Biology IGCSE

Revision Notes

Triple & Double Award

Specification
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IGCSE Revision Notes
 Triple Award Specification

Key words are underlined in red. Practical work

is printed in italics.

Section 1: The nature and variety of

living organisms
Characteristics of living organisms include;

M ovement
R espitation
S ensitivity
G rowth
R eproduction
E xcretion
N utrition
In addition, all living organisms contain nucleic acids (DNA)
and have the ability to control their internal conditions.
Finally, all living organisms can die.

Living organisms are classified into 5 groups, each of which

has certain characteristics you need to learn

Plants:
1. Multicellular organisms
2. Cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out
photosynthesis
3. Cells have cellulose cell walls
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4. They store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose.

Examples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (e.g.

maize) and a herbaceous legume (e.g. peas or beans).

Animals:
1. Multicellular organisms
2. Cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to
carry out photosynthesis
3. Cells have no cell walls
4. They have a nervous system
5. They often store carbohydrate as glycogen
Examples include mammals (e.g. humans) and insects (e.g.
housefly).

Fungi:
1. They are saprophytic and feed by excreting
extracellular secretions of digestive enzymes onto food
and absorbing the digested products
2. Cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to
carry out photosynthesis
3. Cells are joined together to form threads, called hyphae.
Hyphae contain many nuclei, because they are made
from many cells.
4. Cell walls are made from chitin (a protein)
5. They store carbohydrates as glycogen.
Examples include Mucor and Yeast (which is single celled).
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Bacteria:
1. Made from single cells
2. Cells do not contain a nucleus, but have a small piece of
circular DNA instead (a bacterial chromosome).
3. Some bacteria can carry out rudimentary photosynthesis,
but most are saprophytes
4. They have the structure below (learn it, it comes up!)

Examples include Lactobacillius bulgaricus (a rod-shaped

bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk) and
Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the
pathogen causing Pneumonia)

Protoctisis:
Basically, everything that doesn’t fit into the other kingdoms!
Most are single celled organisms which can either;
1. Have animal-like characteristics (e.g. Amoeba)
2. Have plant-like characteristics (e.g. Chlorella)

One pathogenic example is Plasmodium, which causes malaria

However, some protoctisis are multicellular (e.g. seaweeds,
yes they’re NOT plants!)

Viruses:
1. Much smaller than bacteria. They are not made from
cells
2. Totally parasitic and reproduce inside host cells.
3. They infect every type of living cell
4. They have the structure below (learn it, it comes up!)
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The Envelope is used to gain entry into host cells.

The Capsid is a protein coat and is used to protect the

genetic information and give the virus structure

The DNA or RNA (a different type of nucleic acid) contain the

code for building new viruses.

Examples include the Tobacco Mosaic Virus and the Influenza

virus (which causes ‘flu), and HIV virus that causes AIDS.

Section 2: Structures and Functions in

Living Organisms
a) Levels of organization
Organisms are made from organizations of smaller structures.
You need to know the following hierarchy of structures.

Organelles – intracellular structures that carry out specific

functions within a cell

Cells – the basic structural and functional unit from which all
biological organisms are made
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Tissues – a group of specialized cells, which are adapted to

carry out a specific function.

Organs – a collection of two or more tissues, which carries out

a specific function or functions
Organ Systems – a group of two or more organs

b) Cell structure

You need to know the differences between plant and animal

cells, the functions of the organelles and be able to recognize
them in a microscope picture or drawing.
Differences between plant and animal cells:

Organelle Animal Cell Plant Cell

Chloroplast X √
Cell Wall X √
Sap Vacuole X √
Chlorophyll X Found in chloroplast
Size Roughly 50 μm long Roughly 150μm long
Shape No fixed shape Rectangular

N.B. The cells are measured in μm (micrometers). One

th
micrometer is 1/1000 of a millimetre.
Functions of the Organelles:

Cytoplasm – site of chemical reactions in the cell

Cell Membrane – controls what enters / leaves the cell

(selectively permeable)

Nucleus – contains nucleic acids, which code for the synthesis

of specific proteins. These proteins control all activity in the
cell
Mitochondrion – site of respiration
Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis

Cell Wall – made from cellulose. Strengthens the cell and

allows it to be turgid

Sap Vacuole – contains the cell sap. Acts as a store of water,

or of sugars or, in some cases, of waste products the cell
needs to excrete.

c) Biological molecules
Food Tests:
Starch is tested for using Iodine solution
Glucose is tested for using Benedict’s test
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The Food Groups:

Food Group Function

Used as a long-term energy store (much easier
to
Lipids (fats & oils) store than carbohydrates). Also have a role in
protection and insulation
Made from single sugars or chains of sugars. They
are
Carbohydrates
used in respiration to provide energy.
Broken down into amino acids, which our body
absorbs
and assembles into new proteins. The proteins are
Proteins used
for growth and repair.
Regulates bowel movement. Sloughs off old lining of
Fibre
intestine.
Essential as a solvent for chemical reactions
(e.g.
cytoplasm), heat loss (e.g. transpiration),
Water transport
(e.g. blood) etc
Essential for the normal function of some enzymes
and
2+
proteins e.g. Fe is an essential part of
Vitamins and Minerals Haemoglobin
2+
and Mg is part of Chlorophyll

Components of the main Food Groups:

The main food groups are carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

All three groups are made from smaller molecules.

Carbohydrates are large molecules made from one or more

sugars (e.g. both Starch and Glycogen are both polymers of
Glucose)
Proteins are polymers of Amino Acids

Lipids are made from one glycerol molecule and three fatty
acid molecules joined together.
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Enzymes:

- Are proteins
- Are biological catalysts (speed up chemical reactions)
- Are specific to one particular Substrate
- Are affected by temperature and pH
- Are not used up in the reaction they catalyze
1. Initially, raising the temperature 1. Initially, increasing the pH
increases the rate of reaction. increases the rate of reaction.

2. However, after the optimum 2. However, after the optimum

temperature is reached the pH is reached the enzyme
enzyme begins to change begins to change shape and the
shape and the active site active site stops being able to
stops being able to bind to the bind to the substrate.
substrate.
3. The enzyme becomes
3. The enzyme becomes denatured and stop working
denatured and stop working (the rate of reaction is zero at
(the rate of reaction is zero at this point).
this point).
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You need to be able to recall an experiment you have done

that explores the effect of temperature on enzymes. An
example is the enzyme Catalase, which breaks Hydrogen
peroxide into Water and Oxygen;

2H2O2 → O2 + 2H2O

Catalase is found in potatos. Therefore, putting potato chips

into peroxide will produce O2. The rate of reaction is, therefore,
proportional to the volume of O2 given off. Changing the
temperature will alter the volume (i.e. initially increase it,
reach an optimum, then decrease quickly as the Catalase
becomes denatured).

d) Movement of substances into and out of cells

Diffusion – the movement of molecules from high

concentration to low concentration, down a concentration
gradient.

Osmosis – the movement of water molecules from high

concentration to low concentration through a partially
permeable membrane

Active Transport – the movement of molecules from low

concentration to high concentration against the concentration
gradient. Energy is required for movement to occur.

Diffusion and osmosis occur because molecules have kinetic

energy. The molecules constantly bounce off each other all
the time, gradually spreading out. Eventually there will be an
even mixture of molecules, which is called an equilibrium.
Diffusion can be affected by;
- temperature (increases Kinetic energy)
- stirring (increases Kinetic energy)
- surface area for diffusion
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- thickness / distance molecules have to diffuse

- the size of the concentration gradient
- the surface area to volume ratio

Plant cells are normally turgid (swollen full of water). This is

important because it provides strength to plants. Plant cells
have a cell wall to stop them bursting when turgid. When
plant cells start to lose water they become flaccid. Flaccid
plants lose their strength and start to wilt. Eventually, flaccid
cells become plasmolysed as the cell membrane begins to
peel away from the cell wall. This kills the cell.

