ELEVATE TUTORIALS

CLASS X
LIFE PROCESSES
Detailed Notes

Characteristics of living things

All the living things have some common characteristics features which make them
different from non living things .the characteristics of living things are as follows:

●​ Living things can move by themselves

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●​ Living things need food and water
●​ Living things can grow living things can respond to changes around them,

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●​ Living things respire
●​ Living things excrete
●​ Living things can reproduce
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Life processes

Life processes can be defined as the basic essential activities that are necessary to
maintain and continue life. These activities include processes like nutrition,
transportation, reproduction, respiration and excretion.
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Nutrients: a nutrient can be defined as a substance which an organism obtain from
its surroundings and uses it as a source of energy or for biosynthesis of its body
constituents, like organs and tissues.

Nutrition: nutrition is the process of intake of the nutrients like carbohydrates,fats

, Proteins etc. by an organism as well as the utilization of these nutrients by the
organisms to fulfill their energy requirements.

Respiration: it is a process of burning food to release the energy for cellular

needs.

Transportation: the process of circulation through which water oxygen and waste
materials are carried from one part of the body to another.
 Excretion: it is the process by which waste materials are excreted or thrown out of
the body.

Why do we need energy?

In the normal course of life energy expenditure takes place not only during
physical activities like walking, cycling, speaking etc. but also during rest to
maintain a state of order in our body.

We need energy for growth, building up of body and for the repair of damaged
parts and our food is the source of this energy.

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Modes of Nutrition:

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As discussed , there is a requirement of energy by all the organism but the way of
acquiring it, is different, for example plants and some bacteria use simple food
materials from inorganic sources , whereas animals, fungi and some bacteria use
Complex substances obtained from other organisms.

Therefore the classification is based on the mode of acquiring food and it is divided
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into two broad categories.

1. Autotrophic nutrition

2. Heterotrophic nutrition
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Autotrophic mode of nutrition: it is a type of nutrition in which organism

synthesize their own food from simple inorganic sources. Like carbon dioxide and
water present in the surroundings.

The green plants have an autotrophic mode of nutrition. Autotrophic bacteria (

cyanobacteria) also obtain their food by autotrophic mode of nutrition.

Heterotrophic mode of nutrition:

In this type of Nutrition organism depend on other organisms for their food as they
cannot make their own food from simple inorganic materials
 All the animals have heterotrophic mode of nutrition, most bacteria and fungi also
have heterotrophic mode of nutrition

Types of heterotrophic Nutrition:

Heterotrophic organism can obtain its food from other organism in 3 ways, so the
heterotrophic mode of nutrition is of three types:

1.​ Saprotrophic nutrition

2.​ Parasitic nutrition
3.​ holozoic nutrition

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Saprotrophic nutrition:

Saprotrophic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism obtains its food from

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decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead animals and rotten bread, etc.

Saprophytes are the organisms which obtain food from dead plants (like rotten
leaves), dead and decaying animal bodies, and other decaying organic matter.

Example: Fungi (liker bread moulds, mushrooms), and many bacteria.

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Parasitic nutrition:

The parasitic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism derives its food from
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the body of other living organisms without killing them.

A parasite is an organism (plant or animal) which feed on another living organism

called its host.

Example: some animals like Plasmodium and roundworms, a few plants like
Cuscuta (amarbel) and several fungi and bacteria.

Holozoic nutrition:

The holozoic nutrition is that nutrition in which an organism takes the complex
organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the ingested food
is digested and then absorbed into the body cells of the organism.
Example: Smaller animals like amoeba and paramecium and higher animals
including human beings.

Nutrition in plants:

Plants are autotrophic and fulfill their carbon and energy requirements for the
process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare their own food in the

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form of glucose by using raw materials like water, carbon dioxide in the presence
of chlorophyll and sunlight and releases oxygen as an end product.

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Plants store excess glucose in the form of starch.

Equation of photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 12H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

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Site of photosynthesis:

The chloroplasts in the plants are the sites of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in
leaves contain closely packed flattened sacs, called thylakoids, arranged in piles,
called granum. Granum lies in a colourless ground substance,
called stroma. Thylakoids contain green pigments, called chlorophyll, which trap
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solar energy.
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Process of photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis comprises of two phases. The first phase is the photochemical

phase or light dependent process. This phase is commonly known as the light
reaction. The second phase is the biosynthetic phase or dark reaction of
photosynthesis. This phase is a light-independent process. The whole process of
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photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplast.

Light reaction:

Light reaction is a light-dependent process which includes a series of events such

as light absorption, hydrolysis, the release of oxygen, formation of ATP (adenosine
tri phosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
hydrogen). The light reaction of photosynthesis initiates only when it is supplied
with light energy.

Light reaction occurs in the thylakoids of the chloroplast. When the light hits,
chlorophyll a get excited to higher energy state, followed by a series of reactions,
this energy is converted into energy molecules ATP and NADPH Also, hydrolysis
occurs and releases oxygen.

To summarise the light reaction, we can write it down as the following reaction:

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

Dark reaction:

Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction. It is a light-independent process

in which sugar molecules are formed from the carbon dioxide and water molecules.
This reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast where they utilize the

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products of the light reaction. (ATP and NADPH)

Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and

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proceed to the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed
during light reaction drives the reaction and convert 6 molecules of carbon dioxide
into one sugar molecule i.e. glucose.
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Components for photosynthesis:

The four major elements required to complete the process of photosynthesis are:

1. Sunlight ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 2.chlorophyll

3. Carbon dioxide ​​ ​ ​ ​ 4. Water

Sunlight:

Sunlight is one of the essential requirements for photosynthesis as it provide

energy to initiate the process

Chlorophyll:

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Chlorophyll is the green pigment present in the photosynthetic organisms. It is
mainly present in the leaves, but can also be present in the stem and the fruit.

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On observing cross section of a leaf under the microscope, some cells (mesophyll
cells) containing green dots can be observed, these green dots are cell organelles
called chloroplast which contain chlorophyll and it is the chlorophyll that traps the
sunlight for photosynthesis.
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Carbon dioxide:

How plants obtain carbon dioxide?

