If you observe matter around us, it will be of two types that is pure and impure substance.

Pure substance (Elements and Compounds):

A pure substance is one which consist of a single type of particle pure substance are always
Homogenous. E.g: sulphur element is made up of only sulphur atoms. Similarly, water is made
up of only water molecules. Pure substance cannot be separated into other type of matter by any
physical process.

Impure Substance(Mixture):
A mixture is one which contains two or more different type of particle having different
chemical nature. Mixture may be homogenous or heterogeneous. E.g: Salt solution is a
mixture of saltand water. Similarly, milk is a mixture of water, fat, proteins etc. Mixture can
be separated into their consultants by simple physical process.

NOTE: All the matter can be classified into following types as given below:

MATTER

PURE IMPURE
SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCE

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS MIXTURE

HETEROGENEOU
HOMOGENOUS
S

SOLUTIONS COLLIDS SUSPENSIONS

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Elements:
An element is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler substance by
usual physical method or chemical method.

e.g.:- Hydrogen is an element because it cannot be split up to two or more simple substance
by the usual methods like applying heat, light or electricity. There are 115 elements known at
present out of which 92 elements occur in nature while the remaining 23 elements have been
prepared artificially.

Three groups of elements

a) Metals
b) Non- Metals
c) Metalloids
Metals:- A metals is an elements that is usually malleable, ductile and conduct electricity. All
metals are solid expect mercury(liquid).

Properties of Metals
a) They are malleable. This means that metals can be beaten into thin sheets with hammer
without breaking. e.g.: Gold, silver, Aluminium, copper.
b) They are ductile. This means that metals can be drawn into thin wire. e.g: Gold, Silver,
Aluminium, Copper etc.
c) Metals are lustrous and can be polished. E.g: gold, silver, copper.
d) They are generally hard except sodium and potassium.
e) They are usually strong strong and they have high tensile strength.
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 f) They are solids at room temperature except Mercury.
g) Metal have generally high melting and boiling point. Metals like gallium and cesium
become liquid at a temperature above room temperature (about 303K).
h) They have high density except sodium and potassium.
i) They are sonorous (ringing sound).
j) They usually have silvery grey and golden yellow colour.
k) They are good conductors of heat and electricity. This means that metal allow heat and
electricity to pass through them easily. E.g silver, aluminium, copper. Silver is the best.

Non- Metals: It is an element that is usually neither malleable nor ductile and usually does
not conduct electricity.

Properties of Non–Metals:

a)They are non- malleable i.e., they cannot be beaten into thin sheets.
b)They are non-ductile in nature i.e., they cannot be drawn into thin sheets.
c)They are bad conductors of heat and electricity except graphite.
d)They are non-lustrous and cannot be polished except iodine.
e)They are not hard except diamond.
f) They are not strong and have very low tensile strength.
g)They have usually very low melting and boiling point.
h)They have very low density.
i) They are non-sonorous.
j) They exist in all the three states. Mostly they are solid and gas, only bromine is liquid.

Metalloids: The element which shows some properties of metal and other non metal are
called metalloids. E.g silicon, germanium, bismuth.

Mixture: It is a substance which show contains two or more elements or compounds which
are not chemically combined with one another. The various substance present in a mixture
are known as constituents/ compounds of the mixture.

Type of mixture

a) Homogenous
b) Heterogeneous

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 Homogenous Mixture: Those mixture in which the substance are completely mixed
together and are indistinguishable from one another is called homogeneous mixture. It has
uniform composition throughout its mass. All the homogeneous mixture are called
solutions. E.g: sugar solutions, sea water, alcohol, water mixture, petrol, and oil mixture
etc.

Heterogeneous Mixture: A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if all the components of

the mixture are not thoroughly mixed and are distinguished from one another. A
heterogeneous mixture do not have a uniform composition throughout its mass.

NOTE: Most of the mixtures are heterogeneous, only solution and alloys are
homogeneous mixture.

To study the properties of iron and sulphur.

 When the iron fillings and sulphur powder are mixed together, mixture is obtained.
a) If we put a magnet in the mixture of iron and sulphur, iron particles are attracted by the
magnet and gets separated from sulphur.