You need to give examples of diffusion and osmosis living and

non-living situations. Good examples of diffusion are ink
chromatography, or the diffusion of KMnO 4 crystals (purple)
into water. Diffusion of gases in the lung or leaf are also good
examples. Osmosis can be shown artificially using visking
tubing, or potato chips in salt solutions of different
concentrations.

e) Nutrition
Nutrition in Flowering Plants:

Plants are photoautrophic (i.e. they generate their own

“food” using energy from the Sun.) They do this through
photosynthesis.

Carbon Glucos
Dioxide + Water → Oxygen + e
C6H12O
6CO2 + 6H2O → 6O2 + 6

Through photosynthesis light energy is converted into

chemical energy in the bonds in glucose. Plants use glucose for
the following;
- Respiration
- Stored as Starch
- Turned into Cellulose (cellulose is a polymer of glucose)
- Used to make fats and oils
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At any point the rate of photosynthesis can be increased by

adding more CO2, more water, more light or heating towards
optimum temperature (photosynthesis is catalyzed by
enzymes). However, at a certain point the addition of more e.g.
light will not increase the rate of photosynthesis any further.
This is because a second factor is limiting the rate of
photosynthesis. Adding more of the rate-limiting factor will
increase the rate further until another factor becomes limiting.

Rate
Light is the rate-limiting factor
of
A second factor is limiting (e.g.
p/s CO2)

Light intensity

You need to know the parts of the leaf and their adaptations.
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Leaf Structure Adaptation for photosynthesis

Cuticle Stops the leaf from losing water (remember,
water is used in photosynthesis)
Epidermis Transparent protective layer. Protects the leaf
without inhibiting photosynthesis.
Palisade cells Are packed full of chloroplasts. Are long and
thin so light has to pass through as many
chloroplasts as possible.
Air Spaces Increase the surface area inside the leaf to
maximise gas exchange across the surface of
the Spongy Mesophyll cells
Stoma Allow exchange of CO2 and O2
Guard Cells Allow the stoma to open and close to stop the
leaf losing too much water
Vein (containing
Xylem) Brings a steady supply of water to the leaf.

In addition to water and CO2 plants also need specific minerals;

Nitrate – used to make amino acids for use in plant

proteins Magnesium – forms part of the chlorophyll
molecule
Potassium - essential for cell membranes
Phosphate - essential part of DNA and cell membranes

You need to know an experiment that shows how the rate of

p/s is affected by rate-limiting factors. The best example is
using pond weed (Elodea) which produces bubbles of O2 as it
photosynthesizes. The rate of bubble production is
approximately proportional to the rate of photosynthesis.
Therefore, when you add light or give it more CO 2, the rate of
bubble production increases.

You also need to know an experiment that proves that light

and CO2 are essential for the production of starch. A good
example is the Geranium plant. It’s leaves normally turn blue-
black in the presence of iodine solution showing starch is present
(you have to boil it in ethanol first to remove the chlorophyll to
show the colour). However, if one leaf is put in aluminum foil and
another is kept with lime water both do not turn blue-black,
implying both CO2 and light are essential for starch production
and, therefore, essential for p/s.
••••••••
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Nutrition in Humans:

Humans need to eat a balanced diet. This really means some

of every food group, but not too much or too little of a
particular one.

The two groups that provide energy (through respiration) are

lipids and carbohydrates. Per mass lipids have about 10x
more energy in them than carbohydrates. The energy in food is
measured in Calories (equivalent to 4.2 kJ). In order to keep
our bodies functioning (i.e. heart beating, basic respiratory
requirement)

- Males need to consume 2500 Calories a day

- Females need to consume 2000 Calories a day

However, this will change if;

- You exercise
- You are growing
- You are ill
- You are pregnant
- You are old

You need to know an experiment that can show how much

energy there is in food. The easiest way of doing this is to burn
a sample of food and use it to heat a fixed volume of water. If
you record the change in temperature of the water you can
use the equation below to find out the energy the food gave to
the water;

Energy = change in temp. x volume of water x 4.2J/g/ C

A potential problem is that not all the food will burn. To control
this, you measure the start and end mass of the food and
calculate the mass that actually burned. To standardize this,
you can divide your calculated energy value by the change in
mass to give you the change in mass per gram of food
(which will allow you to compare values fairly between
different food samples)
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You need to know the specific sources and functions of the

following minerals and vitamins

Vitamin / Mineral Function

Vitamin A Present in fish, cheese and eggs. It forms an
essential part of the pigment in rods and
cones
that detects light. Lack of Vitamin A can lead
to
blindness.
Vitamin C Present in citrus fruit. It forms an essential
part of collagen protein, which makes up
skin,
hair, gums and bones. Lack of Vitamin C
causes
scurvy.
Present in fish, but made naturally by our
Vitamin D body
when sunlight shines on the skin. It is
essential
for regulating the growth of bones. Lack
of
Vitamin D can cause rickets.
Present in milk, cheese & dairy foods. It
Calcium is
essential for bone growth and muscles. Lack
of
calcium can lead to osteoporosis.
Present in red meat and some vegetables
Iron (e.g.
spinach). Is part of haemoglobin. Lack of
iron
causes anaemia.

Digestive System:
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The purpose of digestion is to break food into molecules that

are small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream. There
are two types of digestion;

Mechanical Digestion: digestion by physically breaking food

into smaller pieces (i.e. not using enzymes). Carried out by;
- mouth and teeth chewing food
- stomach churning food
Chemical Digestion: digestion using enzymes
You need to know the following enzymes;

Where it is
Where it works Enzyme Substrate Products
made

Salivary Glands Mouth Amylase Starch Maltose

Stomach cells Stomach Protease Protein Amino Acids

Liver Small Intestine Bile Salts Fat Fat droplets

Amylase Starch Maltose

Protease Protein Amino Acids
Pancreas Small Intestine
Lipase Fat Glycerol & Fatty
acids
Small Intestine Small Intestine Maltase Maltose Glucose
Protease Protein Amino Acids

Bile salts are not technically enzymes. They are made in the
liver and stored in the gall bladder. They help by
emulsifying lipid (i.e. turning large fat droplets into lots of
tiny droplets). This increases the surface area, which helps
lipase actually break the lipid down.

Bile also has a second job. Bile is alkali, which is important for
neutralizing stomach acid as soon as it leaves the stomach.
Stomach acid is important because it kills any bacteria that
enter the stomach. Stomach acid does not play a significant
role in digestion.
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Key Ideas:

Ingestion: taking food into the digestive system

Digestion: breaking food down into molecules small enough

to be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Absorption: taking molecules into the bloodstream. This

happens almost entirely in the small intestine
(ileum)

Assimilation: using food molecules to build new molecules in

our bodies. I.e. the food molecule physically
becomes part of our body.

Egestion: Removing unwanted food from the digestive system

(having a poo!). This is not excretion,
because the unwanted food has never,
technically, been inside the body.

Peristalsis: the contraction of muscle in the intestine wall

behind a bolus of food (ball of food). This
pushes the bolus through the intestine.

Small intestine adaptations:

Adaptation Explanation
The intestine wall in thin, which speeds the
Thin wall rate
of diffusion of molecules into the blood
This helps carry absorbed molecules away
Rich blood supply from
the intestine quickly. This means there is
always
a low concentration of food molecules in the
blood, which maintains a high
concentration
gradient
Intestine length Roughly 7m long, which increases the surface
area
Surface Area Villi and microvilli increase the surface area
of
the small intestine by 1000x
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f) Respiration

Respiration is the process that releases energy into every

living cell of every organism. The energy is essential for
keeping the cell alive as it powers processes like protein
synthesis, growth, repair, division etc.

Carbon
Oxygen + Glucose → Dioxide + Water
6O2 + C6H12O6 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Some cells have the ability to respire without using oxygen.

