel sliding on pure PTFE continuously

Bearing stress (N/mm2) 5 10 20 30 and over

Coefficient of friction 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.03

PTFE sliding surfaces are used to accommodate large translations, and, when
combined with spherical or cylindrical bearings, large rotations. They develop
substantially smaller friction forces than lubricated bronze bearings. However, they
require greater care in design and greater quality control in construction and
installation. PTFE is used with mating surfaces made of very smooth stainless steel
(for all flat surfaces and many curved surfaces) or anodized aluminium (for some
spherical or cylindrical surfaces). The stainless steel is larger than the PTFE surface
to achieve full movement without exposing the PTFE. The steel plate is typically
place on top of the PTFE to prevent contamination with dust or dirt. PTFE sliding
surfaces are often used in combination with a wide range of other bearing systems.
PTFE wears under service conditions and may require replacement after a period of
time.
Low temperatures, fast sliding speeds, rough mating surface, lack of lubrication,
and contamination of the sliding interface increase the wear rate.

4. Curved sliding surfaces:

Bearings with curved sliding surfaces include spherical and cylindrical bearings.
They are a special case of lubricated bronze or PTFE sliding surfaces. They are used
primarily to sustain large rotations about one or more axes, and are fixed against
translation. The rotation occurs about the centre of radius of the curved surface,
and the maximum rotation is limited by the geometry and clearances of the bearing.
These bearings may develop horizontal resistance by virtue of the geometry. This
CE 523: Bridge Design
lateral load capacity is limited and large lateral loads require an external resisting
system.
The centre of rotation of the bearing and the neutral axis of the beam seldom
coincide, and this eccentricity introduces additional translation and girder end
moment that must be considered in the design. An additional flat sliding surface
must be added if the bearing is to accommodate displacements or to reduce the
girder end moment. The moment, M, may be estimated as:
M = Nd
where d is the distance between the centre of radius of the bearing and the centre
of rotation of the girder. This moment must be considered in the design of the
bearings, superstructure and substructure. The inside and outside radii of
spherical and cylindrical bearings must be accurately controlled and machined
to assure good performance. When using PTFE, a small tolerance between the two
radii and a smooth surface finish is required to prevent wear, creep, or cold flow
damage due to non- uniform contact and to ensure a low coefficient of friction.

Selection of Bearing Type:

There are several approaches to selecting a cost-effective and appropriate bearing
system for bridges. An important decision is to define the bearing type suitable for
the design requirements. Table 3 provides a guide for choosing a suitable bearing type.
There are several procedures to follow in the design process. The one outlined
here follows the reference “Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide”,
published by the American Iron and Steel Institute. Table 3 is provided to identify
the bearing types that satisfy design requirements. The selection procedure is:
1) Define the design requirements (forces, translation, and rotation limits).
2) Identify the bearing types that satisfy the design requirements.
3) Identify the initial and maintenance cost of the bearings.
4) Choose the appropriate bearing type that meets the design requirement at
the lowest overall cost.
5) Ease of access for inspection, maintenance and possible replacement must
also be considered.
6) Note that the limits provided are not absolute, but are practical limits
that approximate the most economical application of each bearing type.
 CE 523: Bridge Design

Table (3): Bearing Function.

Bearing
Arrangement:
A typical arrangement for the bearings in plan is to provide for one fixed bearing
and one transversally flexible bearing at the "fixed" support, and one longitudinally
flexible and one multi-directionally flexible at the "movable" support. This is used
for wide bridges and where a fair degree of lateral movement must be allowed (see
Fig. 2a). If the bridge is narrow, two fixed bearings with some play for movement
in the transverse direction are provided at the fixed support, and one longitudinally
flexible and one multi-directionally flexible at the flexible support (Fig. 2b). For
a slab bridge with skewed ends, a lot of bearings that are flexible and tiltable in all
directions are used, with lateral restraint provided by bearings on the bridge
centrelines (Fig. 2c).
Figure 3 describes the placement of elastomeric bearing supports for precast
beams, where special details are required to ensure that the vertical stress is
uniformly distributed along the bearing cross-section (Fig. 3a & 3b), avoiding stress
concentration on a partly-loaded bearing (Fig. 3c).
CE 523: Bridge Design

Figure (2): Bearing arrangement on bridge plan view.

Figure (3): Elastomeric bearing attachment to sloping precast beams.