Plants get carbon dioxide through air which diffuses through the pores present on
the underside of the leaf. These structures through which gaseous exchange takes
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place are called stomata.

Stomata are composed of a pore enclosed by a pair of cells called guard cells,
which regulate the opening and closing of the pore.

During daytime guard cells take up water by osmosis and become turgid as a result
the inner rigid walls are pulled apart and the pores are opened.

In the Dark, Water is lost and the inner walls move together and become straight
resulting in the closing of pores.

Water:
How plants obtain water for photosynthesis?

Plants obtain water required for photosynthesis from the soil through roots, which
have hair like outgrowths called root hair. It provides a large surface area to speed
up the water absorption. The absorbed water passes through the xylem tubes in
plants and eventually reaches the leaves.

In addition to carbon dioxide and water, plants also need the nutrients like nitrogen,
Phosphorus, iron, magnesium etc. from the soil.

Nutrition in animals:

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Since animals cannot make their own food they depend on readymade food. This
readymade food comes either from plants or from other animals. Thus animals

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obtain their food from plants or other animals.

All the animals can be divided into three groups on the basis of their food habits
these are:

1. Herbivorous
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2. Carnivorous

3. Omnivorous

Herbivores:
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Those animals which eat only plants are called herbivores. Some examples are:
goat, cow, buffalo, sheep etc.

Carnivores:

Those animals which eat only the meat or flesh of other animals are called
carnivorous. Some examples are: lion, tiger, frog, vulture etc.

Omnivores:

Those animals which eat both plants and animals are called Omnivores .some
examples are: man, Bear, crow etc.
# The process of obtaining food and then using it for obtaining energy, growth
and repair of the body is called nutrition.

Different steps in the process of nutrition in animals:

There are five steps in the process of nutrition in animals these are: ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and digestion.

1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.

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2. Digestion: The process in which the food containing large insoluble molecules
is broken down into small water soluble molecules, which can be absorbed by the

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body, is called digestion.

Note: most animals use both physical and chemical methods of digestion. Physical
methods include chewing and grinding the food in mouth and chemical methods
include the addition of digestive juices to the food by the body itself.
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3. Absorption: The process in which the digested food passes through the
intestinal wall into bloodstream is called absorption.

4. Assimilation: The process in which the food is taken in the body cells and used
for energy growth and repair is called assimilation.
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5. Egestion: The process in which the undigested heart of food is removed from
the body is called egestion.

Nutrition in simple animals:

A) In amoeba:

Amoeba is a unicellular organism with an irregular shape. Hence it does not have a
mouth. The whole cell of amoeba is involved in the process of obtaining food.
The nutrition process in amoeba has following steps:

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1. Amoeba identifies its food and extends temporary finger like projections of the
cell surface called pseudopodia, which encloses the food particle. The food gets
enclosed in the cell by forming a food vacuole (temporary stomach).
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2. Inside the food vacuole the digestive enzymes from cytoplasm break the food
particles into the simple molecules.

3. The digested food is then readily absorbed in the cytoplasm directly by the
process of diffusion.
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4. This absorbed food containing nutrients is then used for obtaining energy,
growth and repair of the cell.

5. The remaining undigested material is shifted to the surface of the cell and
eliminated from the body.

B) In paramecium:
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Paramecium is a unicellular organism with a definite shape. Unlike Amoeba the
pores for ingestion and egestion are specific.

Food is ingested from a specific opening or mouth called cytostome. Food is

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brought to the cytostome through continuous beating of hair like structures called
Cilia, which are present along the entire wall of the surface. The food is digested in
the food vacuole. The undigested part is egested from specific anal Pore.

Nutrition in human beings (Complex Multicellular Animal):

The nutrition in human beings takes place through human digestive system. The
human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and its associated glands.

The various organs of the human digestive system in sequence are: Mouth,
Oesophagus (Food pipe), Stomach, Small intestine and Large intestine.
The glands which are associated with the human digestive system are: Salivary
glands, Liver and Pancreas.

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The various steps of nutrition in human beings are as follows:

Ingestion:

●​ In human beings, food is ingested through the mouth. The food is put into
the mouth with the help of hands.
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Digestion:

●​ The digestion of food begins in the mouth itself.

 ●​ The teeth cut the food into small pieces, chew and grind it. (Physical
digestion)
●​ The salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which
contains an enzyme salivary amylase which digests the starch (carbohydrate)
present in the food into sugar. (Chemical digestion)
●​ Our tongue helps in mixing this saliva with food.
●​ The digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.
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Oesophagus:

●​ The slightly digested food in the mouth is swallowed by the tongue and goes
down the food pipe called oesophagus.
When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the walls of food pipe

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start contraction and expansion movements called as peristaltic movement.
●​ This peristaltic movement of food pipe pushes the slightly digested into the

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Stomach:

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stomach.

The stomach is a J-shaped organ present on the left side of the abdomen.
The stomach walls contain s three tubular glands in it walls which secrete
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gastric juice.
●​ The gastric juice contains three substances: Hydrochloric acid, the enzyme
pepsin and mucus.
●​ The hydrochloric creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the
enzyme pepsin i.e. digestion of protein.
●​ The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of
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hydrochloric acid.
●​ The partially digested food then goes from the stomach into the small
intestine.
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Small intestine:

●​ From the stomach, the partially digested food enters the small intestine.
●​ The small intestine is the largest part (about 6.5m) of the alimentary canal.
●​ The small intestine is very narrow and arranged in the form of a coil in our
belly.
●​ The small intestine in human beings is the site of complete digestion of
food (like carbohydrates, proteins and fats)
●​ The small intestine receives the secretion of two glands: Liver and Pancreas.
 ●​ Liver secretes bile (greenish yellow liquid made in the liver and stored in
gall bladder).

Bile performs two functions:

1.​ Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach alkaline so that
pancreatic enzymes can act on it.
2.​ Bile salts break the fats present in the food into small globules making
it easy for the enzymes to act and digest them.
●​ The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like
pancreatic amylase for breaking down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins
and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.

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●​ The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secretes intestinal
juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins into amino
acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and

●​

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In this way the process of digestion converts the large and insoluble food
molecules into small water soluble molecules.

