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 Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Models and Functions 1
1.1 Why Mathematics Matters 1
1.2 Models in Life Sciences 4
Types of Dynamical Systems 7
1.3 Variables, Parameters, and Functions 10
Describing Measurements with Variables, Parameters, and Graphs 11
Describing Relations between Measurements with Functions 13
Catalogue of Important Functions 19
Exercises 22

1.4 Working with Functions 25

Inverse Functions 29
Creating New Functions 36
Transformations of Graphs 37
Exercises 44

1.5 Logical Reasoning and Language in Math and Life Sciences 47

Building Blocks: Definitions and Theorems 48
Implications 50
Math Results and Their Interpretation 51
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 52
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 53
Supplementary Problems 53
Project 54

Chapter 2 Modelling Using Elementary Functions 55

2.1 Elementary Models 55
Proportional Relations 55
Linear Functions 58
Power Functions 63
Exercises 69

2.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; Exponential Models 72

Exponential Functions 72
Logarithmic Functions 75
Exponential Models 78
Semilog and Double-Log Graphs 86
Exercises 89

2.3 Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 91

Angles and Trigonometric Ratios 92
Trigonometric Functions 94
Describing Oscillations 98
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iv Contents

Inverse Trigonometric Functions 102

Exercises107
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 110
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 110
Supplementary Problems 110

Chapter 3 Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems 113

3.1 Introduction to Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems 113
Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems and Updating Functions 113
Solutions 116
Manipulating Updating Functions 122
Units and Dimensions 125
Exercises 126

3.2 Analysis of Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems 129

Cobwebbing: A Graphical Solution Technique 130
Equilibria: Geometric Approach 132
Equilibria: Algebraic Approach 135
Exercises 139
3.3 Modelling with Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems 141
Absorption of Caffeine 141
Elementary Population Models 142
Dynamics of Alcohol Use 147
Exercises 151

3.4 Nonlinear Dynamics Model of Selection 153

A Model of Selection 153
The Discrete-Time Dynamical System and Equilibria 156
Exercises 160

3.5 A Model of Gas Exchange in the Lung 164

A Model of the Lungs 164
The Lung System in General 167
Lung Dynamics with Absorption 170
Exercises 172
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 174
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 175
Supplementary Problems 175
Project 177

Chapter 4 Limits, Continuity, and Derivatives 179

4.1 Investigating Change 179
The Average Rate of Change 179
Instantaneous Rate of Change 182
Exercises 185

4.2 Limit of a Function 187

Limit 187
Calculating Limits 192
Calculating Limits Algebraically—Limit Laws 195
Exercises 201

4.3 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity 205

Infinite Limits 205
Limits at Infinity 209
Infinite Limits at Infinity 215
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 Contents v

Comparing Functions at Infinity 219

Application to Absorption Functions 222
Limits of Sequences 224
Exercises 226

4.4 Continuity 229

Continuous Functions 230
Input and Output Precision 238
Hysteresis 240
Exercises 241

4.5 Derivatives and Differentiability 243

Differentiable Functions 243
Graphs and Derivatives 247
Approximating Derivatives 252
Exercises 254
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 257
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 257
Supplementary Problems 258
Project 259

Chapter 5 Working with Derivatives 261

5.1 Derivatives of Powers, Polynomials, and Exponential Functions 261
Derivatives of Constant and Power Functions 261
The Sum (Difference) Rule for Derivatives 265
Derivatives of Polynomials 265
The Exponential Function 268
Exercises 271

5.2 Derivatives of Products and Quotients 273

The Product Rule 273
The Quotient Rule 277
Exercises 280

5.3 The Chain Rule and the Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 283
The Derivative of a Composite Function 283
Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 288
Exponential Measurements and Relative Rate of Change 290
Proof of the Chain Rule 292
Exercises 294

5.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 296

Derivatives of Sine and Cosine 296
Other Trigonometric Functions 300
Derivation of the Key Limits 301
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 303
Exercises 305

5.5 Implicit Differentiation, Logarithmic Differentiation, and Related Rates 307

Implicit Differentiation 308
Logarithmic Differentiation 310
Related Rates 312
Exercises 315

5.6 The Second Derivative, Curvature, and Concavity 316

The Second Derivative 316
Using the Second Derivative for Graphing 320
Applications 322
Approximating the Second Derivative 325
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vi Contents

Acceleration 325
Exercises326
5.7 Approximating Functions with Polynomials 330
The Tangent and Secant Lines 330
Quadratic Approximation 333
Taylor Polynomials 338
Exercises 340
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 342
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 342
Supplementary Problems 342
Project 343

Chapter 6 Applications of Derivatives 345

6.1 Extreme Values of a Function 345
Minima and Maxima 345
Absolute Extreme Values 355
Exercises 363

6.2 Three Case Studies in Optimization 365

Strength of Bones 365
Maximizing the Rate of Food Intake 368
Optimizing Area and the Shape of a Honeycomb 372
Exercises 375

6.3 Reasoning about Functions: Continuity and Differentiability 377

Continuous Functions: The Intermediate Value Theorem 377
Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem 381
Continuity and Differentiability 384
Exercises 386

6.4 Leading Behaviour and L’Hôpital’s Rule 388

Leading Behaviour of Functions at Infinity 388
Leading Behaviour of Functions at Zero 392
The Method of Matched Leading Behaviours 393
L’Hôpital’s Rule 396
Exercises 403

6.5 Graphing Functions: A Summary 405

Exercises 413
6.6 Newton’s Method 414
Solving Equations 414
Newton’s Method 414
Exercises 422

6.7 Stability of Discrete-Time Dynamical Systems 424

Motivation 424
Stability and the Slope of the Updating Function 427
Evaluating Stability with the Derivative 429
Exercises 434

6.8 The Logistic Dynamical System and More Complex Dynamics 437
The Logistic Dynamical System 437
Qualitative Dynamical Systems 439
Analysis of the Logistic Dynamical System 444
Ricker Model 446
Exercises 448

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 Contents vii

6.9 Case Study: Panting and Deep Breathing Online

Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 450

Concept Check: True/False Quiz 451
Supplementary Problems 451
Projects 453

Chapter 7 Integrals and Applications 455

7.1 Differential Equations 455
Differential Equations: Examples and Terminology 458
Graphical Solution of Pure-Time Differential Equations 462
Euler’s Method for Solving Differential Equations 464
Exercises 470

7.2 Antiderivatives 473

Antiderivatives 473
Rules for Antiderivatives 476
Solving Simple Differential Equations 480
Exercises 484

7.3 Definite Integral and Area 486

Area 487
Sigma Notation 492
Area and Definite Integral 493
The Definite Integral 497
Properties of Integrals 502
Exercises 507

7.4 Definite and Indefinite Integrals 510

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
Computing Definite Integrals with Indefinite Integrals 510
The Integral Function and the Proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 519
Exercises 526

7.5 Techniques of Integration: Substitution and Integration by Parts 529

A Useful Shortcut 529
The Chain Rule and Integration by Substitution 530
Integration by Parts 538
Integration Using Taylor Polynomials 543
Exercises 545

7.6 Applications 548

Integrals and Areas 549
Integrals and Volumes 555
Integrals and Lengths 560
Integrals and Averages 564
Integrals and Mass 565
Exercises 568

7.7 Improper Integrals 571

Infinite Limits of Integration 571
Improper Integrals: Examples 573
Infinite Integrands 579
Exercises 583
Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 584
Concept Check: True/False Quiz 584
Supplementary Problems 585
Projects 586

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viii Contents

Chapter 8 Differential Equations 589

8.1 Basic Models with Differential Equations 589
Autonomous Differential Equations 589
Exercises 598

8.2 Equilibria and Display of Autonomous Differential Equations 602

Equilibria 602
Graphical Display of Autonomous Differential Equations 605
Exercises 607
8.3 Stability of Equilibria 609
Recognizing Stable and Unstable Equilibria 610
Applications of the Stability Theorem 612
A Model for a Disease 614
Outline of the Proof of Theorem 8.3.1 615
Exercises 617

8.4 Separable Differential Equations 619

Separation of Variables 619
Exercises 628

8.5 Systems of Differential Equations; Predator–Prey Model 630

Predator–Prey Dynamics 630
Dynamics of Competition 632
Newton’s Law of Cooling 633
Applying Euler’s Method to Systems of Autonomous Differential Equations 634
Exercises 638

8.6 The Phase Plane 640

Equilibria and Nullclines: Predator–Prey Equations 640
Equilibria and Nullclines: Competition Equations 643
Equilibria and Nullclines: Newton’s Law of Cooling 644
Exercises 645
8.7 Solutions in the Phase Plane 648
Euler’s Method in the Phase Plane 648
Direction Arrows: Predator–Prey Equations 651
Direction Arrows: Competition Equations 654
Direction Arrows: Newton’s Law of Cooling 656
Exercises 657