This is called anaerobic respiration. Only liver and muscle
cells can do this in humans. Anaerobic respiration allows the
cell to carry on working despite there being a shortage of
oxygen (this is very useful in muscle cells – particularly if you
are running for your life!)

Glucose → Lactic Acid

(interest only – don’t
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CHOHCOOH learn)

Anaerobic respiration produces Lactic Acid, which is

poisonous. Lactic acid builds up inside muscle cells and quickly
leads to muscle fatigue and cramp. Eventually the muscle cell
will stop working.

During recovery the lactic acid is transported to the liver via

the bloodstream. The liver breaks the lactic acid into CO 2 and
water. Oxygen is required for this, which is called the Oxygen
Debt.
Yeast also respire anaerobically, except they do not produce
lactic acid like humans. Instead they make ethanol. This type
of anaerobic respiration is also called alcoholic
fermentation. It is used in the baking and brewing processes.

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

(interest
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 only)

You need to know an experiment that shows that living

organisms produce CO2 through respiration. The best example
is to suspend some maggots or seeds near the top of a test
tube sealed with a bung (suspend the maggots / seeds in a
wire mesh). A small amount
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of lime water in the bottom of the test tube will turn milky
over time, indicating that CO2 has been produced.

g) Gas exchange
Gas Exchange in Flowering Plants:

Remind yourself of the structure of the leaf

(Section 2e – Nutrition in Flowering
Plants).

Remember that CO2 and O2 diffuse in and out of leaves

through stomata. Remember that CO2 is used in
photosynthesis and produced by respiration, whereas O 2 is
used in respiration and produced in photosynthesis!

Both processes run all the time. So the net amount of

glucose the plant produces (i.e. the amount it gets to use for
growth etc) is governed by the formula;

Net Glucose = Total production – Amount used in

respiration

The amount the plant uses in respiration in nearly constant.

However, the total production is not. It is dependent on the
rate-limiting factors (i.e. light intensity, CO2 level, water
availability, temperature etc). In winter the net glucose
production is virtually zero, whereas in summer the net
glucose production is large.
Therefore, plants grow a lot during the summer and not
much during winter!
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Leaf Structure Adaptation for gas exchange

Air Spaces Increase the surface area inside the leaf to
maximise gas exchange across the surface of
the Spongy Mesophyll cells
Stoma Allow exchange of CO2 and O2
Mesophyll cells Have a large surface area and moist surfaces,
which speeds gas exchange
Leaf shape Leaves are thin, which increases diffusion
speeds and leaves also have a very large
surface
area, which also increases diffusion speed.
Stomata are spread out over leaves, which
Stomata distribution means
waste gases produced by the leaf can diffuse
away quickly, this stops the build-up of
excreted
products, which would slow gas exhange

You need to know an experiment which will show the effect of

light intensity on the rate of gas exchange. The best example
is to seal two leaves (still attached to the plant) in separate
plastic bags with some bicarbonate indicator solution. One of
the bags is black and the other is translucent. The leaf in the
black bag produces CO2 via respiration and the colour of the
bicarbonate indicator changes quickly to yellow. The leaf in the
translucent bag produces O2 via photosynthesis and the
bicarbonate indicator solution changes to red slowly.

Bicarbonate Indicator colours:

Red in the presence of O2

Yellow in the presence of CO2
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Gas Exchange in Humans:

Larynx (voicebox)

Thachea

Ribs
Bronchiole

Alveolus Bronchus

Intercostal Muscle

Thoracic Cavity
contained within
pleural
Diaphrag
membranes
m
How breathing works

Breathing in (inhaling) Breathing out (exhaling)

1. Intercostal muscles
contract, 1. Intercostal muscles relax, the
pulling the ribcage forwards ribcage moves inwards and
and out down
Diaphragm relaxes moving
2 . Diaphragm contracts moving 2. up
dow
n 3. The volume of the Thoracic
3 . The volume of the Thoracic Cavity decreases
Cavity
increases 4. The pressure in the Thoracic
4 . The pressure in the Thoracic Cavity increases
Cavity Air leaves the lungs to
decreases 5. equalize
5 . Air is drawn into the lungs to the pressure
equalize the
pressure
The entire process is passive, i.e.
Inhaling is an active process, i.e. it no
 energy is required as there is
requires energy for muscle no
contractio
n muscle contraction.
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Alveoli and their adaptations:

Adaptations for gas exchange:

- Alveolus is one cell thick

- Capillary wall is one cell thick

- Many alveoli produce a

huge surface area
- Alveoli wall is moist

- Breathing maintains a high

concentration gradient for
O2 and CO2

- Blood movement maintains a

high concentration gradient
for O2 and CO2

Smoking:

Cigarette smoke contains tar, nicotine, carcinogens, CO and

poisons

Chemical Effect
Blocks up alveoli, making gas exchange more
Tar difficult.
Also clogs up cilia (little hairs lining the lungs,
whose
job is to “wave” and remove mucus and
trapped
bacteria out of the lungs).
Speeds heart rate and damages arteries,
Nicotine causing
furring of artery walls (atherosclerosis). This
leads
to heart disease and vascular diseases. It is also
addictive.
Carcinogens Damages the DNA of alveoli cells. This can lead to
them reproducing faster than normal, which will
cause
a tumour to form. The tumour is the start of
cancer.
Attaches permanently to haemoglobin, reducing
Carbon Monoxide the
 ability of the blood to carry O2
Poisons The list is endless. There are over 5000 poisonous
chemicals in cigarette smoke (e.g. benzene,
arsenic,
lead, cyanide etc)
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You need to know an experiment that will show the effect of

exercise on humans. The easiest experiment is to take your
own heart rate, breathing rate and skin temperature at rest. Do
some exercise, then take the same measurements again. You’ll
find they’ve all increased. The reason for this is that your rate
of respiration has increased (to supply the muscles with extra
energy for contraction). In order to get respiration to happen
faster, you need more O2, so the breathing and heart rate
increase. Unfortunately, you also release more waste heat
energy, so your body heats up and you might have to start
sweating to cool it down again.

h) Transport

All organisms respire (well, nearly all, but according to your

syllabus they all do). Therefore, all organisms need to
exchange gases with their environment.

Unicellular organisms: exchange gases directly through their

cell membrane. They can do this because their surface area is
large compared to their volume (large SA:Vol ratio). They do
not need a circulatory system.

Multicellular organisms: cannot exchange gases directly

through their skin. Their surface area is very small compared
to their volume (small SA:Vol ratio); therefore, they need to
have specialized gas exchange organs (e.g. leaf, lung and gill)
and a circulatory system.

Transport in Flowering plants:

Plants have two different networks of tubes inside them;

Phloem: transports sucrose and amino acids up and down

the stem

Xylem: transports water and minerals up the stem

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Phloem and Xylem are arranged in separate bundles (vascular

bundles) inside the stem. The xylem is on the inside and the
phloem is on the outside. This arrangement is different in
roots (but you don’t need to know it)

Transport in the phloem is tricky, but fortunately not on your

syllabus. It is not the same as transport in the xylem, which
occurs by the process of transpiration.

Transpiration is the movement of water up a plant,

from the roots, through the stem and finally out
of the leaves.

In the Roots:

Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. The roots are full of
minerals, which artificially lower the concentration of water
inside the root cells, so water is always drawn into them from
the soil. This enables transpiration to happen even if the soil is
very dry. The roots take the minerals up against the
concentration gradient and is, therefore, an example of active
transport.

Root hair cells

increase the root’s
surface area
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In the Stem:

1. Water evaporates out of the top of the xylem

2. This generates a low pressure at the top of the xylem (a
mini vacuum, if you like)
3. This sucks water molecules up the xylem
4. This is called transpiration pull

Extension (not on syllabus, but very interesting…)

Water molecules are slightly charged (polar). The oxygen

atom is slightly negative and the hydrogens are slightly
positively charged. This means that water molecules tend to
stick to each other. Therefore, when transpiration pull sucks at
the water molecules in the top of the xylem, the entire column
of water moves up the xylem, not just the molecules at the
top!