Absorption:
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●​ The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of digested food.
●​ The inner surface of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections
called villi which increase the surface area for rapid absorption of digested
food.
●​ The digested food which is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine
goes into our blood.
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Assimilation:

●​ The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts of the body
where it becomes assimilated as part of the cells and is utilised for obtaining
energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old tissues.
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Egestion:

●​ The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb
water from this material.
●​ The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
●​ The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
Dental caries:

What is dental caries? How is it produced? What precautions can prevent it? What
it can cause if left untreated?

Dental caries: Dental caries is the tooth decay that causes gradual softening of
enamel and dentine. It is caused when bacteria acts on Sugars and produce acids
that soften or demineralise the enamel. It happens when masses of bacterial cells
together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. As plaque
covers the teeth saliva cannot reach the teeth surface to neutralize the acid.

Precaution: to prevent tooth decay we should brush our teeth after having meals to

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remove the plaque before the bacteria can produce acids.

If left untreated microorganisms may invade the tooth pulp causing inflammation

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and infection.

Respiration:

The process of breaking the chemical bonds of complex molecules within the cells
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leading to considerable release of energy is called respiration.

Or

In simple terms, the process of releasing energy from food is called respiration.
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The process of respiration involves taking in oxygen into the cells using it for
releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste product carbon
dioxide and water from the body.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

The process of respiration which releases energy takes place inside the cells of the
body. So, it is also known as cellular respiration.

Breathing and Respiration:

Breathing Respiration

The mechanism by which organisms Respiration includes breathing as well as

obtain oxygen from the air and release the oxidation of food in the cells of the
carbon dioxide is called breathing. organism to release energy.

Respiration includes physical as well as

Breathing is a physical process.
biochemical process of oxidation of food.

The process of breathing involves the The process of respiration involves the
lungs of the organism. lungs and mitochondria of the cells.

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NOTE: Please note that the respiration is just opposite of photosynthesis this is
because photosynthesis makes food (glucose) by using carbon dioxide, water and

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sunlight energy and releasing oxygen; whereas respiration break down food
(glucose) by using oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide water and energy.
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How Energy Released during Respiration is Stored:

●​ The energy produced during respiration is stored in the form of ATP

molecules in the cells of the body and used by the organism as when
required.
ADP (Adenosine Di-Phosphate, low energy content), Inorganic Phosphate
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●​
(Pi) and ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate, high energy content) are the
substances present inside a cell.
●​ The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules by
binding ADP molecules and inorganic phosphate.

●​ Thus, energy is stored in the form of ATP.

●​ When the cell needs energy, then ATP can be broken down using water to
release energy. Thus:
 ●​ The energy equivalent to 30.5KJ/mole is released in this process.
●​ ATP is known as energy currency of cells.

Types of respiration:

The respiration process can be divided into different categories based on the
availability of oxygen.

However in all types of respiration the first step is the breakdown of the glucose,a
6 carbon molecule into a three carbon molecule called pyruvate. This process takes
place in cytoplasm, and is known as glycolysis. Further the fate of the pyruvate
depends on the availability of oxygen.

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Based on this, we have two types respiration:​

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1.​ Aerobic respiration (in presence of oxygen)
2.​ Anaerobic respiration (in absence of oxygen)
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Aerobic Respiration:

●​ The respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration.

●​ In aerobic respiration, the glucose food is completely broken down into
carbon dioxide and water by oxidation.
●​ Aerobic respiration produces a considerable amount of energy for use by the
organism which gets stored in the ATP molecules.
 ●​ Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cells. Thus, the
breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place
in mitochondria.

Anaerobic Respiration:

●​ The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic

respiration.

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●​ The microscopic organisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by
anaerobic respiration (which is called fermentation).

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●​

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In anaerobic respiration, the microorganisms like yeast break down glucose
(food) into ethanol and carbon dioxide, and release energy.
Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy which gets stored in the
ATP molecules.

Glycolysis in absence of oxygen

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Glucose ----------------) pyruvate ---------------------------) 2C2H5OH + CO2 + 2 ATP
In cytoplasm (yeast) (Fermantation) (Ethanol)

●​ Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, in case of

intense physical activities, another pathway for the breakdown of pyruvate is
taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (which is also a
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three-carbon molecule) with the release of small amount of energy.

Note: The accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle cells causes muscle cramps,
which is a painful condition. We can get relief from the cramps in muscles by
taking a hot water bath or massage.

Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

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Respiration in Plants:
Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get this energy by the process of
respiration. Plants also use oxygen of air for respiration and release carbon dioxide.
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The respiration in plants differs from the animals in three respects:

Respiration in plants Respiration in animals

All the parts of a plant (like root,

An animal performs respiration as a
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stem and leaves) perform respiration
single unit.
individually.

During respiration in plants, there is a

Respiratory gases are usually
little transport of respiratory gases
transported over long distance inside
from one part of the plant to the
an animal during respiration.
other.

The respiration in plants occurs at a The respiration in animals occurs at a

slow rate. much faster rate.
Plants get Oxygen by Diffusion:

●​Plants have a branching shape, so they have quite a large surface area in
comparison to their volume. Therefore, diffusion alone can supply all the
cells of the plants with as much oxygen as they need for respiration.
●​ Diffusion occurs in the roots, stems and leaves of plants.
Respiration in Roots:
●​Air occurs in soil interspaces. Root hairs of the roots are in direct contact
with them.

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●​ Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair and reaches all internal cells
of the root for respiration.
●​ Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.

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●​ In water-logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of
oxygen, metabolic activity of the root declines and the plant may wither.
Respiration in Stems:
●​The stems of herbaceous plants have stomata. The oxygen from air diffuses
into the stem of a herbaceous plant through stomata and reaches all the cells
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for respiration.
●​ The carbon dioxide gas produced during respiration diffuses out into the air
through the same stomata.
●​ In woody stems, the bark has lenticels (raised pores) for gaseous exchange.
Respiration in Leaves:
●​ The leaves of a plant have tiny pores called stomata. The exchange of
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respiratory gases in the leaves takes place by the process of diffusion
through stomata.

Note: It should be noted that respiration in leaves occurs during the daytime as well
as at night; on the other hand photosynthesis occurs only during the daytime.