8.8 Dynamics of a Neuron Online

Chapter Summary: Key Terms and Concepts 659

Concept Check: True/False Quiz 660
Supplementary Problems 660
Projects 662

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 665

Index I-1

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 Preface
Calculus for the Life Sciences: Modelling the Dynamics of Life is truly a calculus book
for life sciences students.
This book covers limits, continuity, derivatives, integrals, and differential equa-
tions, which are standard topics in introductory calculus courses in universities. All
concepts, definitions, and theorems are explained in detail and illustrated in a number
of fully solved examples. A variety of approaches—algebraic, geometric, numerical,
and verbal—facilitate the understanding of the material and will be of great help to
any students who may read the book on their own.
As new mathematics concepts and ideas are introduced, applications illustrating
their use are presented. Questions arising from life sciences situations are employed
to motivate the construction of several mathematical objects (such as derivatives and
integrals). A narrative introduces the context of an application and shows its relevance
and importance in life sciences.
The major purpose of this book is to build quantitative skills and to introduce its
readers to the insights that mathematics can provide into all branches of life
sciences.
Although the importance of quantitative skills in the life sciences is a widely
accepted fact, realities—in many cases—conceal their vital role. In part, this is because
mathematics tends to be hidden, working in the background: once something has
been figured out and becomes a standard, the mathematics that was used is no longer
needed, as practitioners use software, diagrams, and charts instead. For instance, doc-
tors and nurses do not look at half-life information to calculate a dosage every time
they need to administer a medication. An ultrasound technician can “calculate” the
volume of blood in a patient’s heart chamber by selecting a few items from the pull-
down menus in a computer program, completely unaware of the fairly sophisticated
mathematics (calculation of volume by approximate integration) used to design the
software.
As for the insights, a simple mathematical model explains why the heart of a
mouse beats about 15 times as fast as the heart of an elephant. With mathematical
formulas that describe human growth, we can understand why body mass index does
not give reliable estimates of body fat in children and tall people.
Furthermore, mathematics has the power to reveal otherwise invisible worlds in
the vast universe of numerical data that has been gathered about almost every single
phenomenon related to life. Joel E. Cohen writes:1
For example, computed tomography can reveal a cross-section of a human head from
the density of X-ray beams without ever opening the head, by using the Radon trans-
form to infer the densities of materials at each location within the head. Charles
Darwin was right when he wrote that people with an understanding “of the great
leading principles of mathematics . . . seem to have an extra sense.” Today’s biolo-
gists increasingly recognize that appropriate mathematics can help interpret any kind
of data.

1 J. E. Cohen. Mathematics is biology’s next microscope, only better; biology is mathematics’ next
physics, only better. PLoS Biol 2(12): e439, 2004. Published online December 14, 2004. doi:
10.1371/journal.pbio.0020439. PMCID: PMC535574.
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x Preface

Although a great deal of biology can be done without mathematics, the powerful
new technologies that are transforming fields of biology—from genetics to physiology
to ecology—are increasingly quantitative, as are many questions at the frontiers of
knowledge. Along with genetics, mathematics is one of two unifying factors in the life
sciences. And as biology becomes more important in society, mathematical literacy
becomes as vital for an informed citizen as it is for a researcher.

Modelling and the Dynamics of Life

The goal of this book is to teach the mathematical ideas that will help us understand
various phenomena in life sciences. These are the same ideas that researchers use in
their work, as well as in collaborations with colleagues engaged in more empirical
activities. They are not specific techniques, such as differentiation or integration by
parts, but rather they revolve around building mathematical models.
A mathematical model is that crucial link between a life sciences phenomenon
and its description in terms of mathematical objects. We will gain the skills needed to
construct a model, make sure it works, and understand what it implies—we will learn
how to translate appropriate aspects of a life sciences problem and its assumptions
into formulas, equations, and diagrams; how to solve the equations involved; and how
to interpret the results in terms of the original problem. For instance:
■ We build several models in an attempt to predict what the population of Canada
will be in the near (and not so near) future. In each case, we critically examine
the assumptions that we made, as well as comment on the results of the model.
■ Regular clinical breast examinations are key to early detection of breast cancer.
Do these exams suffice, or should one also consider mammography? By using
an exponential model to understand how cancer cells grow, we conclude that in
some cases mammography gives a significant lead time over clinical
examination in early detection of cancer.
■ To study the interaction between populations, we take a detailed look at the
predator-prey model, which could be used, for instance, to describe the
interaction between foxes and rabbits in an ecosystem. In addition, a model of
selection will help us understand the behaviour of two different bacterial
cultures sharing the same space and resources.
■ We investigate limited population growth models, such as the logistic model
and the Allee effect.
■ Using discrete-time dynamical systems, we build our understanding of aspects
of the consumption and absorption of drugs such as alcohol and caffeine.

Content
The organization and presentation of the material in this book mirror the relationship
between mathematics and the life sciences. Mathematics enables us to describe, exp-
lain, and understand biological processes. In turn, the questions life scientists would
like to know the answers to stimulate the development of mathematical ideas and tech-
niques.
A quick overview of the content of the book is contained in the following table:

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 Preface xi

An Overview of the Book

Chapter 1 We illustrate how math is used in the life sciences (Section 1.1); introduce the idea of a mathematical model
Introduction (Section 1.2); review basics about functions, such as graphs and transformations of graphs, composition, and
inverse functions; and use the opportunity to discuss elementary models (Sections 1.3 and 1.4). In the final
section, we talk about building blocks of math (definitions, theorems), math reasoning patterns (how to think of
an implication), and interpreting math results in the context of applications in life sciences.
Chapter 2 We review properties of linear, power, and transcendental functions, and, at the same time, introduce important
Modelling models (many of which we revisit as we learn more math). For instance, using power functions, we study
Using heartbeat frequency in mammals and derive an important relation between the size of an animal and the size of
Elementary its body cover, we predict the changes in Canadian population, we study cell growth using exponential models,
Functions and we describe various oscillations and learn how forensic technicians use blood splatters to identify the events
that led to their formation.
Chapter 3 We study algebraic and geometric properties of discrete-time dynamical systems (recurrence relations) in Sec-
Discrete-Time tions 3.1 and 3.2. We discuss a whole spectrum of models, including limited population and consumption of
Dynamical coffee and alcohol (Section 3.3) and a nonlinear population model of selection (Section 3.4). As we learn more
Systems math, we revisit these models and enrich our understanding. The chapter closes with a more advanced model on
gas exchange in the lung (Section 3.5).
Chapter 4 This chapter contains an in-depth discussion of major calculus concepts: limits (Sections 4.2 and 4.3), continuity
Limits, (Section 4.4), and derivatives (Sections 4.1 and 4.5). With applications never far from sight, we introduce several
Continuity, absorption functions (Section 4.3). In order to understand how practitioners reason and speak about absorption,
and Derivatives we compare these functions in terms of how quickly they approach zero or infinity.
Chapter 5 In this fairly technical chapter, we cover all differentiation rules (Sections 5.1 to 5.4), including implicit and
Working with logarithmic differentiation and related rates (Section 5.5). Besides traditional questions (found in all calculus
Derivatives texts), the reader will find exciting related rates situations from biology. We learn how to calculate higher-order
derivatives and use them to study graphs (Section 5.6) and build various approximations of functions, including
Taylor polynomials (Section 5.7).
Chapter 6 This chapter offers a wide range of applications of derivatives: computing absolute and relative extreme values
Applications of (Section 6.1), identifying leading behaviour and calculating limits using L’Hôpital’s rule (Section 6.4), drawing
Derivatives graphs of functions (Section 6.5), and approximating solutions of equations using Newton’s method (Section
6.6). To illustrate how optimization works, we study the strength of bones and the feeding patterns of animals and
analyze the way bees build their honeycombs (Section 6.2). Section 6.3 makes important connections between
continuity and differentiability. The derivatives help us understand the stability of a dynamical system (Section
6.7) as well as gain an insight into complex dynamic behaviour such as chaos (Section 6.8). An advanced study
of breathing patterns (Section 6.9) can be downloaded from the textbook’s companion website.
Chapter 7 We introduce differential equations, an important ingredient in many mathematical models in biology (Section
Integrals and 7.1), as motivation for a need to reverse differentiation. We proceed as usual: antiderivatives (Section 7.2) and
Applications area and the definite integral (Section 7.3) meet in the statement of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Sec-
tion 7.4). We work through standard integration methods (Section 7.5) and discuss improper integrals (Section
7.7). We go through a wide range of applications in Section 7.6 (area, volume, length, mass, etc.), including
estimating the surface area of Lake Ontario and the volume of a heart chamber.
Chapter 8 The focus of this chapter is on autonomous differential equations and their applications. We introduce and
Differential investigate several important models, such as the logistic model, the Allee effect, the law of cooling, diffusion,
Equations and the continuous model of selection (Section 8.1). We develop tools for a qualitative analysis: equilibria
and display (Section 8.2), stability (Section 8.3), and then solve some equations using separation of variables
(Section 8.4). The remaining sections are devoted to models based on systems of differential equations, such
as predator–prey and competition (Section 8.5), and their analysis using phase-plane techniques (Sections 8.6
and 8.7). A more challenging section on the dynamics of a neuron (Section 8.8) can be downloaded from the
textbook’s companion website.