In the leaf:

Water enters the leaf in xylem vessels in veins (basically,

another name for a leaf vascular bundle). The water moves by
osmosis into leaf mesophyll cells, where it evaporates into
the air spaces and finally diffuses out of the stomata into the
air.

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration:

Factor Effect on transpiration rate

Increasing temperature increases the kinetic
Temperature energy
of molecules. This makes diffusion, osmosis
(increases and
transpiration) evaporation happen faster
Humidity When the air is humid then there is more water
(decreases vapour in it. Humid air is less able to accept more
transpiration) water molecules by evaporation.
Wind blows water vapour away from the
Wind stoma,
(increases keeping the concentration gradient high.
transpiration)
Light causes stoma to open. Wider stoma can
Light intensity allow
(increases faster diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf.
transpiration)
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You need to know an experiment that can show the effect of

the above factors on the rate of transpiration. The best
experiment is a potometer, which measures how quickly a
little bubble of air moves up a glass tube attached to the
bottom of the stem. Adding a fan, changing the humidity,
increasing the temperature etc will all change the speed the
bubble moves up the tube.

Why do plants need water (why do they bother to transpire)?

- Used in photosynthesis (~10%)

- A solvent for transporting other things (e.g. minerals)
(~10%)
- Used in chemical reactions (~5%)
- A site of chemical reactions (~5%)
- Cooling the plant (~70%)
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Transport in Humans:

Blood consists of 4 main parts;

Plasma – mostly water used for transporting things around

the body (i.e. CO2 glucose, amino acids, other products of
digestion, urea, hormones and heat energy.

Red Blood Cells – adapted to carry O2 around the body. O2

attaches to haemoglobin protein, which the RBCs are filled with.
Other adaptations of RBCs include;

- Smooth edges
- Biconcave shape (increases surface area and allows folding)
- Made in huge quantities
- No nucleus (so more room for haemoglobin)

Platelets – help clot the blood. This stops blood loss and also
prevents microorganisms entering the body.

White Blood Cells – are part of the immune system. There

are two main types; macrophages and lymphocytes.

Macrophages (sometimes called

Phagoctyes) Lymphoctyes
Travel in the blood. They detect Stay in the lymph system (you don’t need
foreign bodies (i.e. foreign cells, to know what this is). They make antibody
proteins in large numbers.
toxins, cells infected with virus and Antibody
cancerous cells) and engulf
and proteins travel in the blood and stick
destroy them. to foreign objects. This helps
because;

1. foreign objects are stuck to

each other, stopping them
spreading
Macrophage
2. s can engulf many
foreign objects at the same
Engulfing and destroying is
called time, speeding up the killing
phagoctyosis process
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Extension (not technically on syllabus, but not sure…)

Plasma carries CO2 around the body. How?

- +
CO2 + H2O → HCO3 + H

The CO2 reacts with water molecules to produce the

Hydrogen Carbonate ion. In the lungs the reaction reverses
to produce CO2 again. CO2 is, therefore, carried as an
aqueous ion in the blood plasma.

The Human Heart:

You need to know;

1. the names of the 4 chambers of the heart
2. the names of the 2 arteries and 2 veins attached to the heart
3. The names of the two sets of valves in the heart

Aorta
Vena Cava

Pulmonary Artery

Semi-lunar Valve

Cuspid Valve

Vena Cava
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Contraction in the heart:

Remember, the atria contract first. The L & R atria

contract at the same time. The ventricles contract
second. The L & R Ventricles contract at the same time.

1. Blood enters the atria

2. Both atria start to contract, pushing the blood into the

ventricles through the open cuspid valves
3. When the ventricles are full they begin to contract
4. The cuspid valves shut to stop backflow

5. Blood is forced out of the heart into the circulatory

system through the open semi-lunar valves

6. When the ventricles finish contracting the S-L valves

shut, stopping backflow.

Blood has to pass through the heart twice to complete a full

circuit of the body (takes about 10 – 20sec). This is called a
double circulation.

During exercise adrenaline is released from the adrenal

glands. Adrenaline has two effects of the heart;

1. Makes it beat faster

2. Makes each beat harder

The combined effect is to massively increase the volume of

blood pumped by the heart per minute.

Extension (summarizes point above mathematically )

Cardiac Output = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

CO = Volume of blood pumped per minute

HR = No of beats per minute
SV = Volume of blood ejected per beat
Adrenaline increases both HR & SV, therefore, increasing CO
lots
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes
Artery, Vein and Capillary:

Artery:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue

lumen (blood)

0.1-10mm

Arteries carry high pressure blood away from the heart.

Key Points:
1. Thick muscle layer to withstand high pressure blood
2. Elastic tissue allows artery to stretch when blood is
forced into it
3. Protective collagen layer
4. Round shape
5. Relatively small lumen

Vein:

collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
semilunar valve
lumen (blood)
0.1-20mm
Veins carry low pressure blood towards the heart.
Key Points:
1. Thin muscle layer (low pressure blood)
2. Valve to stop backflow
3. Protective collagen layer
4. Not a round shape (wall not thick enough to hold shape)
5. Large lumen (decreases effect of friction)
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Capillary:
Small hole
endothelium cell

red blood cell

8 _m
Capillaries are adapted for exchange – they are not connected
directly to the heart.
Key Points:

1. Walls are one cell thick (cells are called endothelial

cells)
2. Lumen is the same width as one RBC (therefore more of
RBC in contact with wall, therefore smaller diffusion
distance)
3. No muscle or elastic tissue
4. Tiny (compare the scales and remind yourself what a чm
is)

Something extra you’re supposed to know:

The vessel taking blood to the kidneys is the renal artery

The vessel taking blood away from the kidneys is the renal
vein

The vessel taking blood to the liver is the hepatic portal

vein The vessel taking blood away from the liver is the
hepatic vein

Hepatic Portal Vein? The blood that goes to the liver comes
directly from the gut, not from the heart, therefore, it’s not
an artery but a portal vein.

Why does this happen? It makes sense to send all blood

from the gut directly to the liver because if there are any
poisons in what you’ve eaten they get broken down by the
liver before going around the body. Cunning, eh?
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i) Excretion

Excretion: the removal of waste products of

metabolism from living
organisms

Excretion in Flowering plants:

CO2 and O2 are excreted by leaves via the stomata. O2 is

excreted during photosynthesis and CO2 is excreted during
respiration

Excretion in Humans:

Humans have 3 main excretory organs;

1. Lungs – excrete CO2 and H2O

2. Skin – excretes H2O
3. Kidneys – excrete H2O, urea, excess minerals and
other wastes.

Extension - what’s urea? (not technically on syllabus)

We need to have a certain amount of protein in our diet to

supply the amino acids we need to make our own body
proteins. However, we usually eat far more that we need, so
we must excrete the rest.

Problem: when amino acids are broken down they make

ammonia, which is very toxic.
Solution: the liver turns the ammonia into urea, which is
harmless.
Therefore urea is a product of the metabolism of
amino acids.

The Kidney:

The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. There are

millions of nephrons in a single kidney.
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Nephrons have 2 jobs;

Excretion - filtering the blood and reclaiming the “good bits”

Osmoregulation - balancing the water level of the body
(water
 homeostasis)

A Nephron:

Glomerulus
PCT

Bowman’s Capsule

DCT
Efferent Vein
(join to form renal vein)

Collecting Duct

Afferent Artery
(branch of renal
artery)

Loop of Henlé
You need to know all of these
names!
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How the nephron works:

1. Dirty blood enters the kidney via the afferent artery

2. The artery splits up into a ball of capillaries, called the

glomerulus

3. The blood is under high pressure, so all small substances

are forced out of the holes in the capillary walls. Only
large proteins and cells stay behind.