Net gaseous exchange in the leaves of the plant:

●​ During day time, when photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is produced. The

leaves use some of this oxygen for respiration and rest of the oxygen
diffuses out into air.
 ●​ Again, during the day time, carbon dioxide produced by respiration is all
used up in photosynthesis by leaves. Even more carbon dioxide is taken in
from air.
●​ Thus, net gas exchange in leaves during day time is: O2 diffuses out ;
CO2diffuses in.

●​ At night time, when no photosynthesis occurs and hence no oxygen is

produced, oxygen from air diffuses into leaves to carry out respiration. And
carbon dioxide produced by respiration diffuses out into air.
●​ Thus, net gas exchange in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in; CO2 diffuses
out.

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Respiration in Animals:

Different animals have different modes of respiration.​

Animals Respiratory organ

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Unicellular animals like
Cell membrane
Amoeba, Planaria.

Earthworm Skin

Aquatic animals like Fish,

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Gills
Prawns

Insects like Grasshopper,

Spiracles and tracheae
Cockroach

Land animals like Humans,

Lungs
birds

●​ All the respiratory organs have three common features:

1.​ All the respiratory organs have a large surface area to get enough
oxygen.
 2.​ All the respiratory organs have thin walls for easy diffusion and
exchange of respiratory gases.
3.​ All the respiratory organs like skin gills and lungs have a rich blood
supply for transporting respiratory gases.

●​ Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals
that live in water (aquatic animals) need to use the oxygen dissolved in
water.
●​ Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount
of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much
faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.

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Respiration in Amoeba:
●​ Amoeba is single-celled animal. Amoeba depends on simple diffusion of
gases from breathing.

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●​ The exchange of gases in Amoeba takes place through its cell membrane.
●​ Amoeba lives in water. This water has oxygen dissolved in it. The oxygen
from water diffuses into the body of Amoeba through its cell membrane.
●​ Since the amoeba is very small in size, so the oxygen spreads quickly into
the whole body of Amoeba.
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●​ This oxygen is used for respiration inside the Amoeba cell. The process of
respiration produces carbon dioxide gas continuously. This carbon dioxide
gas diffuses out through the membrane of amoeba into the surrounding
water.

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requirements of large multicellular organisms like human beings because the

volume of the human body is so big that the oxygen cannot diffuse into all
the cells of the human body quickly.

So in large animal there is a need of blood circulatory system to carry

oxygen to all the parts of the body quickly and to remove carbon dioxide, for
this the blood contains the respiratory pigment called hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen from lungs to all the cells of the body very efficiently.
We will now discuss the process of breathing and respiration in some large
animals like Earthworms, fish and humans.
Respiration in Earthworm:
●​ The earthworm exchanges the gases through its skin. The earthworm absorbs
the oxygen is needed for respiration through is moist skin.
 ●​ The oxygen is then transported to all the cells of the earthworm by its blood
where it is used in respiration.
●​ The carbon dioxide produced during respiration is carried back by the blood.
This CO2 is expelled from the body of the earthworm through its skin.

Respiration in Fish:
●​ The fish has special organs for breathing called ‘gills’. The fish has gills on
both the sides of its head.
●​ The fish lives in water and this water contains dissolves oxygen in it. The
fish breathes by taking in water through its mouth and sending it over the
gills.
●​ When water passes over gills, the gills extract dissolved oxygen from this

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water. The water then goes out through the gill slits.
●​ The extracted oxygen is absorbed by the blood and carried to all the parts of
the fish. The carbon dioxide produced by the respiration is brought back by

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the blood into the gills for expelling into the surrounding water.

Respiratory system in Humans:

In human beings the process of respiration takes place inside the cells of our body.
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It involves our respiratory system. The function of respiratory system is to breathe
in oxygen for producing energy from food and breathe out carbon dioxide
produced by respiration.

The main organs of the respiratory system nose, nasal passage or nasal cavity,
trachea, bronchi, alveolus, lungs and diaphragm.
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Human respiratory system:

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Lung’s structure:
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The process of respiration in human beings can be divided into two parts:

1. External respiration (Breathing)

2. Internal respiration (cellular respiration)

External respiration or Breathing:

External respiration is basically the transfer of gas between respiratory organs such
as lungs and the outer environment. External respiration also known as breathing
refers to a process of inhaling oxygen (Inhalation) from the air into the lungs and

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expelling carbon dioxide (Exhalation) from the lungs to the air.

Exchange of gases both in and out of the blood occurs simultaneously. External

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respiration is a physical process during which oxygen is taken up by capillaries of
lung alveoli and carbon dioxide is released from blood. A breath means one
inhalation plus one exhalation.
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Mechanism of breathing:

Breathing in:
When we breathe in, muscles between the ribs gets contracted as a result the rib
cage move upward and outward and our diaphragm get flattened due to
contraction, as a result, the chest cavity becomes larger. Because of this, air is
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sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.

Breathing out:

When we breathe out air. The diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs relax due
to which our chest cavity contracts and becomes smaller. This contraction
movement of the chest pushes out CO2 from the alveoli of lungs into the trachea,
nostrils then out of the body into air.

Note: During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always
contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be
absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.
Internal respiration (cellular respiration):

Internal respiration or tissue respiration/cellular respiration refers to a metabolic

process in which oxygen is released to tissues or living cells and carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the blood. Once inside the cell the oxygen is used for producing
energy in the form of ATP.

Mechanism of Internal respiration:

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●​ When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm. And the
chest cavity becomes larger as a result. Because of this, air is sucked into the
lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.

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●​

●​
The alveoli are surrounded by thin blood vessels called capillaries carrying
blood in them. So. The oxygen of air diffuses out from the alveoli walls into
the blood.
The oxygen is carried by blood to all the parts of the body. As the blood
passes through the tissues of the body, the oxygen present in it diffuses into
the cells.
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●​ The oxygen combines with the digested food present in the cells to release
energy.
●​ Carbon dioxide gas is produced as a waste product during respiration in the
cells of the body tissues. This carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood.
●​ Blood carries the CO2 back to the lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli.
●​ When we breathe out air. The diaphragm and muscles attached to the ribs
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relax due to which our chest cavity contracts and becomes smaller. This
contraction movement of the chest pushes out CO2 from the alveoli of lungs
into the trachea, nostrils then out of the body into air.