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xii Preface

Presentation
Easy-to-read and easy-to-follow narratives, carefully drawn pictures and diagrams,
clear explanations, large numbers of fully solved examples, and broad-spectrum appli-
cations make the material suitable for a variety of audiences with a wide range of
interests and backgrounds.
In creating this book, we were guided by several important principles:
■ Convey excitement about the material.
■ Convey the relevance and importance of mathematics and its applications.
■ Use a variety of approaches—algebraic, numeric, geometric, and verbal.
■ Motivate the introduction of new mathematical objects, concepts, and
algorithms.
■ Review background material so it does not become an obstacle in explaining
advanced material.
■ Provide more examples and illustrations for more difficult material.
■ Revisit important concepts as often as possible, in a variety of contexts.
■ Revisit applications and enrich models as new mathematics ideas are
introduced.

Conceptual Understanding and Mathematical Thinking

This text provides the reader with an opportunity to build a clear understanding of a
relatively small number of ideas and concepts from the calculus of functions of one
variable. It offers exhaustive discussions and carefully crafted examples; clear and
crisp statements of theorems and definitions; and—acknowledging that many of us are
visual learners—numerous illustrations, graphs, and diagrams. Important concepts are
revisited as often as possible, placed in a variety of contexts, and applied in solving
life sciences problems.

Development of Mathematical (Quantitative) Skills

It is impossible to fully master almost any topic in mathematics without adequate
skills in symbolic (algebraic) manipulation. This book contains a large number of fully
solved examples designed to illustrate formulas, algebraic methods, and algorithms,
and to provide an ideal opportunity for students to improve on their routine in the
technical intricacies of calculations.
Topics that some students may find challenging (such as Riemann sums and inte-
gration methods, working with Taylor polynomials, and graphing using leading
behaviour) are accompanied by a large number of solved examples. Use of technology
(graphing calculator or mathematical software such as Maple) is strongly encouraged,
since it might provide insights that will enhance understanding of the material.

In-Depth Explorations of Particular Models

This book includes several extended applications. Early on, we study the phenomenon
of the interaction between two types of bacteria, mutant and wild, in Section 3.4, and
certain aspects of the dynamics of gas exchange in the lungs, in Section 3.5. Appli-
cations of optimization to feeding patterns of animals, calculations of the strength of
bones, and a study of the ways bees build their honeycombs are found in Chapter 6.

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 Preface xiii

Phase-plane methods are used in Chapter 8 to analyze two-dimensional systems rep-

resenting interactions between two species. Some of these models can be assigned as
individual or group study projects.

End-of-Section and End-of-Chapter Problems, Computer

Exercises, and Projects
In addition to routine skills problems, each section includes a wide variety of mod-
elling problems to emphasize consistently the importance of interpretation. As well,
more challenging mathematics questions will be found here, including requests to con-
struct proofs that are omitted from the text. Each chapter includes supplementary prob-
lems that introduce a variety of new applications and can be used for review or practice
sessions.
The book contains more than 50 exercises designed to be explored on a graphing
calculator (preferably programmable) or on a computer using software such as Maple.
These exercises emphasize visualization, experimentation, and simulation—all of which
are important aspects of conducting research in life sciences, as well as many other
areas.
Most chapters include projects suitable for individual or group exploration. Exam-
ples include the following:
■ modelling the balance between selection and mutation (Chapter 3)
■ studying periodic hematopoiesis using a discrete-time dynamical system
(Chapter 4)
■ experimenting with different numerical schemes for solving differential
equations (Chapter 7)
■ carefully studying models of adaptation by cells (Chapter 8)

Teaching
Although this is a book for life sciences, it is a calculus textbook as well. It can be
used to teach a variety of courses, spanning a wide range of flavours and levels of
difficulty. The coverage of math theory, techniques, and algorithms, as well as applica-
tions, allows an instructor to tune the course to an appropriate balance of math rigour
and applications in life sciences.
Several suggestions for courses are outlined in the chart on page xiv.
Great care has been taken to make the level of exposition—both mathematical and
applications—adequate for first-year students. A course instructor can assign, with
confidence, parts of the material as homework or as optional reading.
No matter which course is taught from this text, the benefits are obvious. The mod-
elling approach is naturally a problem-solving approach. Students will not remember
every technique they have learned. This book emphasizes understanding what a model
is and recognizing what a model says. To be able to recognize a differential equation,
interpret the terms, and use the solution is far more important than knowing how to
find a solution algebraically. These reasoning skills, in addition to familiarity with the
models in general, are what will stay with the motivated student and what will matter
most in the end.

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xiv Preface

Suggestions for Courses

One-semester, first-year Start with Chapter 1 (introduce the subject, justify using math to model life sciences phenomena, warm-
calculus for life sciences up); Chapter 2 (review linear, power, and transcendental functions, discuss numerous models); Chapter 4;
Chapter 5 (might not require much time); Chapter 6 (pick among the topics and applications presented);
Chapter 7 (selection of topics and applications); if time permits, discuss Section 8.1.
Discrete-time dynamical systems (in this context, recurrence relations) in Chapter 3 can be skipped,
or covered to a desired depth. For instance: extract basics from Sections 3.1 and 3.2 to cover models in
Section 3.3 (such as limited population or alcohol consumption), or cover Sections 3.1 and 3.2 in detail,
discuss many interesting models in Sections 3.3 and 3.4, and then discuss stability and further models in
Sections 6.7 and 6.8.
One-semester, first-year Taking advantage of students’ background, discuss features of models in Chapters 1, 2, and 3, perhaps
calculus for life sciences including Section 3.5; Chapters 4 and 5 might not require much time; possibly include case studies in
(advanced) Section 6.2, or discussion of stability of equilibria and dynamics of chaos in Sections 6.7 and 6.8; cover
Chapter 7 and the first four sections of Chapter 8.
Two-semester, first-year First semester as above. Use the opportunity to finish the material in Chapters 7 and 8 to a desired depth.
calculus for life sciences The remaining time could be spent discussing topics from one or more of the Modules: Several Variables,
Probability and Statistics, and Linear Algebra, which are available as separate books (see page xv for a
Table of Contents of each module).
One-semester calculus Start with Chapters 1 and 2 (to review properties of elementary functions; some applications can be used to
course of a more discuss properties of functions that involve parameters); Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, including some proofs;
theoretical nature Chapter 6, at least Sections 6.1 and 6.3; Chapter 7 (with details regarding Riemann sums); if time permits,
Sections 8.1 to 8.3.
Second-year modelling Focus on models in Chapters 1 and 2 (also a good review of functions); Chapter 3, perhaps all of it;
course for students who pick themes from Chapters 4 and 5 (for instance, absorption functions in Section 4.3 or related rates with
took traditional calculus life sciences context in Section 5.5); cover Section 5.7; selection of material from Chapter 6, such as
Sections 6.2, 6.7, and 6.8; focus on applications in Chapter 7 (Section 7.6); Chapter 8, including systems
of autonomous differential equations. Sections 3.5, 6.9, and 8.8 contain some challenging material but are
appropriate for second-year students.
One-semester Start with a selection of topics in Chapter 2 (exponential model, allometry); then Chapter 3, in partic-
introductory course on ular Sections 3.3 and 3.4, with application exercises and computer exercises in Section 3.4 introducing
dynamics of growth, additional models, including chaotic behaviour; necessary topics in Chapters 4 and 5, using models as
or population examples (logistic, gamma distributions, Hill functions, von Bertalanffy limited growth, etc.); Sections
modelling 6.7, 6.8 (exercises in these two sections and projects at the end of the chapter provide many opportunities
for extensions [chaos, Ricker model, etc.]); Chapter 7; major focus on autonomous differential equations,
systems, and phase planes in Chapter 8.
Project-driven, Consider questions such as the following: Why can’t we use radiocarbon dating to determine the time
problem-based course when dinosaurs died (Section 2.2)? What happens to the amount of alcohol in our body if we consume one
(learning math through drink per hour (Section 3.3)? How do bones grow and what makes them strong (Sections 2.1 and 6.2)?
applications) Why do bees’ honeycombs have hexagonal cross-sections (Section 6.2)? How do we approximate the area
of a lake, or the volume of a heart chamber (Section 7.6)? How do we model interactions of two species
(Sections 8.5, 8.6, 8.7)? This is just a sample of starting points suggested in this book—students realize
that they need to learn more math if they wish to understand these life sciences problems and find good
answers.