4. The small substances (glucose, minerals, urea, water etc)

move into the bowman’s capsule, which wraps around
the glomerulus

5. The capsule leads into the PCT, which re-absorbs all

glucose via active transport (i.e. it selectively removes
the glucose from the nephron and returns it to the blood)

6. The PCT leads to the Loop of Henlé, which re-absorbs the

water by osmosis

7. The Loop leads to the DCT, which re-absorbs all minerals,

amino acids and other “useful” substances by active
transport

8. The remaining fluid (containing excess water, excess

minerals and urea) passes into the collecting duct

9. The collecting ducts from other nephrons join and form

the ureter, which leads to the bladder

10. The fluid is now called urine and is stored in the

bladder for excretion

11. The bladder takes the urine to the outside world via
the urethra

This is the first role of the nephron (it’s role in excretion).

Remember, the nephron has a second role in
osmoregulation.

Blood water levels are sensed by the hypothalamus in the

brain. When water levels are too low, the hypothalamus tells
the pituitary gland (also in the brain) to release the hormone
Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
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When blood water levels are too low;

1. Hypothalamus detects
2. Pituitary gland releases ADH into bloodstream
3. ADH travels all over the body

4. Only the cells in the collecting duct of the nephrons of

the kidney have receptors for ADH, so only they respond
to the hormone
5. The collecting duct becomes more permeable
6. Water is draw out of the collecting duct back into the
blood
7. Water levels return to normal

When water levels are too high exactly the opposite happens
(i.e. the pituitary releases less ADH)

j) Coordination and response

Homeostasis: the maintenance of a constant internal
environment

All organisms try and maintain a constant internal

environment. This is called homeostasis. Examples of
homeostasis include the regulation of water levels (see above)
and the regulation of body temperature (see below).

Humans have two systems which carry out homeostasis;

Nervous System – immediate responses to stimuli (sec - hours)

Endocrine System – long term responses to stimuli (hours -
months)

Both systems respond to stimuli (i.e. events that change the

internal environment). Both systems have a detector (which
detects the stimulus) and an effector, which carries out a
response to correct the effect of the stimulus. The message
from detector to effector is carried either via an electrical
nerve impulse or as a hormone, depending which homeostatic
system is being used.
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Coordination in Humans:

Nerves & the Nervous system:

The nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal

cord. Sense organs (e.g. pain receptors in skin, or
photoreceptors in the eye) are linked to the brain via nerves.

Stimulation of the sense organs results in an electrical signal (a

nerve impulse) being sent along the nerve to the brain.
Nerve impulses are very quick (~120m/s), allowing rapid
responses to the stimulus

Some sense organs are not connected directly to the brain.

This is a defense mechanism allowing almost instant responses
to threatening or dangerous stimuli (e.g. pain). These instant
responses are controlled by nerves in the spine, rather than
the brain and are called reflexes

A reflex arc:

1. A stimulus is detected by a receptor

2. The receptor initiates a nerve impulse in the sensory
nerve
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

3. The sensory nerve (which runs from the receptor to the

spine) passes the message onto an interneurone in the
spine
4. The interneurone passes the message on the a motor nerve

5. The motor nerve (which runs from the spine to a muscle

in the same limb as the receptor) passes the message
onto the effector muscle
6. The effector muscle carries out the response.

The entire process (stimulus to response) happens in less than

a second and does not involve the brain. The purpose of the
interneurone is to inform the brain of what has happened.

Reflexes in the eye:

Structure Function
Refracts (bends) light entering the
Cornea eye.

Controls the amount of light entering

Iris
the eye by adjusting the size of the
pupil.

Pupil Hole which allows light into the eye.

Allows fine focusing by changing

Lens shape.
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Changes the shape of the lens by

Ciliary muscle
altering the tension on the suspensory
ligaments.

Contains light-sensitive rod and cone

Retina
cells which convert light energy into a
nerve impulse (i.e. transduce energy).

Area where most light is focused, very

Fovea
sensitive to colour (most cones here).

Optic nerve Transmits nerve impulses to the brain,

where they are interpreted.
Sclera
Outer protective layer of eye

Choroid Contains blood vessels

Light is detected by photoreceptors in the eye. These

receptors form the retina (the inner lining of the eye). There
are two types of photoreceptor;
- Rods, which see only in black & white
- Cones, which see in either red, blue or green (3 types of cone)

There are two types of reflex you need to know about in the eye;
1. Responding to different light levels
2. Focusing the eye

Responding to different light levels:

In the dark In the light

1. Photoreceptors detect 6. Photoreceptors detect
2 . Reflex occurs 7. Reflex occurs
3 . Muscles in the Iris are the 8. Muscles in the Iris are the
effectors effectors
- Radial muscles in Iris contract - Radial muscles in Iris relax
- Circulatory muscles in Iris
relax - Circulatory muscles in Iris
4 . Pupil diameter opens contract
5 . More light enters the eye 9. Pupil diameter closes
10. Less light enters the eye
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Focusing the eye:

Far Object Near Object

1. Incoming light is parallel 5. Incoming light is divergent
2 . Ciliary muscles relax 6. Ciliary muscles contract
3 . Suspensory ligaments are Suspensory ligaments are
tight 7. loose
4 . Lens is pulled thin 8. Lens becomes fat
5 . Light is refracted less 9. Light is refracted more

Light converges on the retina Light converges on the retina

Controlling Skin temperature:

Too hot Too cold

When you are hot the following When you are cold the following
happen (controlled by reflexes); happen (controlled by reflexes);

1. Hairs on skin lie flat (less 1. Hairs on skin stand up (more

insulating air trapped) insulating air trapped)
2 . Sweating starts 2. Sweating stops
Shivering starts, so
3 . Blood is diverted close to the 3. muscles
respire more, producing
surface of the skin (more heat more
radiation) heat
Blood is diverted away from
4. the
surface of the skin (less heat
radiation)
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

How is blood diverted?

Arterioles in the skin can open and close in response to nerve

messages.
Vasoconstriction – arteriole closes
Vasodilation – arteriole opens

vasoconstriction vasodilation

vasoconstriction
vasodilation

The net effect is to open arterioles under the surface

of the skin when hot and close them when
cold.

Random Hormones you need to know:

Hormone Source Effect

ADH Pituitary Regulated blood osmoregulation
Adrenaline Adrenal glands Increases heart rate and breathing rate
during exercise (more O2 for respiration)
Insulin Pancreas Decreases blood glucose level after a meal
Triggers puberty in boys (secondary
Testosterone Testes sexual characteristics)
Progesterone Ovaries Maintains uterus lining and (indirectly)
causes menstruation
Oestrogen Ovaries Triggers puberty in girls.
Stimulates growth of uterus lining each
month and (indirectly) causes ovulation

It might be worth your while looking these up in more detail…

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Coordination in Flowering plants:

Plants also respond to stimuli. As plants don’t have nerves

their responses are limited to hormones only. Plants respond to
the following stimuli

- Gravity. Roots grow towards gravitational pull and stems

grow away. This is Geotropism.
- Water. Roots grow towards water. This is Hydrotropism.
- Light. Shoots grow towards light. This is Phototropism.

Phototropism is controlled by hormones released by the

growing tip of the shoot. Only the tip makes the hormone. If
you remove the tip, the shoot stops growing. The hormone
made by the tip is called
Auxin.

You need to know an experiment that demonstrates

Geotropism. The best example is to grow a runner bean seed in
a jam jar. Let the root start to grow downwards then rotate the
seed 90. The root will then start growing at 90 to its original
direction. A more advanced (and less practical) experiment
that shows geotropism is that seeds germinating inside
spacecraft have roots that grow randomly!

You also need to know an experiment that demonstrates

Phototropism. The best example is to repeat the example
above, but look at the growth of the shoot!
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Section 3: Reproduction and inheritance

a) Reproduction
There are two types of reproduction;

Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes (sex cells) fuse to

create a new offspring that is genetically different to the
parents. Two parents are involved.