Mechanism of entire Respiration or Summary:

●​Air is taken in through the nostrils.

Hairs present in the nostrils prevent the entry of dust particles inside the nose.
Nostrils further continue into the nasal cavity.
Nostrils warms and moisten the air passing through it.
There is a bony plate called the palate, which separates the oral cavity from the
nasal cavity.
Nasal cavity opens into the pharynx.
The pharynx is a muscular chamber acting as a common passage for the
windpipe or trachea and the food pipe or esophagus.
It is connected to the larynx through a slit-like opening called the glottis.
The larynx is also called the voice-box or Adam's apple.
The larynx connects the pharynx to the trachea.
The trachea shows the presence of cartilaginous rings.
The cartilaginous rings provide flexibility thus, facilitating continuous air flow
and prevents the trachea from collapsing even when there is no air in it.
The trachea divides into two branches or tubes called bronchi, one of which
enters the right lung and the other enters the left lung.
Each bronchus divides into fine secondary bronchi. These bronchi further
divide into finer tertiary bronchi. In the lungs, each bronchus finally divides into

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finer and smaller branches called bronchioles.
The bronchioles further divide to form smaller terminal bronchioles.
The bronchioles divide repeatedly to form a cluster of tiny air chambers called

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air sacs or alveoli.
Alveoli have thin and moist walls which enable gaseous diffusion with blood
capillaries.
The lungs are a pair of spongy and elastic respiratory organs protected by a
bony rib cage.
The base of the lungs rests on the diaphragm.
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Each lung is covered by two membranes. The inner membrane is called the
inner or visceral pleura and the outer membrane is called the outer or parietal
pleura.
The diaphragm is a curved sheath which separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity.
The diaphragm plays a major role during respiration.
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The intercostal muscles found between the ribs and the radial muscles of the
diaphragm bring about the breathing movements.
When we breathe in, the ribs are pulled upwards and the diaphragm becomes
flat which results in an increase in the volume of lungs.
When we breathe out, the ribs come back to their normal position, the
diaphragm is relaxed, lungs attain their normal size and air is expelled out of the
body through the nostrils.
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Rate of breathing:
●​ The process of breathing pumps in oxygen into our body (and removes
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CO2).
●​ Breathing occurs involuntarily but the rate of breathing is controlled by the
respiratory system of brain.
●​ The average breathing rate in an adult man at rest is about 15 to 18 times per
minute. This breathing rate increases with increased physical activity.
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1.​ Oxygen required for breathing and respiration is carried by
haemoglobin pigment present in our blood. The normal range of
haemoglobin in the blood of a healthy adult person is from 12 to 18
grams per deciliter of blood.
2.​ The deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood of a person reduces the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood resulting in breathing problems,
tiredness and lack of energy.

Carbon monoxide poisoning:

●​ Carbon monoxide gas (CO) is formed whenever a fuel burns in an
insufficient supply of air. For car engine. For example, if coal is burned in a
closed space, then a lot of carbon monoxide is formed. CO produced when
petrol burns in a car engine.
 ●​ Haemoglobin has more affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen, so, if
carbon monoxide gas is inhaled by a person, then this carbon monoxide
binds very strongly with haemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from
carrying oxygen to the brain and other parts of the body.
●​ Due to lack of oxygen, the person cannot breathe properly. If carbon
monoxide is inhaled for a long time then the person becomes unconscious
and may even die due to oxygen starvation.

Transportation:

All living organisms require regular supply of nutrients, Oxygen and other
essential substances. Similarly, waste material has to be removed for healthy

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functioning of the body it is therefore essential to have a system for the movement
of substance to and fro from the cells.
In Biology, transport is a life process in which substances absorbed or made in one

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part of the body of an organism is carried to the other parts of the body.
In unicellular and simple multicellular organisms the transportation of substance
takes place through simple diffusion, whereas in more Complex organisms
specialized transportation systems have developed for transportation.
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1. Transportation in plants:

To circulate water, essential nutrients, excretory products and gases within the
plants for various purposes, transportation in plants is necessary. In vascular
tissues, this transportation in plant takes place.
The conduction of water, minerals and nutrients throughout a plant’s body takes
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place with the help of Vascular tissues like the xylem and phloem.

Transportation of water and minerals:

●​ Xylem:

Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and Minerals. It is composed of

tracheids, xylem vessels, and xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre.

Tracheids and xylem vessels are the conducting elements, both are non living.
The xylem vessels make a continuous tube in plants which runs from Roots to stem
and right up to the veins of the leaves. It transfers water and dissolved minerals in
one direction.
Tracheids are elongated dead cells having pointed ends and thick cell walls. Like
xylem vessels, pits are also present in thick cell walls of tracheids. Water travels
from one tracheid to another through pits.

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Mechanism of transportation of water and minerals in plants:
●​ Water moves into the root hairs which are in direct contact with the water film in
the soil through diffusion, and then steady it moves into the root xylem, creating
a column of water, which is progressively pushed upwards right up to the leaves.
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●​ Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a low pressure
area in the leaf and thus a suction pull is created, which pulls water from the
xylem cells of roots; this process keeps going on.
●​ The loss of water in the form of vapor from the leaves (i.e. aerial parts) of the
plant is known as transpiration.
●​ Transpiration, likewise, helps in the absorption and upward movement of water
and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
●​ Transpiration also helps in the temperature regulation (in plants).
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Transportation of food and other substances:

Leaves make the food for plant by the process of photosynthesis and some plant
hormones are also made in the tips of roots and shoots.

The food manufactured by the leaves and the hormones are transported to all parts
of the plant through a kind of tube called phloem, which is present in all the parts
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of the plant. The movement of food material through phloem depends on the action
of living cells called sieve tubes which is a part of phloem itself.

The transport of food from the leaves to other parts of the plant is called
translocation.

Phloem:

Phloem is composed of four kinds of cells: sieve elements, companion cells,

phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.. The transport in the phloem tissue is
bidirectional. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements of a phloem.

Sieve tubes:
Like xylem vessels phloem is made of many cells joined end to end to form long
tubes. The end walls of cells in the phloem forms Sieve like plates, which have a
small holes in them. These holes in the sieve plates allow the food to pass along the
phloem tubes or sieve tubes. Sieve tubes which form phloem are living cells which
contain cytoplasm but no nucleus.