A mixture can be separated into its constituents by the physical process like magnetic
separation, filtration, distillation, sublimation.

b) If dilute sulphuric acid is added to mixture of iron fillings and sulphur, the iron part
react with the acid and hydrogen gas is produced sulphur remains unchanged. Thus, we
conclude that a mixture shows the property of its constituents present in it.
c) When iron fillings are mixed with sulphur powder, to prepare the mixture, heat is neither
evolved nor absorbed. In general, energy is usually neither given out nor absorbed in
preparation of mixture.
d) We can mix any amount of iron fillings an sulphur powder to get mixture having different
composition. So, compostion of mixture is variable.
e) A mixture of iron fillings and sulphur do not melt st a fixed temperature. So, mixture do
not have a definite melting or boiling point.
f) A mixture of iron fillings and sulphur is heterogeneous.

Compounds: A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically

combined in a fixed proportion by mass. Water is a compound made of two elements H and O.
Hydrogen and oxygen chemically combined in a fixed proportion by mass(1:8).

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Compounds can be further divided into three classes i.e., acids, bases, and salts, on the basis of
their properties.

To study the properties of compounds of iron and sulphur: When the mixture of iron
fillings and sulphur powder is heated the compound is known as iron sulphide (FeS) is formed.
The properties are:

a) If a magnet is put in iron sulphide compound, iron does not get separated from sulphur.
This means that compounds cannot be separated into its components by physical method.
b) When dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is added FeS compound, we get a foul smelling gas
called hydrogen sulphide (H2S). No hydrogen gas is produced in this case. So, properties of
compound are entirely different from those of its constituents elements.
c) Energy in the form of heat or light is usually either given out or absorbed during the
preparation of compound.
d) FeS compound is produced by heating together 7 parts of iron by mass and 4 parts of
sulphur by mass. The composition of the compound is fixed, the constituents are present in a
fixed proportion by mass. A compound has a definite formula.
e) FeS compound melts at a definite temperature. So, compound has fixed melting or boiling
point.
f) Compound are homogeneous.

Note: A compound is always homogeneous. A mixture may be homogeneous or

heterogeneous.

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 Q) Why air is considered as mixture and not a compound?
Air is considered as a mixture because it is a mixture because it is a mixture of gases not
chemically combined and it has following properties.
a) It can be separated by physical properties.
b) No energy is released or absorbed.
c) It shows the properties of its constituents.
d) Its composition is variable, it has no fixed boiling point.
Q) Why water is compound and not a mixture?
The hydrogen and oxygen elements are chemically combined by a fixed proportion by mass. It
has following properties.
a) Cannot be separated by physical process.
b) Heat is produced.
c) It has fixed proportion by mass.
d) The properties of water is different from those of its constituents.
The case of solution: The solution are homogeneous substance and heat is usually evolved or
absorbed in preparation of a solution, even then a solution is considered as a mixture because
a) It can be separated into its constituents by physical method.
b) It shows properties of its constituents.
c) It has a variable composition.
d) It does not have a fixed boiling point.
The case of alloys: The constituents of alloys cannot be separated into their components by
physical method even then alloy is considered as a mixture because:
a) It shows properties of a constituents.
b) It has a variable composition.
Solute: The substance which is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution is called a solute .
Solvent : the component in which the solute get dissolved is known as solvent. E.g: salt
solution is made by dissolving salt in water, salt is a solute and water is solvent.
The solute particles are also non-aqueous solution. A solution made up by dissolving various
solutes in water are called aqueous solution. E.g., sugar solution.
On the other hand the solution made by dissolving solute in organic liquids are called non-
aqueous solution. E.g., tincture of iodine (iodine in alcohol).

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Solution: A solution is homogeneous mixture of two or more substance e.g salt solution, sugar
solution, metals alloys.
A true solution is also called molecular solution because the size of dissolved particle in such
solution is same as a molecules.
Properties of solution:
a) A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substance.
b) The size of solute particle in a solution is extremely small, it is less than 1nm= 10 -9 m
in diameter. Particles cannot be seen by naked eye.
c) The particle of solute is present in a solution is passes through filter paper. So, a solution
cannot be separated by filtration.
d) The solution are very stable, the particles of a solute present in a solution do not separate
off by keeping.
e) A true solution does not scatter beam of light so, pat of light is not visible in solution. This
is because its particles are very small.
Types of solution:
a) Solutions of solid in a solid: example metal alloys are solution of solid in solid
b) Solution of solid in a liquid : this is a most common type of solution. E.g., sugar and salt
solution are the solution of solids in liquid.
c) Solution of liquid in a liquid: vinegar is a solution of acetic acid.
d) Solution of gas in a liquid: soda water is a solution of CO2 water.
e) Solution of gas in a gas: air is a solution of gases like oxygen, CO2 water vapour etc in
nitrogen gas.
Suspension: A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute particle remain
suspended throughout bulk of medium without dissolving in medium. E.g: chalk water
mixture, muddy water, sand particle suspended in water.
Properties of suspension:
a) It is a heterogeneous mixture.
b) The size of solute particle in mixture is quite large. It is greater than 100nm in diameter.
The particle of suspension can be seen by naked eye.
c) The particle of suspension do not pass through a filter paper so, suspension can be
separated by filtration.
d) The suspension are unstable. The particle of suspension settle after sometime.
e) A suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it because its particle are quite large
and make the path visible.