Life Sciences Modules to Accompany This Text

This book covers the calculus of functions of one variable. Quite often, longer (two-
semester) life sciences courses include topics from other disciplines. To allow for flex-
ibility in planning courses and resources, additional material has been organized in
three separate modules. Intertwining math foundations and applications, the modules
cover functions of several variables, basics of probability and statistics, and elementary
linear algebra. These modules can be bundled with the text, or alternatively, a custom
package can be compiled, including material from the textbook and the modules. Con-
tact your sales representative for more information.
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 Preface xv

Functions of Several Variables (144 pages), ISBN: 978-0-17-657136-8

1. Introduction
2. Graph of a Function of Several Variables
3. Limits and Continuity
4. Partial Derivatives
5. Tangent Plane, Linearization, and Differentiability
6. The Chain Rule
7. Second-Order Partial Derivatives and Applications
8. Partial Differential Equations
9. Directional Derivative and Gradient
10. Extreme Values
11. Optimization with Constraints

Probability and Statistics (195 pages), ISBN: 978-0-17-657135-1

1. Introduction: Why Probability and Statistics
2. Stochastic Models
3. Basics of Probability Theory
4. Conditional Probability and the Law of Total Probability
5. Independence
6. Discrete Random Variables
7. The Mean, the Median, and the Mode
8. The Spread of a Distribution
9. Joint Distributions
10. The Binomial Distribution
11. The Multinomial and the Geometric Distributions
12. The Poisson Distribution
13. Continuous Random Variables
14. The Normal Distribution
15. The Uniform and the Exponential Distributions

Linear Algebra (138 pages), ISBN: 978-0-17-657137-5

1. Identifying Location in a Plane and in Space
2. Vectors
3. The Dot Product
4. Equations of Lines and Planes
5. Systems of Linear Equations
6. Gaussian Elimination
7. Linear Systems in Medical Imaging
8. Matrices
9. Matrices and Linear Systems
10. Linear Transformations
11. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
12. The Leslie Model: Age-Structured Population Dynamics

About the Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA)

The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) program delivers research-
based instructor resources that promote student engagement and higher-order thinking
to enable the success of Canadian students and educators. To ensure the high quality
of these materials, all Nelson ancillaries have been professionally copy-edited.
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xvi Preface

Assessing Your Students: NETA Assessment relates to testing materials. NETA

Test Bank authors create multiple-choice questions that reflect research-based best
practices for constructing effective questions and testing not just recall but also higher-
order thinking. Our guidelines were developed by David DiBattista, psychology pro-
fessor at Brock University and 3M National Teaching Fellow, whose research has
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with every Nelson Test Bank.
Technology in Teaching: NETA Digital is a framework based on Arthur
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rather than technological wizardry, ensures that all of our technology supports better
outcomes for students.

Instructor Resources
All NETA and other key instructor ancillaries are provided on the Instructor’s
Resources Companion Site at www.nelson.com/site/calculusforlifesciences, giving
instructors the ultimate tool for customizing lectures and presentations.
NETA Test Bank: This resource was written by Andrijana Burazin and reviewed
by Miroslav Lovrić, McMaster University. It includes more than 275 multiple-choice
questions written according to NETA guidelines for effective construction and devel-
opment of higher-order questions. The Test Bank was copy-edited by a NETA-trained
editor and underwent a full technical check. Also included are almost 100 true/false
questions.
The NETA Test Bank is available in a new, cloud-based platform. Testing Pow-
ered by Cognero® is a secure online testing system that allows you to author, edit, and
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You can create multiple test versions in an instant, and import or export content into
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Instructor’s Solutions Manual: This manual contains complete worked solutions
to exercises in the text. Prepared by text author Miroslav Lovrić, McMaster University,
it has been independently checked for accuracy by Caroline Purdy, University of New
Brunswick.
Image Library: This resource consists of digital copies of figures, short tables,
and graphs used in the book. Instructors may use these jpegs to create their own Pow-
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DayOne: Day One—Prof InClass is a PowerPoint presentation that instructors can
customize to orient students to the class and their text at the beginning of the course.
Enhanced WebAssign Cengage Learning’s Enhanced WebAssign™ , the leading
homework system for math and science, has been used by more than 2.2 million stu-
dents. Created by instructors for instructors, EWA is easy to use and works with all
major operating systems and browsers. EWA adds interactive features to go far beyond
simply duplicating text problems online. Students can watch solution videos, see prob-
lems solved step by step, and receive feedback as they complete their homework.

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 Preface xvii

Enhanced WebAssign™ allows instructors to easily assign, collect, grade, and

record homework assignments via the Internet. This proven and reliable homework
system uses pedagogy and content from Nelson Education’s best-selling Calculus text-
books, then enhances it to help students visualize the problem-solving process and
reinforce concepts more effectively. EWA encourages active learning and time on task
and respects diverse ways of learning.
Visit www.cengage.com/ewa for more information and to access EWA today!

Student Ancillaries
Student Solutions Manual
The Student Solutions Manual contains detailed worked solutions to the odd-numbered
exercises in the book. It was prepared by Miroslav Lovrić, McMaster University, and
technically checked by Caroline Purdy, University of New Brunswick.

Enhanced WebAssign
Cengage Learning’s Enhanced WebAssign™ is a groundbreaking homework man-
agement system that combines our exceptional Calculus content with the most flexible
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rial content, and interactive features that go far beyond simply duplicating text prob-
lems online. Visit www.cengage.com/ewa for more information and to access EWA
today!

Companion Website
Access additional material, including online-only advanced material not included in
the text, in the Companion Website for Calculus for the Life Sciences. Visit www.
nelson.com/site/calculusforlifesciences.com.

Acknowledgments
Thanks to Paul Fam for getting this project started. To the team at Nelson—Jackie
Wood, Sean Chamberland, Leanne Newell, Paulina Kedzior, and Lindsay Bradac—
thank you for your understanding and guidance and for helping me think through many
details of the project. To Suzanne Simpson Millar and Katherine Goodes, thank you
for your many words of advice and encouragement, for your generosity, and for your
patience in dealing with me. To the production team—Julia Cochrane, Claire Horsnell,
and Indumathy Gunasekaran—a big thank-you for making it all happen. Many thanks
to others who have contributed to the project in various ways and whose names or
involvement are not included here.
I wish to acknowledge the reviewers who offered encouragement and guidance
throughout the development of this book:

Alan Ableson, Queen’s University

Troy Day, Queen’s University
Shay Fuchs, University of Toronto
Thomas Hillen, University of Alberta
David Iron, Dalhousie University
Robert Israel, University of British Columbia
Merzik Kamel, University of New Brunswick
Petra Menz, Simon Fraser University

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xviii Preface

Wes Maciejewski, University of British Columbia

Caroline Purdy, University of New Brunswick
Norman Purzitsky, York University
Joe Repka, University of Toronto
Linda Wahl, University of Western Ontario

I would especially like to send a big thank-you to my family and friends for their
support and for not asking too many questions (“Dude, when will you finally finish
this?!”).
Miroslav Lovrić
Hamilton, 2014

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 Chapter

1
Introduction to Models and
Functions
iLexx/iStockphoto.com

T his chapter opens by answering an obvious and easy question—why do we

need mathematics in the life sciences? We list some (of many!) questions
from biology, health sciences, and elsewhere that are answered—using
mathematics—in this book. As well, we mention a few present-day research problems
that have very little chance of being solved or fully understood without mathematics.
We introduce the main tools needed to study biology using mathematics: models
and functions. A model is a collection of mathematical objects (such as functions and
equations) that allows us to interpret biological problems in the language of mathe-
matics. Biological phenomena are often described by measurements: a set of numeric
values with units (such as kilograms or metres). Many relations between measurements
are described by functions, which assign to each input value a unique output value.
After talking about what constitutes a mathematical model and presenting a few
examples, we briefly review functions and their properties. In this chapter, we dis-
cuss the domain and range and the graph of a function, algebraic operations with
functions, composition of functions, and inverse functions. We build new functions
from old using shifting, scaling, and reflections. We catalogue important elementary
functions and note their properties. The reader who is familiar with functions might
skip this material and move to the next chapter.
We introduce the four approaches—algebraic, numeric, geometric, and verbal—
that we use throughout the book to discuss functions, their properties, and their
applications.
In the last section we discuss aspects of logical reasoning that we need to follow
and to understand mathematical expositions. As well, we contrast the language used
in mathematics and in the life sciences, in order to motivate learning an important
skill—communicating scientific facts, ideas, and results across disciplines.