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Mechanism of transportation of food and other substances in plants:
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The movement of food in phloem (or translocation) takes place by utilising energy.
This happens as follows: The sugar (food) made in leaves is loaded into the sieve
tubes of phloem tissue by using energy from ATP. Water now enters into sieve
tubes containing sugar by the process of osmosis due to which the pressure in the
phloem tissue rises.

This high pressure produced in the phloem tissue moves the food to all the parts of
the plant having less pressure in their tissues.

For example, in spring, even the sugar stored in the root or stem tissue of a plan)
would be transported through phloem to the buds which need energy to grow.
2. Transportation in animals:

The human circulatory system is mainly composed of three main components.

These are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Let us now look at these
components in further detail.

1. Blood:

Blood is the major tissue in the human body that is responsible for carrying
substances and materials to different parts of the body. It is red in colour due to the
presence of red pigment called hemoglobin in it.

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Blood is primarily composed of the following components:

1. Plasma​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 2. Red blood cells​ ​

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3. White blood cells​ ​ ​ 4. Platelets

Plasma: Plasma is what makes up the liquid part of the blood. Plasma contains
90% water and some dissolved substances in it. It is the major component of
blood and is basically pale in color. All the blood cells are immersed in plasma.
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●​ Red Blood Cells or Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC): These are disc-shaped
cells that contain a pigment that is called haemoglobin. This pigment is
responsible for binding with oxygen and thus, is mainly responsible for
transporting the oxygen throughout the human body. Haemoglobin also helps in
carrying some amount of carbon dioxide back to lungs.
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●​ White Blood Cells or White Blood Corpuscles (WBC): These cells have
various shapes and play a major role in engulfing foreign particles and harmful
microbes. Thus, they help in fighting many diseases. These are what make up
the immune system of the body.
●​ Platelets: Platelets are the main components that are responsible for clotting or
coagulation of blood. In cases of any injury or accidents, the blood clots after
some time. This prevents excess loss of blood. Clotting of blood is a defense
mechanism in the body.

Functions of blood:
 ●​ Blood plays a vital role in transporting many substances to all parts of the
body.
●​ As the blood contains RBCs, it transports oxygen from lungs to cells and in
turn carries carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.
●​ Urea, the main excretory product formed in the liver is carried away by the
blood to kidneys.
●​ Blood transports soluble digested food materials which are absorbed in the
small intestine.
●​ Blood provides a medium of transport for the hormones secreted by different
endocrine glands to reach their target organs.
●​ Blood also transports water required by the cells to perform various

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biochemical reactions and it also maintains temperature.

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2. Blood Vessels:

The next important component of the circulatory system is the network of blood
vessels. Blood vessels are of three main types. They are arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
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●​ Arteries: Arteries have relatively thicker walls and are responsible for carrying
oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs. An exception to this
mechanism is the pulmonary artery as it is responsible for carrying
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
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●​ Veins: Veins are made of relatively thin walls compared to arteries. They carry
out the function of transporting deoxygenated blood from different organs to the
heart. They have valves, which keeps the flow of blood unidirectional (towards
the heart). Pulmonary vein is an exception because it carries oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart.
●​ Capillaries: The capillaries are thin-walled and extremely narrow tubes or
blood vessels, which connect arteries to veins. The walls of the capillaries are
only one cell thick. The exchange of various materials like oxygen, food,
carbon dioxide etc. between the blood and the body cells takes place through
capillaries as capillaries are in direct contact with the rest of the body cells.

A comparison between arteries, veins and capillaries:

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3. The Heart:
The heart is a small muscular organ made up entirely of the cardiac muscles. It
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pumps blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to other
parts of the body.

The heart consists of four chambers namely auricles and ventricles. The two upper
chambers of the heart are known as the auricles.

The two lower chambers of the heart are the ventricles. Left and right parts of the
heart are separated by a muscular partition called as septum.

Heart has valves present between the upper and lower chambers and also between
the ventricles and blood vessels, which allow the blood to flow in one direction.
These prevent the mixing of oxygenated blood with de-oxygenated blood.
The blood is pumped in a fashion that is described below:

From the body → Right Auricle → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs
→ Pulmonary Vein → Left Auricle → Left Ventricle → Aorta---- To the body

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Functioning and blood flow through the heart:

Sequence of events while heart pumps and receives blood is as follows:

●​ Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of
the heart on the left, i.e. the left atrium through the pulmonary vein.
●​ When it is collecting the blood, the left atrium relaxes; however, while the next
chamber, i.e. the left ventricle expands, then it (left atrium) contracts, so that
the blood is transferred to left ventricle.
●​ Further, when the muscular left ventricle contracts (in its turn), the blood is
pumped out to all parts of body (except lungs) through the aorta. Likewise,
de-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right,
the right atrium (as it expands) through the vena cava.
●​ When the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates and this act transfers the blood to the right ventricle, which in
turn pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation through the pulmonary artery.
●​ The ventricles have thicker muscular walls (than the atria do), as ventricles
have to pump blood into various organs.

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Two exceptions:

Pulmonary artery arises from the right ventricle and takes the blood away to the
lungs. It carries deoxygenated blood.
Pulmonary vein carries the blood from the lungs to the left Atrium. it carries
oxygenated blood.

# Heart is a double pump:

Heart is a kind of pump which pumps blood around the body continuously without
stopping. Actually heart is not a single Pump it is really a double pump.

The left side of the heart (left Atrium and left ventricle) acts as 1 pump which
pumps blood into the whole body except the lungs. The right side of the heart
(right Atrium and right ventricle) acts as another pump which pumps blood only
into the lungs. These two pumps in the heart work independently.

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The separation between the left and right side of the heart is necessary to
prevent the mixing of oxygenated blood on the left side with the deoxygenated
blood on the right side. It is required for high energy needs.

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NOTE:

Please note that the two atria contracts together and relaxes together, similarly the
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two ventricles contract together and relax together. The contraction of two atria is
immediately followed by the contraction of two ventricles.