Colloidal substance: It is a heterogeneous mixture in which particle are uniformly spread

throughout the solution. The size of solute particle is intermediate between those in true
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solution and in suspension. E.g., soap solution, starch solution, milk, blood, etc. the
component of colloidal are dispersed phase and dispersion medium i.e., the particle are called
dispersed phase and the medium in which they are distributed is called as dispersed medium.

Properties of colloids:
a) A colloids appears as homogeneous but it is actually heterogeneous.
b) The size of particle is bigger than those in a true solution but smaller than those in
suspension. It is between 1nm to 100nm in diameter.
c) The particles of colloids cannot be seen by naked eye.
d) The particle of colloids can pass through filter paper i.e., colloid cannot be separated by
filtration. But a special technique of filtration is known as centrifugation can be used to
separate the colloidal particle.
e) The colloids are quiet stable. The particles of colloids do not separate out by keeping.
f) A colloid scatter beam of light passing through it. The scattering of light by colloidal
particles is known as tyndall effect.
Example of tyndall effect:
a) It can be observed by a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. This
happens due to scattering of light by the particle of dust, smoke in air.
b) Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of dense forest. In
the forest, mist contain tiny droplets of water which acts as particle of colloid dispersed in air.

Classifications of colloids:
a) Solid SOL: It is a colloids in which solids particle are dispersed in solid medium . e.g.,
gemstone, milky glass,etc.
b) SOL: it is a colloids in which solid particle are dispersed in liquid medium. E.g., soap
solution , paint , milk of magnesia, mud .
c) Aerosol: It is colloid in which solid or liquid particle are dispersed in solid medium. E.g.,
smoke, automobile exhaust(solid in gas), fog, mist, cloud(liquid in gas).
d) Emulsion: It is a colloid in which minute droplets of one liquid are dispersed in another
liquid in which are not miscible with it. E.g., milk, face cream.
e) Foam : It is a colloid in which gas is dispersed in a liquid medium. E.g., soap bubble,
shaving cream.
f) Solid foam : It is a colloid in which gas is dispersed in a solid medium. E.g., foam,
sponge, pumice.
g) Gel: it is a colloid in which a liquid is dispersed in solid medium. E.g., jelly, cheese,
butter.
Concentration of a solution: The concentration of a solution is the amount of a solute in a
given amount of solution. The most common way of expressing the concentration of a solution
is the percentage method.

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If the solution is of solid solute dissolved in a liquid, then the concentration of a solution is
defined as a mass of solute is gram present in 100g of solution. E.g., 10% solution of a
common sugar mean that 10g of common sugar are present in 100g of solution.
Different methods of expressing concentration of solution:
a) Mass by mass percentage of solution:
Concentration of solution= Mass of solute × 100
Mass of solution
b) Mass by volume percentage of solution:

Concentration of solution= Mass of solute ×100

Volume of solution

c) Volume by volume percentage of solution:

Concentration of solution= Volume of solute × 100

Volume of solution

NUMERICALS:

1. A solutions contains 50ml of alcohol mixed with 150ml of water. Calculate the
concentration of solution.
2. If 2ml of acetone is present in 45ml of its aqueous solution, calculate concentration of the
solution.
3. Calculate the concentration of solution which contains 2.5g of salt dissolved in 50g of
water.
4. What is the concentration of solution which contains 16g of urea in 120g of solution?
5. A solution contains 30g of sugar dissolved in 310g of water. Calculate the concentration of
solution.
6. If 110g of salt is present in 550g of solution. Calculate concentration of solution.
7. Calculate mass of glucose and mass of water required to make 250g of 25% solution of
glucose.
8. If 25ml of acetone is present and 150ml of its aqueous solution, calculate concentration of
solution.