1.1 Why Mathematics Matters

In the summer of 2012, a team of palaeontologists from the Royal Tyrrell Museum
(“Canada’s dinosaur museum”) in Drumheller, Alberta, unearthed the skeleton of a
large triceratops, a herbivorous dinosaur that lived in what is now North America some
time between 68 and 65 million years ago. An adult triceratops measured
8–9 m in length and about 3 m in height, and weighed between 6,000 and 12,000 kg
(Figure 1.1.1).
No human has ever seen a living dinosaur, so how do we know all this?
Estimates of age, size, weight, and many other quantities are obtained using math-
ematics, based on the data collected from the bones and from the site where they
were found. Among other techniques, potassium-argon dating (see the note following
Example 2.2.13) is used to compute the time interval when triceratops lived on Earth.
F IGURE 1.1.1 By counting the growth lines in the MRI scan of certain bones (unlike an X-ray, an
Complete skeleton of a triceratops,
MRI image is calculated), researchers can determine how old the dinosaur was when
Royal Tyrrell Museum it died. Then, using the formula (adapted from G. M. Erickson, K. C. Rogers, and
Photo courtesy of the Royal Tyrrell S. A. Yerby, Dinosaurian growth patterns and rapid avian growth rates. Nature, 412
Museum, Drumheller, Alberta (429–433), 2001)

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2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Models and Functions

12, 000
M= (1.1.1)
1 + 2.9e−0.87(t−7.24)
we can find an approximation of the body mass, M (in kilograms), of the triceratops
based on the age at death, t (in years).
Allometry—a branch of life sciences—is the study of numeric relationships
between quantities associated with human or animal organisms. For instance, the allo-
metric formula (adapted from M. Benton, and D. Harper, Basic Palaeontology, Harlow,
U.K.: Addison Wesley Longman, 1997)
Sk = 0.49Sp0.84 (1.1.2)
relates the skull length, Sk, of a larger dinosaur to its spine length, Sp (both measured
in metres). From the triceratops’ vertebrae found at the Drumheller site, researchers
could figure out its spine length and then use formula (1.1.2) to calculate the size of its
skull. (Further examples of allometric relationships can be found in Examples 2.1.12
to 2.1.16 and Example 5.5.10.)
This example, and many more that we will encounter in this book, echo this
important message:

Mathematics is an indispensable tool for studying life sciences. It deepens our understanding
of life science phenomena and helps us to figure out the answers to questions that would
otherwise be hard (or impossible) to find.

To further emphasize this message, we give a sample of questions that we will dis-
cuss and answer—using mathematics—in this book. Needless to say, we view math-
ematics in its broadest sense, i.e., including probability, statistics, numeric techniques
and simulations, and computer programming.
■ My body mass index is 27 (above normal range). How much weight should I
lose to lower it to 24 (healthy weight)? My body mass index is 16 (below normal
range). How much weight should I gain to bring it to 18 (healthy weight)? (See
Example 2.1.11.)
■ According to the Statistics Canada 2011 Census, about 33.5 million people lived
in Canada in May 2011 (exactly 33,476,688 people were enumerated in the
census). How many people will live in Canada in 2021? (See Examples 2.1.10
and 2.2.14.)
■ If a student consumes one alcoholic drink (12 oz of beer, or 5 oz of white wine,
or 1.5 oz of tequila or vodka) every hour, how much alcohol will be in that
student’s body after five hours? How long will it take the student to sober up?
(See Section 3.3, in particular Examples 3.3.6–3.3.8.)
■ How do forensic pathologists identify the location of impact (say, from a bullet)
by analyzing blood splatters on the floor? (Read Example 2.3.15.)
■ Which part of a skeleton grows faster: the skull or the spine? (See
Example 5.5.10.)
■ What is the surface area of Lake Ontario? (This information is needed, for
instance, when scientists study the impact of pollutants on lake fauna; see
Example 7.6.6.)
■ Scientists believe that the fossils found in the Burgess Shale Formation in British
Columbia are about 505 million years old. The Joggins Fossil Cliffs in Nova
F IGURE 1.1.2 Scotia contain fossils from the so-called coal age of Earth’s history, about 310
Ancient kauri tree trunk (unearthed and million years ago. How were these estimates obtained? A tree trunk (Figure 1.1.2)
placed upright for display) was unearthed near the city of Kaitaia in New Zealand. How long ago did the
Miroslav Lovric tree die? (See the note following Example 2.2.13.)

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
women awaking to the obligation to see that they are soon provided
through public or private funds.
New Jersey club women have been pushing the work for the
establishment of a state college for women “to fit our girls to render
the best service to New Jersey in many lines as well as to fill teaching
positions better, 80 per cent. of which are now filled by women.” The
population of New Jersey is over 2,537,167, of whom 1,250,704 are
women, yet no provision is made for their higher education. Only in
Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, besides New Jersey, is that now
true. A state college with free tuition is demanded. New Jersey has
Princeton, Rutgers, Stevens, for men, but only normal schools for
women.
 School Administration
Moreover, when the charge of inefficiency is brought against
women teachers, it must be remembered that the administration of
the schools very largely has been in the hands of men, and the
women have been merely routine agents of the authorities. The type
of person always content to carry out some other person’s orders is
not likely to have either force or initiative. Women seem to have
both. Women are no longer content to be mere agents of school
authorities. They are seeking and obtaining high administrative
positions, and demonstrating by their efficiency and capacity for
sustained and unselfish labors their fitness for such work.
For example, “four states, Colorado, Idaho, Washington, and
Wyoming, have women at the head of their state school systems, and
there are now 495 women county superintendents in the United
States, nearly double the number of ten years ago. In some states
women appear to have almost a monopoly of the higher positions in
the public school system. In Wyoming, besides a woman state
superintendent and deputy superintendent, all but one of the
fourteen counties are directed educationally by women. In Montana,
where there are thirty counties, only one man is reported as holding
the position of county superintendent. The increase in the number of
women county superintendents is most conspicuous in the West, but
is not confined to that section. New York reports forty-two women
‘district superintendents,’ as against twelve ‘school commissioners’ in
1900.”
The most conspicuous battle waged by women for a share in the
administration of schools took place in Chicago. It was thus
described in The Survey:

The struggle over the superintendency and the policy of Chicago public schools
acutely emphasizes the crises which popular local government must meet and turn
for better or worse. Coming to the superintendency four years ago in the most
troublous times the Chicago public schools had ever experienced, Mrs. Ella Flagg
Young brought the badly divided teachers into harmonious relations with each
other and with her management and secured an equally remarkable unanimity in
the public support of her administration, after a long period of bitterly divisive
discussion in the press and among the people.
Within the Board of Education, however, whose twenty-one members have
never been able to agree very well with each other, disagreements with Mrs. Young
and her policies have come to the surface, especially among the members of the
board appointed by Mayor Harrison. He protests his preference for her
administration and once before came to the support of her policies when she
tendered her resignation rather than surrender the superintendent’s prerogative in
the selection of textbooks. The mayor’s opposition to the acceptance of her
resignation then kept enough members of the Board in line with her to warrant its
withdrawal.
But the divisiveness of that controversy both widened and deepened at many
points of personal and administrative difference. Except the two outspoken
opponents, the other disaffected members of the board combined their opposition
in silence and secrecy. To the surprise of the public, which the mayor, many
members of the school board, and even the opposition itself, claimed to share, Mrs.
Young failed to receive the eleven votes necessary for her reëlection. Ten members
voted for her, six against her, and four were recorded as “not voting” in the secret
ballot.
Mrs. Young immediately withdrew her name, claiming that no superintendent
can succeed who requires a second ballot for election. The second ballot was taken
at once, after reconsideration of the first ballot was refused and John D. Shoop,
first assistant superintendent, was elected by a vote of eleven to five, without
discussion. The president of the board immediately resigned, as did Dean Walter
T. Sumner, from the chairmanship of the school management committee.
Instantly teachers’ organizations, parents’ societies, the Chicago Woman’s Club,
the Woman’s City Club, and many other women’s organizations lined up for action.
A mass meeting called by them crowded the Auditorium with 4,000 women and
men on a Saturday morning. Rousing and determined speeches were made by
many representative citizens, among whom were Jane Addams, Jenkin Lloyd
Jones, Harriet Vittum, and Margaret Haley of the Teachers’ Federation.
The meeting adopted resolutions calling upon the mayor to accept the
responsibility for the reinstatement of Mrs. Young to her place in the school
system, demanding the immediate resignation of the superintendency by John D.
Shoop and appointing a committee to urge him to withdraw; asserting that two of
the remaining members of the school board should add their resignation to the
four already in the hands of the mayor and asking Governor Dunne to call a special
session of the legislature to enact a law making the membership in the school
board an elective office and giving the voters the right to recall board members.
Litigation resulted and Mr. Shoop refused to be a party to that and so resumed
his former position as first assistant superintendent. The vote at the newly
constituted board recorded thirteen for Mrs. Young, seven not voting and one
absent.
 While Mrs. Young had accepted, before her reinstatement, the position of
educational editor of the Chicago Tribune and had published her salutatory, she
intimated her willingness to be reinstated on condition that the board of education
should be so reconstituted as adequately to support her administration. Although
the mayor exacted pledges from his new appointees to assure Mrs. Young’s
reëlection, yet the majority of the board is still so negative in its ability and so
colorless in its attitude toward educational policies that at best Mrs. Young will
find inadequate support for the continuance or development of her positive
program. Nevertheless she promptly resumed her duties at the end of December,
1913.
The opposition to Mrs. Young seems to be personal rather than political. Her
stout stand for the prerogative of the superintendent to select textbooks and
initiate the educational budget may have disappointed the hopes of some members
of the board for commercial prestige in letting large contracts. Her cautiously
planned instruction for parents and older scholars in sex hygiene, although
authorized by a majority of the board, arouses stubborn antagonism, especially
among the people in certain ecclesiastical circles.
The most fundamental issue raised by the whole controversy is whether the city
administration should be recognized to have any control over the school board and
its policies. To safeguard the non-political management of the schools, some are
appealing to the legislature to make the office of school trustee elective, while
others are content to leave it within the appointive power of the mayor in their
hope to make the office of mayor and alderman non-partisan by securing their
nominations by petition and their election by a ballot from which the party circle
and column shall be eliminated.