The period of contraction is called as systole and period of relaxation is called as

diastole.
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Double circulation in heart:

Blood circulatory system in human beings is an example of double circulation.

This can be explained as follows: The circulatory system in which blood Travels
twice through the heart in one complete cycle of the body is called double
circulation.

In human circulatory system the pathway of the blood from the heart to the lungs
and back to the heart is pulmonary circulation and the pathway of the blood from
the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart is called systemic
circulation. These two types of circulation taken together make double circulation.
Heart beat:

When the heart contracts, it become smaller in size and push the blood into the
main artery with the great force. Then the heart relaxes and gets filled up with
oxygenated blood from the Pulmonary vein.

In this way the heart keeps on contacting and relaxing again and again to pump the
blood into the body continuously. This rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
muscles of heart produces a throbbing sound called Heartbeat. One complete
contraction and relaxation of the heart is called heartbeat.

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Although the average number of heartbeats of a person at rest is about 70 to 72 per
minute but the number of Heartbeat increases too much after the physical exercise
or when a person is excited. it reaches even more than hundred per minute

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sometimes because we need more energy during exercise.

Pulse:
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Every time the heart beats blood is forced into the arteries. This blood make the
arteries expand a little.

The rhythmical throbbing due to expansion of an artery, each time the blood is
forced into it is called pulse. Each Heartbeat generates one pulse in the arteries, so
the pulse rate of a person is equal to the number of heart beats per minute that is 70
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to 72 times per minute.

The pulse can be felt at wrist temple and neck by pressing the artery lightly with
fingertips.

Blood pressure:

Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the walls of the arteries, when
the heart pushes the blood into them.

The pressure of a person is always expressed in the form of two values called
systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.

Systolic pressure: The maximum pressure at which blood leaves the heart through
the main artery during contraction phase is called systolic pressure.
Diastolic pressure: pressure in the arteries during relaxation phase (blood filling
phase) of the heart is called as diastolic pressure.

The value of diastolic pressure is always lower than that of the systolic pressure.
The blood pressure of a person is expressed in terms of mili meters of Mercury
(written as mm Hg)

The normal blood pressure values are:

Systolic pressure 120 mm Hg

Diastolic pressure 80 mm Hg

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This is usually written as 120/80

Blood pressure is measured by using an instrument called Sphygmomanometer.

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The Tissue fluid and the Lymph:

# How food and oxygen reach blood cells:

We have studied that blood carries food and oxygen around the body, but blood
never comes in contact with body cells. So how do food and oxygen get from the
blood to the body cells where they are needed?
This happens with the help of Plasma of blood, which leaks out of the blood
capillaries around the body cells. This plasma which leaks out from the blood
capillaries and reaches to the tissues is called TISSUE FLUID. We can now say
that the liquid from the blood which is forced out through the capillary walls
and moves between all the body cells, providing them with food and oxygen
and removing carbon dioxide is called TISSUE FLUID.

After doing its job, most of the tissue fluid seeps back into the blood capillaries.
The remaining tissue fluid carrying large protein molecules, digested fats
germs from the cells and fragments of dead cells enters into another type of
tube called lymph capillaries and it becomes lymph.

This lymph is returned to the blood by another type of transport system in the

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human body called lymphatic system.

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Lymphatic system:

A system of tiny tubes called lymph vessels and lymph nodes in the human body
which transports the liquid called lymph from the body tissues to the blood
circulatory system is called lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system consists of the following parts:

1. Lymph capillaries ​ ​ ​ 2. Larger lymph vessels

3. Lymph nodes ​ ​ ​ ​ 4. Lymph

1. Lymph capillaries: These are very small tubes which are present throughout the
body. An important characteristic of the walls of lymph capillaries are the presence
of bigger size pores through which large protein molecules, digested fat, germs and
fragments of dead cells from the tissue fluid can seep through. These join to form
larger lymph vessels.

2. Larger lymph vessels: These are thin walled vessels which are structured like

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blood vessels, they carry lymph. The lymph vessel has lymph nodes at intervals.
the lymph vessels are connected to larger veins of the circulatory system

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3. Lymph nodes: it contains lymphocyte (white blood cell), that are involved in
cleaning the lymph and protecting the body from disease. The white blood cells
Lymphocytes eat the germs and dead cells, and also produce antibodies for
protection of body against disease.

4. Lymph: It is a colourless liquid, a byproduct of Plasma. Lymph is derived from

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the tissue fluid which remains outside the cells of the body. It is another medium of
circulation in the body but flows in One Direction only that is, from body tissue to
the heart. it carries Large protein molecules, digested fat and other useful materials
collected from the tissue fluid present in the extracellular space and drains into the
blood .
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Composition of the Lymph

Lymph consists of the following components:

Proteins – Albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen, Non-protein nitrogenous substance,
Carbohydrates, Lymphocytes, Water – 94%, Very low amount of fat, Creatinine,
Urea and Enzymes.

Functions of the Lymph (or lymphatic system):

●​ Lymph or lymphatic system takes part in the nutritive process of body, for
example, it puts into circulation, large protein molecules by carrying them from
the tissues into the bloodstream. Lymph also carries digested fats for the
nutritive process.
●​ Lymph protects the body by killing the germs drained out of the body tissues
with the help of lymphocytes contained in the lymph nodes and by making

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antibodies.
●​ Lymph helps in removing the waste products like fragments of dead cells.

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Excretion:

As a result of numerous metabolic activities, going on inside the bodies of

living organisms waste gets accumulated, which must be removed from the
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body continuously to live a normal life. The process of removal of toxic waste
from the body of an organism is called excretion.

Excretion in plants: Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized

system for excretion. But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in
animals. They do not have special organs for excretion. Thus excretion in plants is
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not so complex.

Excretory products:
The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a
lot of excretory products in plants. Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during
respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced during protein metabolism are
the major excretory products in plants.
Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and
carbon dioxide during respiration. Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place
through stomatal pores on leaves.
Excess of water is also excreted from the plant body through the stomatal pores
and from the surfaces of fruits and stems. The process of elimination of water is
called transpiration.
Other than gaseous wastes, metabolism in plants also generates organic
by-products. These wastes are stored in different forms in different parts. The
gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like
barks, stems, leaves, etc. Eventually, plants shed off these parts.
Excretion in plants can be summarized as follows:

●​ Transpiration: Gaseous wastes and water are excreted through stomata,

lenticels of the stem, and the outer surface of stems, fruits, etc.