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 9. Find out mass by volume % of 15% solution of sulphuric acid (given density of solution =
1.02g/ml)

Saturated and Unsaturated solution: Depending upon amount of solute present, the solution
can be classified into two groups.
i. Unsaturated Solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at without
raising its temperature is called unsaturated solution.
ii. Saturated Solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at that
temperature is called a Saturated solution.
Effect of heating and cooling for a saturated solution.
a) If a saturated solution at a particular temperature is heated to a higher temperature, then it
becomes unsaturated. This is because solubility of solute increases on heating.
b) If a saturated solution available at a particular temperature is cooled to lower temperature,
then some of its dissolved solute will separate out in the form of solid crystal. This is
because solubility of solute decreases on cooling.

To prepare a Saturated Solution:

We take some water in a beaker and heat it slowly. Now we start adding sodium chloride (salt)
to the hot water with a spoon and stir it with a glass rod continuously so that sodium chloride
goes on dissolving in water. We take the temperature of water up to 300C and keeping this
temperature constant go on adding sodium chloride till no more sodium chloride dissolved in
it and some sodium chloride is also left undissolved at the bottom of beaker. The content of the
beaker are now filtered through a filter paper arranged in funnel.

The clear solution of this in the form of filtrate is the saturated solution of sodium chloride at
300C.

Solubility-

The maximum amount of solute which can be dissolved in 100g of solvent at a specified
temperature is known as solubility of that solute in that solvent at that temperature.

NOTE- The solubility for substance refers to its saturated solution.

Solubility of solute= Mass of solute × 100

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 Mass of solvent

NUMERICALS:

1. 12g of potassium sulphate dissolved in 75g of water at 600C. what is its solubility in water
at that temperature?
2. A student determines the solubility of 4 substance KNo3, NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl in water at 5
different temperature given below and obtained the following data:

Substance 100C 200C 400C 600C 800C

KNo3 21g 32g 62g 106g 167g

NaCl 36g 36g 36g 37g 37g

KCl 35g 35g 40g 46g 54g

NH4Cl 24g 37g 41g 55g 56g

a. What mass of KNO3 would be needed to make a saturated solution of potassium nitrate in
50g of water at 400C?
b. What would be observed if a saturated solution of KCl at 800C is left to cool to the room
temperature?
c. What is the solubility of each salt at 200C?
d. Which salt has highest solubility at 200C?
e. What is the effect of change in temperature on the solubility of salt shown by the above
data?

Effect of temperature or pressure in solubility.

a) The solubility of solid in liquid usually increases on increasing in temperature and

decreases on decreasing in temperature.
b) The solubility of solid in liquid remains unaffected by change in pressure.
c) The solubility of gas in liquid usually decreases on increasing the temperature and
increases on decreasing the temperature.
d) The solubility of gases in liquid increases on increasing in temperature and decreases on
decreasing in temperature.

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Note : Survival of aquatic animal become difficult during summer because at hih temperature
solubility of gas in liquid decreases.

Physical changes: Those changes in which no new substance are formed are called physical
change. These change occur without a change in composition and no change in chemical
nature. In, a physical change the substance involved do not change their identity. They can be
easily returned to their original form by some physical process. This means that physical
change can be easily reversed. The changes in physical state , size, and shape of a substance
are called physical changes.
E.g., i)Melting of ice to form water is a physical change. Ice and water both are made up of
water molecules. Thus no new substance is formed. Similarly, the freezing of water to form of
ice is also a physical change.
ii) The boiling of water do form steam is physical change. Both water and steam is made of
water molecule. Thus no new chemical substance is formed. Similarly, the condensation of
steam to form water is also a physical change.
iii) Making of solution is a physical change. When salt is dissolved in water it forms salt
solution so, a change has taken place. When salt solution is heated till all the water evaporates,
then a white powder (salt) is obtained.
iv) Glowing of electric bulb is a physical change. When current passes through filament, it
becomes white hot and glows to give light. When current switched off, the filament returns to
its normal condition.

Chemical Changes:

Those changes in which new substance are formed are called chemical changes. It brings
changes in the chemical properties of matter and we get new substance. A chemical change is
also called chemical reaction. In this, the substance involved change their identity. They get
converted into new substance. The new substance usually cannot be returned to their original
form. This means that chemical changes are usually irreversible.
Example:
a) When a magnesium wire is heated in presence of air, it burns to form a white powder
called magnesium oxide. The magnesium oxide is entirely new substance so it is a chemical
change.