The Women’s League for Good Government of Elmira, New York,

in the election of November, 1913, was very earnest in its desire to
improve the school conditions. In October, before the municipal
election there were school elections in three districts of the city. As
the machine politicians controlled the schools with other city
departments, the Women’s League nominated strong candidates in
two of these districts in opposition to the candidates of the machine
and carried on a spirited campaign in their behalf. It took the “whole
force of the machine” to defeat the candidates of the women and
openly “fraudulent” methods were used to win. Hundreds of women
in open fight against the “gang,” and almost winning, served as an
object lesson to male voters to such an extent that in the November
election following this, the non-partisan ticket was victorious.
The Committee of Fifteen on “School Efficiency” of the National
Council of Education, to “give heed and guidance to the growing
demand for investigating schools and testing the efficiency of school
systems,” has three women members: Katherine Blake of New York,
Mrs. Young of Chicago, and Adelaide S. Baylor of Indiana, deputy
state superintendent.
A league is being organized by Denver women to secure the proper
recognition of women in the management of the schools. Forty
women’s organizations are interested. Three women are wanted on
the board, a woman as medical director of schools, and the repeal of
a recent edict against married women as teachers is demanded.
All through Connecticut in the autumn of 1914 an effort was made
to get women out to vote on school matters and in many towns the
results were unprecedented. Women not only voted in greater
numbers but placed their representatives on school boards in some
of the towns. In Norwalk they agitated for thorough reorganization,
improvement and central control for schools and secured a certain
measure of reform.[1]
This contest of women for places of power and for more attention
to educational administration is now gaining momentum. Women
serve on school boards at present in at least thirty cities.
While an analysis of the school vote in Massachusetts as exercised
by women does not indicate any remarkable enthusiasm on the part
of women for that slight franchise, in numerous other places and in
certain special towns even in that state, school elections have been
participated in by women with zest and effect.
Discriminations between the sexes in the teaching profession still
extend in many directions. Politics plays an all too important part in
advancements; remuneration is in general unequal; and celibacy is
sometimes enforced upon women alone. Where women are allowed
to retain their positions upon marriage, the birth of a child is
occasionally made the excuse for dismissal. Such an explanation is
not often frankly made, but in New York, at least, it has been a very
thinly veiled excuse, the issue has been fought out on the real
grounds and the women have won.
Of course it will not be claimed that women all agree as to the best
policy in these and kindred administration matters. Women
members of school boards do not always stand as a unit in their
attitude toward equal pay for equal work or toward the question of
mother-teachers. Women are not like-minded any more than men
are like-minded, but they are acquiring positive views very rapidly on
all these matters. They are not only holding decided opinions on
questions of school administration, but they are seeking more and
more a voice in that administration on the inside.
Without going further into the many phased history of the contest
of women for a voice in educational administration as well as mute
service under it, we may now consider the various lines of women’s
interest in school improvement and try to illustrate, by example at
least, a portion of the plans which they are supporting in various
parts of the country, and their methods of approach to the
educational problem.
 Educational Experiments
The kindergarten idea appealed from the beginning to women and
private experimentation along that line was one of their most
successful endeavors. Boards of education have in instance after
instance been persuaded to incorporate into the public school system
the plan of kindergartens demonstrated to be practical and of social
utility by women in their private capacities. Annie Laws, in the
Kindergarten Review, states that she “can trace the social spirit of
the kindergartner as an important factor in stimulating, and in some
cases, even initiating, many of the social movements of today, among
them playgrounds, social centers, vacation schools, public libraries,
mothers’ clubs and school and home gardens.” The New York
Kindergarten Association of today, like many others, is composed of
men and women but largely supported by the latter, financially, as
well as by active service.
Household Arts—cooking and sewing—were first made subjects of
instruction in the public schools about 1876, in Massachusetts,
through the work of Miss Emily Huntington.
From cooking and sewing have developed the whole domestic
science education of today. Women have been supporters of this
movement from the beginning and the Federation of Clubs early took
an aggressive position in favor of such addition to the school
curricula.
“What you would have appear in the life of the people, that you
must put into the schools,” is the idea they had in mind. At first, in
many cases, women furnished the equipment and paid for its
operation until school boards municipalized this work.
Model housekeeping flats have been instituted by women in many
cities to supplement the more limited school equipment. Sometimes,
as in New York, the Board of Education itself helps to finance this
practical educational work. Mabel Kittredge, who started the
housekeeping centers in New York, thus explains their purpose: “It is
agreed by all that our immigrants must have better homes. This has
been the splendid passionate appeal of men and women for years,
and fight after fight has been won at Albany: fights for open
plumbing, running water in each apartment, decent sinks, more
space; all these measures have been worked for and many adopted,
but while we rejoice that the Italian and the Russian and the Pole are
to realize better home equipment, we forget that these dazed people
have no knowledge as to the way to use the improvements.”
The School of Domestic Arts and Sciences in Chicago was
established and is managed by club women. In 1905 it had 1,100
students. A special effort is made to bring out labor-saving devices,
the underlying idea being that the common-sense of the American
homemaker will in time lift this work to a professional basis through
scientific investigation and the contact of the theoretical worker and
the practical housekeeper. Young women are trained in the care of
children and extension work is done in homes of the people.
Women everywhere are largely instrumental in establishing
courses and departments of domestic science in educational
institutions, from vocational schools to the university. The Illinois
legislature placed household economics in the five normal schools of
the state while all the high schools of Ohio have it. Correspondence
schools have also been developed.
A School of Mothercraft has been established in New York for
exact and scientific knowledge about everything mothers need to
know.
“Domestic Education,” too, is a new profession which has been
developed by women to carry into the homes, for immediate use, that
training which schools alone can give to the next generation.
Music, art, and dramatic taste as elements in school study and
training, too, have been created and fostered by women, and each
has an interesting history which lack of space forbids recounting
here.
“A thorough textbook study of scientific temperance in public
schools as a preventative against intemperance” was the aim of the
Women’s Christian Temperance Union as early as 1879. Forty-three
states incorporated this instruction into the school system and
twenty-four textbooks on the subject circulate. If the development of
scientific knowledge and psychology leads to an appreciation of the
inadequacy or failure of these textbooks and former methods of
teaching temperance, the fact remains that temperance needs to be
taught and improved textbooks and methods will doubtless appear
soon.
Today when the major interest in school instruction centers about
vocational training, it is interesting to go back over the history of
manual training in the schools. “Manual training as a new feature of
education was partly the result of an educational philosophy and
partly a protest against mere bookishness. The first appearance of
constructive work for clearly definite cultural purposes appears to
have been in connection with the classes of the workingmen’s school
founded in 1878 by the Ethical Culture Society of New York. In 1880,
the St. Louis Manual Training School was founded in connection
with the Washington University, and in 1882, Mrs. Quincy Shaw of
Boston privately supported experimental classes in carpentry at the
Dwight School. Two years later the city of Boston also experimented,
but it was four years more before manual training was given a place
in the curriculum. New York City began instruction in drawing,
sewing, cooking and woodwork that same year.”
In Massachusetts, during this decade, eighteen women’s clubs took
the promotion of vocational training for their special task and the
Federations of Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and
Connecticut urged this upon their members. In some instances this
conflict has to be renewed every year in order to maintain that which
has been secured with so much labor and expense, owing to new and
ignorant or penurious school boards. Sometimes impatient women
have raised the money themselves. The Chicago Woman’s Club
raised $40,000 for the Glenwood Industrial School for Boys.
Although the charge of lack of virility is so often brought against
women school teachers, it is interesting to record that women have
been among the pioneers in the advocacy of the introduction of
physical training. About 1888, through the efforts of Mrs. Hemenway
in Boston, who had experimented with physical training among
teachers, the School Board arranged for her to try her system in the
schools. Finding it a useful addition to the curriculum, physical
training was definitely adopted the following year.
The Girls’ Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League in New
York was formed by women to insure sufficient and wholesome
recreation for school girls who need outlet for their energies quite as
much as boys. While the coöperation of the Board of Education, the
Park Department, the Bath Department and the Health Department
has been obtained, far better provision is made for athletics for girls
by reason of the activity of these women than would otherwise be
secured. The closest coöperation exists between the Board of
Education and the Girls’ Branch. The President of the Girls’ Branch
is a member of the Board of Education, as are several of its Board of
Directors, and the Executive Secretary (Elizabeth Burchenal) is
Inspector of Athletics for the Board of Education.
The idea behind athletics for girls and boys is not solely the
prevention of mischief and of worse things, important as that is.
Those interested in physical training desire that “life shall be lived in
its beauty, romance and splendor.” They thus approach the problem
with positive ideals.
Women have not blindly said: “Physical training shall be an
important element in instruction;” but they have stayed by the task
of discovering what kind of physical training is best suited to young
children and growing boys and girls and whether different training is
necessary for the sexes or a mere question of individual capacity and
physique is involved.
One of the women who is giving close attention to this is Dr. Jessie
Newkirk, member of the Board of Education of Kansas City, Kansas.
Dr. Newkirk has been making an extensive educational survey of
girls’ schools in the country, particularly to discover whether there
are improved hygienic methods anywhere which have not been as yet
used in Kansas City. In a newspaper interview she said: “I am able to
say that I believe I found one practice a little better in the East than
in the West. In our part of the country we have made the physical
work of the girls too strenuous. If a girl is going to be an athlete, it is
all right for her to take up athletics after she has finished her high
school course, but it is a mistake to subject too rapidly growing girls
to too rigid physical culture.”
From physical training in the schools to allied forms of hygiene has
been an inevitable evolution. Thus we find women supporting and
organizing the instruction in sex hygiene in the schools. Dr. Jessie
Newkirk, whom we have just quoted, describes this type of
instruction and the opposition that it still meets, as follows: “As for
our teaching of sex hygiene, it is meeting considerable opposition.
We have physicians who deliver a certain number of personal
lectures, women physicians to the girls and men physicians to the
boys. This we have been trying only for the last year. As we have
three physicians on our board, you may imagine we are strongly in
favor of it. The opposition of course comes from the parents. I am
inclined to think this opposition springs from the objection to the
name of ‘sex hygiene.’ If we were to put these lectures into the
regular course in physiology, I do not believe the opposition would
be anything like as strong. But the term that has been employed has
been made fun of and anathematized. We are doing what we can in
an educative way through our mothers’ clubs, so that most of the
opposition now, I think, comes from the fathers who want to stand
on ignorant ground, to keep their children innocent, whereas every
thinking person must admit that it is better to be wise and pure than
merely ignorant.”[2]
Many of the women still feel that, important as sex hygiene is, it
must first be taught in normal schools or to adults and that the effort
to introduce it into secondary schools is premature.
One who believes in a system of instruction in hygiene or physical
training or what-not is naturally interested in its results when
applied and therefore women have watched the effects of attempts at
changed curricula on the children themselves. Both the teachers and
the promoters of change have had a common interest in these
results. It has not taken long to discover that children represent
unequal foundations in their physical and mental make-ups for
grasping instruction of any kind.
First there are the little crippled children for whom hard physical
exercise is an impossibility and upon whose minds their physical
condition has undoubted reactions. Crippled children seem first to
have been given special educational opportunities in 1861 by the
efforts of Dr. Knight and his daughter in their own home in New
York City. Their home became a combination of school and hospital
and furnished the stimulus for the Hospital-School for the Ruptured
and Crippled in that city two years later. This was the first institution
in America, it is claimed, to employ teachers of crippled children.
The next task, and women assumed that eagerly, was that of
seeking out the little patients, and the Visiting Guild for Crippled
Children of the Ethical Culture School was started in 1892 to insure
continuance of instruction when the children were discharged from
the hospital. Several societies developed then to care for crippled
children, to feed them, supply them with orthopedic apparatus, and
to carry them to and from schools. In 1906, “the Board of Education
joined forces with two private guilds. The school equipment and
teachers were supplied by the Board of Education; the building,
transportation, nourishment and general physical care were looked
after by the guilds. This attempt proved successful, and a further
advance was made a year later, in 1907, when classes for crippled
children were added to the regular public schools whenever rooms
were available. At present there are twenty-three classes for crippled
children in the public school system of the city of New York.”
Provision was made for crippled children in the Chicago public
schools in 1899, and in the schools of Philadelphia in 1903.
Blanche Van LeLuvan Browne, a crippled woman, told recently in
the World’s Work how she began seven years ago with six dollars in
her pocket and finally built up a hospital school for cripples in
Detroit.
Mental defects were as apparent to teachers as physical defects
and here and there sporadic attempts were made to classify and
adapt instruction to individual needs. The rigidity of the school
system, however, the large classes and need of economy led to no
large effort on the part of school authorities to deal with mental
defectives until some way was demonstrated to be practical.
 Special Schools
In New York City mentally defective children were first given
special attention in the public schools in 1900 when a class was
formed in old Public School No. 1 under the Brooklyn Bridge, in
charge of Elizabeth Farrell, who, backed by Josephine Shaw Lowell,
had long and earnestly stressed the needs of these children and the
way in which they held back their companions. So helpful did the
work done by Miss Farrell prove to be that