Asexual: reproduction without fusion of gametes. It involves

one parent only and produces offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent.

Two definitions to learn:

Fertilization: the process in which a male and a female

gamete fuse to form a zygote

Zygote: a cell that is the result of fertilization. It will divide by

mitosis to form an embryo.

Reproduction in Flowering plants:

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2
 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Part Function
Petal Colourful part of the flower. Attracts insects in
insect-pollinated
plants
Anther Male part of the plant. Makes pollen.

Filament Joins the anther to the rest of the flower.

Stigma Female part of the plant. Receives pollen.

Ovary Contains the ovules

Eggs – female
Ovule gametes

Pollen Male gamete

Makes nectar to attract insects in insect-

Nectary pollinated
plants
Sepal Protects the flower when it is in bud

Wind Pollinated Insect Pollinated

- Anthers are large and - Anthers are small and inside
outside the flower the flower
- Stigma is large and outside - Stigma is small and inside
the flower the flower
- Tiny colourless petals - Large colourful petals
- Pollen made in huge - Has a nectary
quantities
- No nectary
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Pollination: the deposition of pollen from the anther of one

flower onto the stigma of a different flower of the same
species.

When pollination occurs, the pollen grows a pollen tube down

the stigma of the flower. The pollen tube carries the nucleus
of the pollen into the ovary, where it fuses with an ovule
(fertilisation).

When fertilization has happen the flower will change in the

following ways;

1. Petals die and fall away

2. Fertilized ovule turns into a seed
3. Ovary may fill with sugars and turn into a fruit

In order to germinate (grow into a new plant) seeds need the

following conditions;

- Presence of water
- Presence of O2 (seed needs to respire)
- Correct temperature (recall enzymes work at optimum temp)

When a seed germinates the cells inside it start to grow rapidly

and form the new shoot and root. The seed contains a limited
store of carbohydrate and lipid, which it uses as a fuel for
respiration to provide the energy for growth. During this stage
the seed must produce leaves so it can begin to
photosynthesize. The danger is that the seed will run out of
stored energy before it makes leaves. If this happens it will die.

Plants can also reproduce asexually;

Natural methods Artificial methods

Runners – a root from one Cuttings – a branch from one plant
plant is
grows a separate shoot, which
grows removed and planted in soil. It will
into a new plant. Eventually the grow new roots and become a new
original root connecting the two plant.
plants breaks down, separating See also grafting (not mentioned
the on
plants
syllabus)
See also rhizomes, corms, bulbs
and
tubers (not mentioned on syllabus)
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes
Reproduction in Humans:

Male reproductive System:

Female reproductive system:

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Pregnancy:

When the egg and sperm fuse (fertilisation) the resulting

zygote begins to divide by mitosis (see next section) and
becomes an embryo. The embryo quickly develops a
placenta, which brings the mother’s blood supply very close
to the foetus’ blood supply. The two blood streams never mix
(otherwise the mother’s white blood cells would attack the
foetus!), but they are close enough for diffusion to occur

Diffuse from foetus to mother - CO2, water, urea

Diffuse from mother to foetus- O2, glucose, amino acids,
minerals

The placenta is adapted for diffusion in much the same way as

other exchange organs, i.e. it has;
- Huge surface area (it has lots of villi-like projections)
- Only a few cells thick
- Blood supplies keep the concentration gradients high
- Counter-current system (this one’s an A-level idea… look it
up?!)

As well as the placenta the embryo also develops an amnion

(membrane sac, which fills up with amniotic fluid). This helps
cushion the embryo and protects it.

Reproductive Hormones:

During puberty boys make testosterone in their testes and

girls make oestrogen in their ovaries.

Testosterone:
- Causes testes to drop & penis to enlarge
- Triggers spermatogenesis (sperm manufacture)
- Causes growth of pubic and body hair
- Causes larynx to enlarge (voice deepens)
- Causes muscles to grow
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Oestrogen:
- Triggers menstruation to begin
- Causes maturation of vagina
- Causes breasts to grow
- Causes growth of pubic and body hair
- Causes hips to widen

Menstrual Cycle: Oestrogen

the
Causes endometrium
LH
FSH (uterus lining) to grow.
Made by the Made by the pituitary
pituitary. Inhibits the release of
instead of FSH
FHS (so no more eggs
Causes the ova (egg) to
Cause
ripen a
ripen) s the egg to be
inside follicle in
(ovulatio
released n) on
the ovary.
Day
14
Ova starts to release
oestrogen as it ripens

NB.
Period You only need to
know Ovulation
about Oestrogen
Corpus luteum dies. and
Egg is released into the
Progesterone levels fall Progesterone
fallopian tube, where
it
Endometrium is no
longer stands the best chance
maintaine
d and it falls of being fertilised
away (this is a period)

FSH no longer inhibited.

Progesteron
e Corpus
Luteum
Maintains endometrium.
The empty follicle turns
Inhibits FSH release into a corpus luteum,
whic
(don’t want an egg h starts to make
release
d as there is progesterone
already one
waiting!)
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

b) Inheritance

The nucleus of every cell contains DNA. DNA is a genetic

code. Each instruction in the code is called a gene. Each gene
tells the cell how to make a specific protein. The proteins are
what control the cell (e.g. enzymes are proteins, so are
structural proteins like collagen). Sometimes more than one
version of a gene occur. The different versions are called
alleles (i.e. we all have the gene for iris pigment, but there are
different colours of iris pigment, same gene but different
alleles)

DNA is a very long molecule. To stop it from breaking it is

coiled up inside the nucleus. The coiled up DNA forms a
chromosome. Humans have 23 different chromosomes inside
their cells. We have two copies of each chromosome,
therefore, each cells contains 46 chromosomes. The haploid
number is the number of different chromosomes (i.e. 23) and
the diploid number is the total number of chromosomes in
the cell (i.e. 46)

Key Word Summary:

This topic, more than any other, confuses people. Learn

these thoroughly!

DNA: A genetic code

Gene: One instruction in the code telling a cell how to make a

specific protein
Allele: A different version of a gene
Chromosome: Coiled up DNA

Haploid number: the number of different chromosomes in a

cell (23)
Diploid number: the total number of chromosomes in a cell
(46)
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Cell Division:

There are two types of cell division;

- Mitosis – used for growth, repair & asexual reproduction
- Meiosis – used to produce gametes for sexual reproduction

Mitosi
s Meiosis
Produces 4
1. Produces 2 daughter cells 1. gametes
2 . Daughter cells are diploid Daughter cells are haploid
(i.e. 2. (i.e.
have 23 pairs of
chromosomes) have only 23 chromosomes)
3 . Daughter cells are Gamete geneticall
genetically 3. s are y
identical to each other different to each other
4 . Daughter cells are Gamete genetical
genetically 4. s are ly
identical to parent cell different to parent cell
Occurs in two
5 . Occurs in one stage 5. stages
6 . Happens everywhere in Happens in reproductive
the 6. organs
body only

Haploid
Gamete 23 23 Haploid Gamete

Fertilisation

46 Diploid Zygote

Therefore, fertilization produces a diploid cell (which will grow

by mitosis) from two haploid gametes.
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Each parent gives only one of each of the pairs of

chromosomes to their gametes. A pair of chromosomes will
have exactly the same genes on them, but not necessarily the
same alleles! This is the source of genetic variation in
gametes.

Alleles for the same gene can be;

- Dominant – always affect the phenotype (allele

represented with capital letter)

- Recessive – never affect the phenotype in the presence of

a dominant allele (allele represented with lower case letter)

- Co-dominant – affect the phenotype equally in the

presence of another co-dominant allele (both alleles have
capital letters)

Inheritance:

Inheritance patterns are always given using a genetic

diagram. If this comes up you get loads of marks for it, but
only if you use the genetic diagram!