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b) The burning of paper is a chemical change when paper is burnt a new substance is
formed like CO2.
 Classify the following under physical and chemical change.

1. A glass bottle breaking Physical change

2. Coal burning in air Chemical change
3. Making a cake Chemical change
4. Wool knitting into sweater Physical change
5. Cooking food Chemical change
6. Boiling of water physical change
7. Cutting of trees Chemical change
8. Dissolving of salt in water Physical change
9. Digestion of food Chemical change
10. Melting of ice Physical change
11. Burning of magnesium wire Chemical change
12. Freezing of water Physical change
13. Rusting of iron Chemical change
14. Glowing of electric bulb Physical change
15. Formation of curd from milk Chemical change
16. Condensation of steam Physical change
17. Growth of plant Chemical change
18. Sublimation of solid Physical change
19. Decomposition of water into Chemical change
Hydrogen and oxygen by passing
Electric current
20. Formation of cloud Physical change
21. Making fruit salad from raw fruits Physical change
22. Dissolving of CO2 in water Physical change
23. Burning of candle wax Physical & Chemical change
24. Melting of candle wax Physical change
25. Mixing of iron filling and sand Physical change
26. Burning of wood Chemical change
27. Breaking of wood Physical change
28. Breaking a piece of chalk Physical change
29. Burning of paper Chemical change
30. Cutting paper Physical change

Note:

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a) Cutting of trees is a chemical change because after cutting the tree it s chemical
composition changes due to bacterial decomposition and termination of photosynthesis.
b) Burning of candle involves both physical and chemical changes. First step involves
conversion of solid wax into vapour of wax which is physical change and secondly burning of
wax vapour to produce CO2 and H2O which is chemical change.

Difference between physical and chemical change

Physical change Chemical change

No new substance is formed New substance is formed
It is usually temporary change Usually a permanent change
Easily reversible Irreversible change
Very little heat or energy is absorbed Lot of heat is absorbed or given out
or given out

Separation of mixture: The various constituents of a mixture have different physical

properties such as density, solubility, size of particles, behavior towards magnet, boiling point
etc. this difference in the physical properties of constituents is used to separate them from a
mixture. The method to be used for separating the mixture depends on nature of its
constituents.
For separation of mixture, we will consider the following cases.
a) Mixture of two solids.
b) Mixture of solids and liquids.
c) Mixture of two liquids.

Separation of mixture of two solids:

The following methods are used
a) By using a suitable solvent
b) By the process of sublimation
c) By using magnet

 Separation of solvent:
1) A mixture of sugar and sand can be separated by using water as solvent:

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 The mixture of sugar and salt is taken in a beaker and water is added to it. The mixture is
stirred to dissolve the sugar in water, the sand remains un dissolved. The sugar solution
containing sand is filtered by pouring over a filter paper kept in a funnel. Sand remains as
residue on filter paper and sugar solution is obtained as a filtrate in a beaker. The sugar
solution is evaporated carefully to get the crystals of sugar. In this way the sugar an sand is
separated.

2) To separate mixture of sulphur and sand:

Sulphur and sand is insoluble in water. So, water cannot be used as a solvent to separate a
mixture component. The mixture of sulphur and sand is separate by using carbon disulphide as
a solvent. Sulphur dissolves in carbon disulphide whereas, sand remains undisturbed. The
sulphur solution containing sand is filtered, sand is obtained as a residue on the filter paper and
sulphur solution is obtained as a filtrate. On evaporation, the filtrate carbon disulphide is
eliminated and solid sulphur remain behind.

 Separation by sublimation:

The changing of solid directly into vapour on heating and changing of vapour into solid on
cooling is called sublimation. A solid substance which undergo sublimation is said to be
sublime. The solid substance obtained by cooling the vapour is known as sublimate.

To separate a mixture of common salt and ammonium chloride by sublimation

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The mixture of common salt and ammonium chloride is taken in a china dish a replace on a
stand. The china dish is covered with an inverted glass funnel. Cotton pug is put in the upper
open end of the funnel to prevent ammonium chloride vapour from escaping into the
atmosphere. The china ish is heated usingmo. This vapour rises up and get converted into solid
ammonium chloride, on coming in contact with cold inner wall of funnel. In this way pure
ammonium chloride collect on the inner side of funnel in the form of sublimate and can be
removed. Common salt remain behind in the china dish.