●​ Storing: Plants get rid of organic wastes stored in plant parts by shedding
leaves, peeling of bark and felling of fruits.

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●​ Diffusion: Aquatic plants excrete metabolic wastes through diffusion.
Terrestrial plants excrete into the soil.

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Excretion in animals:

Different animals have different arrangements or organs for excretion which

depends on the constitution of the animal, for example:
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In Amoeba and other single-celled animals the waste material carbon dioxide is
removed by diffusion through the cell membrane but nitrogenous waste like
Ammonia and excess water are removed by the contractile vacuole.

In earthworm the Tubular structures called nephridia are the excretory organs in
addition to nephridia the moist skin of earthworm also acts as an excretory organ.
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In human beings the microscopic thin tubules form nephron, which functions as
excretory unit. About 1 million nephrons taken together form the excretory organ
of the human beings called kidney.

Removal of waste products in humans:

Human body waste products include nitrogen compounds uric acid and urea. Uric
acid results from nucleic acid decomposition, and urea results from amino acid
breakdown in the liver. Both of these nitrogen products can be poisonous to the
body and must be removed from the body. Other waste products are carbon
dioxide, water etc. The waste products generated are eliminated either through the
skin, liver, urinary system, respiratory system or gastrointestinal system.

​ Skin: Removal of water, urea and salts through sweat glands present in skin.

​ Liver: It detoxifies and breakdown Chemicals, poison and other toxins that
enter the body.
​ Respiratory system: The lungs help in getting rid of carbon dioxide formed as
a result of cellular respiration through exhalation.
​ Gastrointestinal system: Elimination of solid waste left after process of

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digestion and absorption of food is through the colon for elimination through
anus.
​ Urinary system: it consists of various organs which remove nitrogenous

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wastes from the blood is such as urea, as well as Salts and excess water and
excrete them in the form of urine.

Excretion in human beings:

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In human beings, excretion mainly occurs through urinary system that is involved
in separation, conduction, temporary storage and elimination of nitrogenous waste
(mainly urea) as Urine. It consists of number of organs including:

The excretory system of human beings consist of following main organs, two
Kidneys, two ureters, Urinary bladder and urethra.
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The Kidneys are Bean shaped the organs located towards the back of our body, just
above the waist. Every person has two Kidneys. The blood in our body is
constantly passing through our kidneys. The renal artery brings the dirty blood
containing waste substances into the kidneys. Kidneys then remove the poisonous
substances like urea and other waste Salts and excess water from the blood and
excrete them in the form of yellow liquid called urine.

Now that clean blood is carried away from the kidney by the renal vein. The
ureters open into urinary bladder. Ureters are the tubes which carry urine from the
kidney to the bladder. Urine is stored in the bladder temporarily, till the time we
urinate. The urine collected in bladder is passes through a tube like structure called
urethra out of the body.
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Structure of kidney in detail:

Each kidney is made up of large number of excretory units called nephrons.

The nephron has a Cup shaped bag at its upper and which is called Bowman's
capsule. The lower and of Bowman’s capsule is tube shaped and it is called a
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tubule. The Bowman’s capsule and the tubule taken together make a nephron. One
end of the tubule is connected to the Bowman’s capsule and other and is connected
to a urine collecting duct of the kidney. The Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle
of blood capillaries which is called glomerulus. One and of the glomerulus is
attached to the renal artery which bring the dirty blood into it. The other end of the
glomerulus comes out of the Bowman’s capsule as a blood capillary, surrounds the
tubule of nephron and finally joins a renal vein (putting urea free clean blood into
it).

Structure of kidney:
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Structure of nephron:
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Mechanism of urine formation:

The process of clearing blood of waste materials in the nephron occurs in three
stages:

Filtration: it occurs when blood enters the glomerulus under high pressure, which
causes water and the small solutes to pass through capillary walls of the
glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule and enter the renal tubule of nephron. Large
molecules remain in the blood of the glomerulus. The filtrate contains water,
glucose, salts, urea and vitamins.

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Selective reabsorption: Some molecules of the glomerular filtrate travel back into
the bloodstream. It occurs in the renal tubule. Glucose and other nutrients, water

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and essential ions pass out of the renal tubules and enter the surrounding
capillaries. Reabsorption involves both diffusion and active transport. The waste
containing fluid that remains after reabsorption is urine.

Tubular secretion: it is active secretion of waste products into the urinary tubule.
It ensures removal of all the waste products from Blood and maintains ionic
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balance of the body fluids.
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Control of excretion:

The urine reaches from nephrons to the urinary bladder through ureters. Bladder
collects all urine that is formed as a continuous process. As it is collected, there is a
pressure creation in the bladder and one gets an urge to pass urine via urethra.
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Renal failure (kidney failure) and the technology for survival.

Sometimes due to infection or injury to the Kidneys, very high blood pressure,
very high blood sugar or restricted blood flow to Kidneys, can damage the Kidneys
due to which they stop working. Complete failure of kidneys allows the urea and
other waste products to build up in the blood. This will cause death if the patient is
not given immediate treatment.

The best long term solution for kidney failure is the kidney transplant. The
damaged kidney is removed and a matching kidney donated by a healthy person is
transplanted in its place by a surgical operation. If a kidney transplant is not
possible due to some reason then Dialysis is another option.
Dialysis:

The blood of person having kidney failure can be cleaned regularly by using a
kidney machine or Dialysis machine. The procedure used for cleaning the blood of
a person (Artificially), by separating the waste substance (urea) from it is called
dialysis.

The principle of dialysis is explained below:

The blood from an artery in the patient's arm is made to flow into the dialyser of a
Dialysis machine made of long tubes of selectively permeable membrane (like
cellulose) which are coiled in a tank containing dialysing solution. Dialysing

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solution contains water, glucose and salts in the similar concentrations to those in
normal blood. As a patient blood passes through the dialysing solution, most of the
waste like urea present in it passes through the selectively permeable cellulose

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tubes into the dialysing solution. The clean blood is then pumped back into the
vein of the patients arm.
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