A Genetic
Diagram
♀ ♂
Parents’ Brown
Phenotype: Brown eyes eyes
B
Parents’ Genotype: b Bb

Gametes: B b B b

B b
F1 Genotype:
B BB Bb

b Bb bb

F1 Phenotype: 3 : 1 Brown eyes : blue eyes

Note the gametes are always put in circles

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More Key Words:

Phenotype: physical appearance

Genotype: the combination of alleles an individual possesses
Heterozygous: two different alleles in genotype (i.e. B b)
Homozygous: both alleles the same in genotype (i.e. B B or b
b)

rd
Inheritance of gender is governed by the 23 chromosome.
Boys have an X and a Y, girls have two X chromosomes

A Genetic
Diagram
♀ ♂
Parents’
Phenotype: Mother Father

Parents’ Genotype: XX XY

Gametes: X X XY

X X
F1 Genotype:
X XX XX

Y XY XY

F1 Phenotype: 2:2 = 1:1 Boy : Girl

Note the gender of the baby is determined by the

sperm!

Variation:

Variation within a species is produced by two factors

1. The environment
2. The genotype.

New alleles arise in the population through mutation

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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Mutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a

gene.

The mutated gene will therefore produce a slightly different

protein to the original non-mutant gene. The new protein
might;

1. Work just as well as it did before (neutral mutation)

2. Work better than before (beneficial mutation)
3. Work worse / not at all (harmful mutation)

Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the

individual. Individuals with this kind of mutated allele are more
likely to survive, reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the
basis of
Natural Selection

Natural Selection:

Darwin came up with this theory.

st
Darwin’s 1 Observation: Not all individuals survive
nd
Darwin’s 2 Observation: There is variation in a species

Darwin’s Conclusion: The better adapted individuals

survive
(the “fittest”) and reproduce,
passing
their alleles onto the next
generation.

Over time this process leads to evolution.

Evolution: the formation of a new species from an original

species

Mutations can be inherited or happen on their own. The

frequency that mutation occurs naturally can be increased by
exposure to radiation (e.g. gamma rays, X-rays and
ultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (e.g. chemicals
in tobacco).
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

Section 4: Ecology and the environment

a) The organism in the environment
More lovely definitions for you to learn!

Population: all the individuals of a particular species within a

defined area
Community: a group of different populations living in the same
area

Habitat: the physical, chemical and biological environment in

which an organism lives

Ecosystem: a community of living things and the environment

in which they live

How it is
Quadrat used

A quadrat can be used to calculate the total

population of a species (e.g. snails). Simply
count the number of individuals in the quadrat.
This technique only works for large organisms
which can be distinguished as individuals (not
always easy for plants, e.g. grass!)

A quadrat can be used to calculate the

percentage cover of a species (e.g. moss).
The quadrat is divided into 100 smaller squares.
The percentage cover of the quadrat is simply
the number of squares filled with the species.

A quadrat can be used to calculate the

percentage frequency of a species (e.g.
daisies in a field). The quadrat is divided into
100 smaller squares. You simply count a 1 for
each square the species is in and a 0 for those
where it is absent. This gives you an indication
of the frequency of the species, it does not tell
you the total population.
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

In ecology we usually need to sample (this is because it is not

practical to count all of the species we’re interested in e.g. one
cannot count all of the grass plants in a field!). Ecologists use
quadrats to sample from.

Quadrats can be any size you like (e.g. 5km by 5km sampling
zebra heards in Africa, or 5cm by 5cm sampling lichen on a
tree), but there are 3 different methods of using a quadrat. You
need to be able to explain how you would use quadrats to find
out information about specific species in their habitat.

b) Feeding relationships

Food chains are used to show the relationships between

species in a habitat. E.g.

Fox The secondary Consumer (eats the Primary

Consumer)

Rabbit The Primary Consumer (eats the producer)

Grass The Primary Producer (all food chains start with

this)

Each level in a food chain is called a Trophic Level

Food chains can be built up into complex food webs. The

difference between food chains and food webs is that food
webs have branches, chains never do.

A Pyramid of Numbers

Foxes
Rabbits
Grass

This shows the populations (to scale) of the species in the

chain
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Sometimes a Pyramid of numbers can be inverted (i.e. have a

tiny base). This occurs if there is a parasitic relationship in
the food chain i.e. one tree, but many caterpillars eating the
leaves!

To stop this a pyramid of biomass is more frequently used. This

always has a pyramidal shape.

A Pyramid of Biomass

Bats
Caterpillars
Tree

Biomass – the mass of the organic material an organism is

made from (i.e. dry it out totally and weigh it, water doesn’t
count!)

We can also represent the energy flow in a food chain using a

Pyramid of Energy Transfer.

A Pyramid of Energy Transfer

Fox

Rabbits

Grass

The Sun

This gives an indication of the huge amount of energy that is

not passed on to the next trophic level. This is because at each
level energy is wasted on;

- Respiration (most of it as waste heat)

- Undigested / egested food
- Used in movement
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c) CyclesEdexelIGCSEwithinRevsion ecosystemsnotes
The Water Cycle:

Key ideas – Evaporation, Condensation,

Precipitation &
Transpiration (rather unhelpfully not shown on this diagram)
The Carbon Cycle:

Key ideas – Respiration, Photosynthesis,

Decomposition &
Combustion
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The Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen in
air (N2
gas)

Denitrifying Bacteria Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

Nitrogen in soil Decomposition Nitrogen in

+
(Ammonium – NH4 ) (bacteria + fungi) animals (protein)

Nitrifying Bacteria Assimilation

Nitrogen in soil Active Nitrogen in plants

-
(Nitrate – NO3 ) Transport (protein)

This is not particularly easy to understand. You need to know

the roles of all the different bacteria. There are 4;

- Decomposers – turn nitrogen in protein into ammonium

+
(NH4 )
+
- Denitrifying Bacteria – turn ammonium (NH4 ) into N2
+
- Nitrifying bacteria – turn ammonium (NH4 ) into nitrate
-
(NO3 )
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria – turn N2 into ammonium
+
(NH4 )

Extension - leguminous plants (not technically on syllabus)

All of the above bacteria are naturally present in the soil. The
only exception to this is that some Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
(e.g. Rhizobium) live in the roots of some plants. These plants
are called legumes (e.g. peas, clover etc). They have a
symbiotic relationship with the bacteria i.e. both the bacteria
and the plant benefit from working together.
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d) Human influence on the environment

You need to know about the following environmental problems;
- Acid rain
- Greenhouse effect
- Eutrophication
- Deforestation

Acid rain:

SO2, CO2 and NOx (oxides of nitrogen) dissolve in rain to form

Sulphuric Acid, Carbonic Acid and Nitric Acid. This falls as acid
rain, which destroys soil, pollutes waterways and causes
erosion

Greenhouse Effect:

Incoming radiation passes through the atmosphere and hits

the Earth, where it is absorbed. The Earth re-emits the
radiation as longer-wavelength Infra-Red radiation. This is the
problem. IR radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases on its
way out of the atmosphere. This traps the heat in the
atmosphere.