 Separation by magnet:
In order to separate iron filling from sulphur powder a horseshoe magnet is moved on the
surface of mixture. The iron fillings are attracted by the magnet an get attached to the poles of
magnet and get separated. This process has to be repeated a number of times to achieve
complete separation of iron fillings. sulphur powder is not attached by magnet so it remain
behind.
Note: in factories scrapped iron is separated by using big electromagnet fitted to crane.

Separation of mixture of solid and a liquid: All the mixtures containing a solid and a liquid
are separated by one of the following process.
 Filtration
 Centrifugation
 Evaporation
 Crystallization
 Chromatography
 Distillation

Filter paper: It is a round piece of special paper which has millions of tiny pores in it. The
solid which remains in the filter paper is called residue. The liquid which passes through the
filter paper is called filtrate.

Separation by filtration: The process of filtering insoluble solids from a liquid by using a
filter paper is known as filtration. Filtration is used for separating insoluble solids from a
liquid. The mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured in a filter paper. The liquid passes
through the filter paper and collects below the funnel. The solid particles being bigger in size
donot pass through filter paper. The solid substance left on the filter paper is called residue.

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The clear liquid obtains is called filtrate. It means a heterogeneous mixture of solid and liquid
can be separated by the process of filtrations.

Examples:

 A mixture of chalk and water is separated by filtration.

 A mixture of sand and water can be separated by filtration.
 The used tea leaves are separated from prepared tea by method of filtration.
 Supply of drinking water in a village.

Water purification system in water works:

In water works, the methods like sedimentation, loading, filtration, and chlorination are used
to remove undesirable material from water. The purification of river water is done in the
following process.
 The water from river is pumped by pumping station into a sedimentation lake. This water
is allowed to stand in the sedimentation tank for some time. During this time, many of the
insoluble substance present in the water settles own at the bottom of the tank.
 From the sedimentation tank water is sent to loading tank. In loading tank, some alum is
added to water the heavy particles of dissolve alum deposit in the suspended clay particles get
loaded in alum particles, become heavy and settle down at the bottom of tank. Thus, the
process of loading removes the suspended clay particles from water.
 The water is then passed through a filtration tank which allows three layers as shown in
figure, they acts as filter. When water is passes through these layers, the small suspended
particles get removed.

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 The clean water is then passes through chlorination tank chlorine is added to water to kill
germs present in it. This is called disinfecting the water or sterilizing the water.
 The clean and disinfected water is then pumped by a pumping station into high storage
tank. Water is then supplied through a network of pipe in a city.
Centrifugation: Centrifugation is a method separation the suspended particles of a substance
in a centrifugation machine. We can separate the clay Particles suspended in water very
rapidly by method of centrifugation. The principle is that denser particles are forced to bottom
and lighter particles stay at the top , when spun rapidly.
Separation of cream from milk: milk is a mixture of tiny droplets of cream in a watery
liquid. The process of centrifugation is used to separate cream from milk. The milk is put in a
closed contained in a big centrifugation machine. Due to this, the milk separates into cream
and skimmed milk. The cream being lighter floats over the skimmed milk
Note :
i. Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and passes through a filter paper.
For such particles the filtration technique cannot be used for separation such mixtures are
separated by centrifugation.
ii. The method of filtration and centrifugation cannot separate a dissolved solid from a liquid.
Application of centrifugation:
a. Used in laboratories for blood test and urine test.
b. Used in dairies and homes to separate butter from cream.
c. Used in washing machine to squeeze out water from wet clothes.

Evaporation: Evaporation is used to separate a solid substance that has dissolved in water. It
is based on the fact that liquid vaporize easily whereas solid do not vaporize easily.

The common salt dissolved in the water can be separated by the process of evaporation. The
water present in the salt solution will form water vapour and escape into the atmosphere, when
heated all the water present in the solution get evaporated, then common salt is left behind the
china dish as a white solid.

Note: Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solid substance from liquid mixture but the
liquid itself cannot be obtained by this method. The liquids vaporize and escape into the
atmosphere.

To Separate the Dve from Ink by the process of Evaporation:-

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Take a beaker and fill it half with water. This will serve as water bath. About 5ml of ink in a
china dish containing ink is then placed over the mouth of the beaker which is kept of a stand.
Starts heating the beaker with burner. Soon the water in the beaker starts boiling to form
steam. This steam heats the ink. The water present in the ink starts evaporating gradually.
When all the water has evaporated from the ink we stop heating. We will find that a small
amount of coloured material is left in the china dish. This coloured is the dye.