At the present time there are 144 classes caring for about 2,300 children, with a
constant increase in the number of applicants from the grades....
In March, 1912, the State Charities Aid Association, through its special
committee on provision for the feeble-minded, presented to the Committee on
Elementary Schools of the Board of Education the following resolutions:

“Resolved, That the Board of Education shall be urged: (1) To classify mentally
all children of school age under its supervision or brought to its attention by the
Permanent Census Board or other agencies. (2) To determine as far as possible, by
scientific methods, the degree of mental deficiency of those reported as sub-
normal. (3) To keep full and accurate records of all sub-normal children, including
school work, home conditions and heredity data. (4) To send to the proper state
authorities the names of such children as are deemed to be custodial cases....”

These resolutions were adopted by the Elementary Schools Committee and sent
to the board of superintendents, that they might determine what force would be
needed to carry them into effect. After the resolutions had passed through their
hands and through the Committee on By-laws, the Board of Education was asked
to ratify the following positions: Two assistant inspectors of ungraded classes; two
physicians on full time and regularly assigned to the department of ungraded
classes; two social workers or visiting teachers.
The Public Education Association took up the matter and obtained the
coöperation of various organizations, among them the City Club, the Association of
Neighborhood Workers, the Association of Collegiate Alumnæ, the Women’s
Municipal League, and the local school boards, in the effort to induce the Board of
Education to take favorable action....
 After much discussion, ending in a hearing before the Committee on Elementary
Schools attended by many physicians, most of whom were entirely in sympathy
with the proposed increase in the department, the resolutions ratifying these
positions, as well as additional clerical assistance, were passed in October, 1912....
[3]