The greenhouse gases are: water vapour, CO2, NOX,

methane and
CFCs
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 Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes
Greenhouse Gas Source
Water Vapour Humans haven’t had much effect on this – its a
naturally occurring greenhouse gas
CO2 Released from burning fossil fuels
NOX Released from burning fossil fuels
Produced by cows (yes, cow farts) and rice
Methane paddy
fields. As agriculture becomes more and
more
intensive methane emissions
rise
Used to be used as coolant in fridges and
CFCs propellant
in aerosols. Now banned, but there are still lots
of
old fridges in scrap yards leaking CFCs

The theory goes that the greenhouse effect is causing

global warming, which is bad. Global warming might cause;

- Polar ice cap melting

- Sea levels rising
- Extinction of species living in cold climates
- Changes in rainfall (both droughts and flooding)
- Changes in species distribution (i.e. tropical species
spreading, like mosquitoes)

Eutrophication:

1. Nitrate enters a waterway (sewage or fertilizer run-off)

2. Nitrate causes algal bloom
3. Algae block out light for plants living on the waterway bed
4. These plants respire as they can’t photosynthesize
5. O2 levels fall
6. Fish die

7. Dead fish are decomposed by bacteria, which themselves

respire, using up more O2
8. pH levels fall as decomposition produces acids
9. Everything dies. Waterway is incapable of supporting life
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Deforestation:

Cutting down trees and not replacing them is bad. It causes;

- Leaching of soil minerals

- Soil erosion (no roots holding soil together)
- Desertion (new deserts forming)
- Disturbance of the water cycle (less transpiration can lead
to flooding and / or drought)
- Increase in CO2 levels
- Decrease in O2 production

Over-fishing and over-grazing can cause food chains to

collapse.

Section 5: The use of Biological resources

a) Food production
Food Production using Crop plants:

Greenhouses and polythene tunnels raise the temperature

(by the greenhouse effect… guess why it’s called that), which
increases the rate of photosynthesis, which increases crop
yield

Yield - The total mass of the edible part of crop

If the level of CO2 in the greenhouse is increased the yield will

further increase (remember, CO2 is a limiting factor in p/s)

If fertilizers are added (specifically those that contain

Potasium, Nitrate and Phosphate– KNP fertilisers) then
the yield will increase even more!
Potassium – essential for plant membranes
Nitrate – essential for making plant proteins
Phosphate – essential for DNA and membranes
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Pest Control can also be used to increase Yield. This can be

done either using pesticides or biological controls.

Pesticide – a chemical that kills pests (anything that eats your

crop), but does not harm the crop plant

Biological control – introducing a biological organism which

will eat the pest, but not the crop plant (e.g. birds are
sometimes encouraged inside greenhouses because they eat
caterpillars)

Food Production using Microorganisms:

Yeast:

Remember that yeast are capable of respiring aerobically

(producing CO2 and water) and anaerobically (producing CO2
and ethanol). Yeast are therefore used in the brewing industry.

In order to make beer barley seeds are allowed to germinate

by soaking the barley seeds in warm water. This is called
malting. The germinating barley seeds break down their
carbohydrate stores, releasing sugar. After a couple of days
the barley seeds are gently roasted (which kills them) and put
into a fermenter with yeast. The yeast use the sugar for
anaerobic respiration and produce beer.

You need to know an experiment that shows the production of

CO2 by yeast, in different conditions. The best example is to
mix a yeast suspension with a sucrose solution and place in a
boiling tube with a delivery tube attached. Any CO 2 produced
can be collected over water or bubbled through lime water.

Lactobacillus:

Lactobacillus bacterium is This bacterium is used to turn milk

into yoghurt. It uses lactose sugar in the milk to produce
lactic acid by anaerobic respiration. The lactic acid affects
the milk proteins, making the yoghurt curdle (go solid) and
giving it the characteristic tart taste.
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A Fermenter:

Important details:

Cooling jacket – keeps the microorganisms at optimum

temperature. They will produce lots of heat through
respiration, therefore need to be cooled!

Paddles – keep stirring the mixture. This stops waste products

from building up and keeps the air evenly mixed

Nutrient medium – supplies the microorganisms with fuel for

respiration

Sterile Air supply – supplies clean O2 for respiration (note:

this is not required in anaerobic fermentation processes)

Data-logger – monitors temperature and pH, keeps the

fermenter at optimum conditions

You don’t need to be able to draw this out, but you

could be asked to label a diagram of a fermenter or be
asked to explain the function of the various parts of a
fermenter.
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Food Production using Fish Farming:

Fish are farmed in fish farms because they are a good source
of protein. Fish farms keep lots of fish in very small tanks to
minimize space requirements. To stop the fish fighting with
each other these precautions are taken;

- Different fish species are kept in separate tanks. This stops

competition between species of fish (intraspecific
competition)

- Fish of different genders are kept separately (unless they

are being bred)

- Fish of different ages are kept separately. This stops

competition between fish of the same species
(interspecific competition)

As with the fermentation, the quality of the water is closely

monitored and the fish are continuously supplied with fresh
sterile water so that wastes are washed out constantly. The
fish are kept in sterile water to limit disease, which would
spread very quickly in the cramped ponds.

The fish are often over-fed, or fed with protein-rich food.

Sometimes hormones are added to the water to speed
growth. In addition to this only the biggest and most healthy
fish are allowed to breed. This is an example of selective
breeding.

b) Selective Breeding

Selective Breeding – individuals with desired characteristics

are bred together to produce offspring which express both
desired characteristics.

Examples of this are: increased yield and reduction of stem

length in wheat and increased yield of meat and milk in
cattle.
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c) Genetic Modification (Genetic engineering)

The structure of DNA:

DNA is a double-stranded molecule. The strands coil up to

form a double-helix. The strands are linked by a series of
paired bases.

Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A)

Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)

The bases are a crucial part of DNA. The sequence of bases is

what created the genetic code!

Process of genetic engineering:

The example you need to know is the creation of E coli

bacteria that makes human insulin.

However, a more fun example is Alba, the

glow-in-the-dark bunny that makes the
protein luminol (taken from a jellyfish!)
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Edexcel IGCSE Revision notes

1. Extract target gene (human insulin gene) from donor cell.

This is done by cutting the gene out of human DNA using
a restriction enzyme
2. Cut open the bacterial DNA, also using the restriction
enzyme

3. Insert the gene and “stitch the DNA together” using DNA
Ligase enzyme

4. Get the new DNA into the bacterium. This is done using a
vector

Common vectors include Viruses and Plasmids

Now your transgenic bacterium is complete. All you

need to do is grow it in a fermenter and it makes lots
of insulin for you!

Transgenic Organism – Organism containing DNA from two

or more sources (i.e. an organism that’s been genetically
engineered to express a foreign gene)

Scientists are experimenting with genetic engineering all the

time. Plants are good to genetically engineer because they are
more simple and there are fewer ethical issues.

Genetically modified (GM) crops are engineered to;

- Have bigger yields

- Be frost resistant (e.g. frost resistant strawberries)
- Have resistance to disease
- Grow in harsher environments (e.g. drought-resistant rice)
- Have vitamins in them that they would not normally have
(e.g. golden corn)
- Have a longer sell-by date (e.g. non-squash tomatoes)
- Be a different colour / taste to normal (e.g. chocolate
carrots)
- Have stronger taste (e.g. chilis)
- Be easier to eat (e.g. easy-peel oranges)
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d) Cloning

Cloning is used to make many copies of a single individual.

Usually the individual has a very desirable phenotype and
has often been produced at the end of a selective breeding
or GE programme.

Cloning in plants:

The easiest way to clone a plant is to take a cutting or a graft

(see earlier). However, micropropagation (tissue culture) can
be used in large-scale cloning programmes.

Micropropagation - small pieces of plants (explants) are

grown in a Petri dish on nutrient medium. Samples of the
culture can be taken off and grown separately. If the right
hormones are added the culture will turn into a miniature plant
(a plantlet). This can be done on a huge scale to produce
1000s of plantlets from a single culture.

Cloning in animals:

1. Take an embryonic cell

2. Remove it’s nucleus (enucleate it)
3. Replace with the nucleus from an adult cell (from the
animal you want to clone)
4. The embryonic cell grows into an embryo clone of the
adult, from which the donor nucleus came

This process was used to create Dolly the sheep

Cloning can be used beneficially in agriculture to increase the

yield of crop plants. However, cloning genetically engineered
animals organisms allows us to mass-produce very useful
organisms e.g. the E. coli bacterium that makes human insulin
has been cloned many times. Now all diabetics have access to
human insulin.

The END!
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