Note:-

Do not heat the china dish containing ink directly because the dye obtained from ink get
decomposed by high temperature.

Crystallisation:- The process of separation called Crystallisation gives pure crystals and
impurities also get removed. The process of Crystallisation begins by evaporating the liquid
mixture by heating but it is not continued till dryness rather when the solution becomes
sufficiently concentrated or saturated, heating is stopped and hot concentrated solution is
allowed to cool slowly. After some time, the crystal of pure solid substance appear in the
solution.

Crystallization is better than Evaporation:

 Evaporation gives us solid substance in the form of a powder. Moreover if any

impurities were present in the dissolved solid substance, the same will also be present,
when it is recovered by evaporation. It is not so in case of Crystallization.
 Some solid decomposed on heating or some like sugar may get charred on heating to
dryness during evaporation. There is no such problem in Crystallization.

To obtain pure CuSO4 from Impure Sample:

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Impure CuSO4 can be purified by the method of Crystallization to obtain pure CuSO4. It is
done as follows.

 Take about 10g of impure CuSO4 and dissolve in minimum amount of water in a
china dish to make CuSO4 solution.
 Filter the CuSO4 solution to remove the insoluble impurities.
 Heat the CuSO4 solution gently on a water bath to evaporate water and obtain a
saturated solution. This can be tested by diping a glass rod in hot solution from time
to time. When small crystals form on the glass rod the solution is saturated. Then
stoop heating allow the hot saturated solution to cool slowly.
 Crystals of CuSO4 are formed and impurities remain behind in the solution.
 Separate the CuSO4 crystal from solution by filtration and then dry it.

Define Crystallization: The process of cooling a hot concentrate solution of a substance to

obtain pure crystal is called Crystallization.

Application

 Purification of salt that we get from sea salt

 Separation of crystals of alum from impure substance.

Chromatography : Chromatography is a technique used for separation of those solute that

dissolves in same solvent. This separation is based on the fact that two or more solutes are
soluble in same solvent but their solubility may be different. Some may be more soluble
than the other.
Activity :
To separate the dye present in black ink:

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The different colour dye present in black ink can be separate by performing a paper
Chromatography as follow:
 Take a thin and long strip of filter paper draw pencil line on it.
 Put a small drop of black ink on the filter paper strip in the centre of line. Let the ink
dry. The paper strip is lowered into a tall glass jar container some water, so that the
drop of ink on the paper is just above the water level. The paper strip is held
vertically by attaching it’s upper end to a glass rod with cello tape/ paper clips.
 The water gradually rises up the filter paper by capillary action. As the water moves
up the paper strip it takes along the dyes present in ink. The dye which is more
soluble in water dissolve first, rises first and produce a coloured spot on the paper at a
higher position. The less soluble dyes dissolve a little later, rises slower and form
coloured spots at lower heights.
 When the water reaches near the top end of filter paper strip, the paper strip is
removed from the jar and dried.

Application:

To separate

a) Colour in dye
b) Pigments from natural colours
c) Drugs from blood

Separation by Distillation

 We can obtain salt from solution by evaporation but water cannot be recovered.
During evaporation it is lost into the air. In order to recover both salt as well as
water from the mixture, process of distillation is used.
 Distillation is a process of heating liquid to form vapour and then cooling to get
back liquid.

Activity

To separate Salt and Water mixture by Distillation:-

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A mixture of common salt and water can be separated completely by the process of
distillation. The salt and water mixture is taken in a distillation flask and heated. On
heating water forms vapours which rises up and comes out through the side tube of
distillation flask and goes into the water condenser. Cold water is circulated through the
outer tube of condenser. The hot water vapours get cooled in the condenser to form water
which trickles down from the condenser and collect in a beaker. This pure water is called
distilled water. Since, salt is non-volatile, so it remains behind in the distillation flask.

Separation of two liquids:

 Distillation( simple and fractional distillation)

 Separation by separating funnel

Miscible liquids: Those liquids which mix together in all proportion and form a single
layer when put in a container are called miscible liquids. Eq., alcohol and water.

Immiscible liquids: Those liquids which do not mix with each other and form separate
layer when put in a container are called immiscible liquids. eg., oil and water

Note: Simple distillation is used for separation of components of a mixture containing two
miscible liquid which boils without decomposition and have sufficient difference in the
boiling point(30K to 50K).