This segregation of mental defectives in classes is continuing

rapidly and a normal course for the teachers of ungraded classes is
now being given in the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers.
Miss Farrell, who has been the inspiration of the effort that has
been made in the city of New York to deal with defective children,
continually contributes to the development of the movement in that
direction as her own work among this type expands. The Public
Education Association has also worked for greater attention to the
problem on the part of the authorities. In one of its recent bulletins,
the situation is thus presented:
“We have been told by doctors and psychologists, in terms that we
cannot dispute, that actual feeble-mindedness is incurable, that
feeble-mindedness is hereditary, and, therefore, that institutional
care and constant supervision are the great safeguards against the
rapid and appalling increase of feeble-mindedness. We must all
agree that the end to work toward is permanent custodial care for all
the feeble-minded who have reached the age of fourteen years.
Before this age the schools can do much to develop the incomplete
individual and train him to a point of distinct usefulness in his later
institutional life, or, if he must remain in the community, they will at
least have endeavored to develop his latent possibilities of usefulness
to their fullest extent.”
To promote needed legislation, a bill has been drafted along the
lines of a memorandum prepared by the Advisory Council to the
Department of Ungraded Classes. Such women as Lillian Wald and
Florence Kelley are active on this Council. The bill calls for the
appointment of a commission by the governor to study the entire
subject of the education and care of mental defectives of all ages and
conditions and recommend suitable and comprehensive legislation.
Within the Public Education Association of New York City there is
a Committee on the Hygiene of School Children which engaged
Elizabeth A. Irwin to make a study of the situation, as far as
defectives are concerned, in the public schools and the schools
subsidized by the city: the parochial schools, the Children’s Aid
Society schools, and the schools managed by the American Female
Guardian Society. In coöperation with a member of the Children’s
Aid Society who came upon her committee, she made a careful study
of the situation in schools of that type where hitherto classification
had been neglected. The breadth of view of these women is
demonstrated in a quotation from their report:

While the first step seems to be the mental classification and recognition of
mental defect, the next step is not, in the opinion of the committee, to put these
children out of school pending their possible commitment to an institution. If the
schools are able, in time, to separate all these children into classes for proper
instruction and so rid the normal children of this unnecessary burden, they will
also be taking the first step toward demanding institutional care for those unfit to
be at large in the community. For they will then be showing, as has never been
done before, the numbers that exist and the definite limits of their educability.
Surely such a demonstration as this will be a stronger argument for institutional
care than either leaving them hidden away, as they now are, among their normal
brothers and sisters, or plucking them from school and turning them into the
street or back into tenement rooms. Once they are excluded, their parents,
ashamed to have a child too stupid to go to school, often regard them as little
outcasts, only fit, if indeed they are robust enough for that, to be the family drudge.

By means of Binet tests, home visiting for family study, charity and
health records, etc., the investigation revealed enough feeble-
mindedness to cause recommendations for a thoroughgoing medical
and educational examination to be submitted to those in control of
the schools of the Children’s Aid Society. This is of importance to the
whole social fabric and its influence extends to all phases of public
enlightenment for it must reveal certain causes of poverty or change
sentimental ideas about the incapacity of the poor as well as lead to
better guardianship of the unfit to prevent the perpetuation of the
type. The work of Miss Irwin and her volunteer assistants, under the
auspices of the committee on special children, was largely
responsible for the reorganization of the department of ungraded
classes in the school system last year, we are told in a report.
The report on the feeble-minded in New York generally was made
for the Public Education Association by Dr. Anne Moore and
published by the State Charities Aid Association’s Special Committee
on Provision for the Feeble-Minded. This report includes a study of
feeble-minded children in the public schools.
In several cities, women have been active in the study and solution
of this problem. The Civic Club of Philadelphia started the first class
for backward delinquent children. The city saw its value and
incorporated the plan into its school system. Philadelphia now has
seventy-five such classes.
Dr. C. Annette Buckel, of Oakland, California, was a director in the
Mary R. Smith Trust for delinquent children from its beginning and
took a personal interest in each little girl in the cottage homes. So
keen was her concern for handicapped children that at her death she
gave her home that the proceeds might help in promoting special
training for them.
Knowing that venereal diseases are responsible for a certain
amount of feeble-mindedness in children, women have backed the
legislation in several states for health certificates for marriage, for
one thing. The prohibition of the marriage of the unfit or feeble-
minded adults is a measure in which they are also interested as well
as in proposals and practices that deal with sterilization and
compulsory commitment to institutions.
Colored children, although in general they are only slightly behind
white children, are now beginning to receive some of that special
attention which they so much need and deserve. In addition to the
investigation of mentally defective children, a study is being made by
Frances Blascoer of the living conditions of colored children in New
York City whose school progress has been retarded.
Blind children in New York City receive education from their
earliest years as a result of the agitation and legislative work carried
on by Mrs. Cynthia Westover Alden of the International Sunshine
Society and others. This last winter similar educational care of the
blind children of the state was secured through the efforts of Mrs.
Alden and the personal appeal to the legislators by a little blind girl,
Rachel Askenas. Hitherto children under eight years of age had not
been admitted to institutions for the blind. Now during those most
receptive years they will get the necessary foundation for
impressions which play so vital a part in the lives of normal children.
 Special schools for foreigners have generally been started by
women, we feel safe in claiming, after a review of all the evidence at
hand. The Civic Club of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, composed
of men and women, inaugurated the work among foreigners in
Pittsburgh and Allegheny, but the women seem to have given most of
the time necessary to make it a success.
Some months ago the judge of one of the courts in Savannah,
Georgia, started the movement for free night schools for those who
have to work by day. “Amid many discouragements, through months
of wearying opposition, he would be inspired to renewed effort in
behalf of an all-embracing education for the poor, by the knowledge
of similar work done on a small scale by a few women in a rector’s
study. And every now and then the helpful assurance would be given
that the Woman’s Club was anxious for the success of the movement.
He only learned of this because his wife was a member of the club.”[4]
Night schools are regular municipal institutions in the larger cities.
Truant and parental schools are incorporated also into the
programs of innumerable women’s clubs today and have been
secured in some cities already by the pressure of these organizations.
The truant school in New York is under a woman principal who is
practically a juvenile court judge.
So many organizations claim credit for the first vacation school
that we shall make no effort to locate it. We do know that the Social
Science Club of Newton, Massachusetts, a woman’s club, has
maintained a vacation school for seventeen years. In Chicago the
Civic Federation opened one vacation school in 1896, the first in
Chicago. The next was opened by the University Settlement. In 1898
the women’s clubs took up the work and opened five schools. By
1906 they had eight. Chicago now has a vacation school board with a
club woman as president and another as secretary; other members
consist of club women and men. From 1898–1906 club women
contributed nearly $25,000 annually to these schools, yet “probably
15,000 children were turned away.” The Civic Club of Philadelphia
organized the first vacation school in that city and Philadelphia now
has many of them under public control.
Newark, New Jersey, was the first city to incorporate vacation
schools into its educational system, but in 1909 over sixty cities had
some sort of vacation work going on in their school buildings.
 While women’s clubs have long been interested in the vacation
school, most credit for it is due to the hundreds of women teachers
who have given of their services to make it helpful to the child and to
the community. These teachers have often, and nearly always in the
beginning, given their services without compensation and where they
have been paid a salary they have generally taught for less money
than they would have received for regular winter classes.
With these summer school teachers, women librarians coöperate
as do visiting nurses and other social workers. The children are taken
by their teachers on municipal excursions, often too, to visit places of
public interest and gain some idea of municipal enterprise and
government.
All-year-round schools are projects now in the air which are a
natural combination of regular and vacation schools.
School gardens, an important educational addition to school work,
have been largely fostered by women. In Seattle the Women’s
Congress has coöperated with the Seattle Garden Club in its program
to include all the grammar schools of the city in the garden work; the
ultimate hope is to persuade the city to take up this work in a
systematic way. Harriet Livermore of Yonkers, New York, says of
gardening: “It is a happy mingling of play and work, vacation and
school, athletics and manual training, pleasure and business, beauty
and utility, head and hand, freedom and responsibility; of corrective
and preventive, constructive and creative influences, and all in the
great school of out-of-doors. It is the corrective of the evils of the
schoolroom. It is the preventive of the perils of misspent leisure. It is
constructive of character building. It is creative of industrious,
honest producers. In fact there is no child’s nature to which it does
not in some way make a natural and powerful appeal.”
The Civic Club of Philadelphia seems to have started the first
school garden. That city now has over eight large school gardens,
nineteen for kindergarten scholars, and 5,000 separate gardens
including window boxes, etc. The women of Kalamazoo and
Dubuque and Newark are among the groups who inaugurated this
work in their towns. The city took over the school garden in Newark
after it had been organized and operated for a year by the women.
Children’s school gardens in Cincinnati are the result of work started
in 1908 by the civic department of the Woman’s Club. In three years’
time thirteen schools were promoting home gardens by distributing
seeds among the school children and helping to get results, and there
were eight school gardens. Two community gardens crown the
educational efforts of the women of Cincinnati.
Mrs. Parsons is president of the International Children’s School
Farm League and also director of the Children’s School Farms for the
Department of Parks of New York City. The methods used by her in
the work in the city parks are original with herself.
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