Separation of two miscible liquids(Acetone and water) by simple distillation:

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 Lets us try to separate acetone and water from their mixture.
 Take the mixture in a distillation flask fitted with a thermometer.
 Arrange the apparatus as shown figure.
 Heat the mixture slowly keeping a close watch at the thermometer.
 The acetone with the boiling point 329K vaporizes, then condenses in the
condenses in the condenser.
 Water is left behind in the distillation flask.

Note: if the boiling point of two miscible liquids of the mixture are very close to one
another i.e., less than 25K or so, the separation cannot be achieved by simple distillation
method. This is due to the reason that at the boiling point of more volatile liquids of the
mixture these will be sufficient vapours of less volatile liquids as well. As a result, both the
liquids of the mixture will distil together and separation cannot be achieved by simple
distillation so, in this case fractional distillation is used.

Fractional distillation:

Fractional distillation is carried out by using a fractionating column. Fractional distillation

is a process which involves repeated distillation and condensations. Fractionating column
consist of a long glass tube packed with glass beads. The glass beads provide large surface
area for hot vapours to cool and condense repeatedly. Suppose we, have a mixture of two
liquids chloroform and benzaene of which chloroform is more volatile(BP=334K)and
benzene(BP=353K). when such a liquid mixture is heated, the temperature rises slowly
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 and mixture starts boiling. The vapours mainly consists of chloroform and little benzene.
As these vapour of less volatile, condense more readily than those of more volatile liquids.
Therefore, the vapours rising above becomes rich in chloroform and the liquids flowing
down become rich in benzene. This process of distillation and condensation is repeated at
every point in the fractionating column. As a result of series of successive distillation, by
the time the vapour reach the top of the column and escape in the condenser, they consist
entirely of more volatile component has completely distilled over, the temperature will
again start rising and then the boiling point of less volatile component is released, benzene
start distilling which is collected in another flask.

Application of fractional distillation

1. The process of fractional distillation has been used to separate crude oil in petroleum
industry into various useful fractions such as gasoline, kerosene oil, diesel oil etc .
2. Fractional distillation of liquid air is used to separate the gases of air.
 Separation of gases of air by fractional distillation

Figure

The actual apparatus used for separation of gases is shown in figure

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A mixture of two immiscible liquids can be separated by using a separating funnel:

Separation of two immiscible liquids by a separating funnel depends on difference in their

densities . the mixture of two immiscible liquid is put in a separating funnel and allowed to
stand for some time. The mixture separates into two layers according to the densities of the
liquids in it. The heavier liquids forms the lower layer whereas the lighter liquids having low
densities from the upper layer. On opening the stop clock of separating funnel, the layer of
heavier liquid comes out first and collects in a beaker. When the lower layer has completely
run off the stop clock is closed. The lighter liquid in its upper layer is collected in a separate
beaker by opening the stop clock again.

 Separation of mixture by using more than one method: A mixture which has only two
components can be easily separated by single method. On the other hands, a mixture which
has more than two components can be separated into individual component s by
combination of methods of separation turn by turn.

Example:

1. The mixture containing iron fillings, ammonium chloride an sand is separated as follows;
 Iron fillings are attracted by magnet. So, they are remove dby a method of magnetic
separation. So, when the magnet is moved in this mixture, iron filling get attracted to the
magnet and get separate by a method of magnetic separation.

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  Ammonium Chloride(NH4CL) sublimes on heating whereas sand does not sublime.
So, NH4CL is separated from the sand by the process of sublimation. When the mixture
containing NH4CL and sand is heated then NH4CL. Sand is left behind.

2. The mixture containing common salt(NaCl)and chalk powder can be separated as follows
 Some water is added to the mixture of salt and chalk powder and is stirred. Common
salt dissolves in water to form salt solution whereas chalk powder remain un dissolved.
 On filtering, chalk powder is obtained as a residue on the filter paper and salt solution is
obtained as filtrate.
 The salt solution is evaporated to dryness and common salt is left behind.
3. A mixture of sand, water and mustard oil can be separated as follows:-
 The mixture of sand, water and mustard oil is filtered, sand is left on the filter paper as a
residue. Water and mustard oil collect as filtrate.
 The filtrate containing water and mustard oil is put in a separating funnel. Water forms
the upper layer in separating funnel. The lower layer of water is run out first by opening
the stop-cock of separating funnel. Mustard oil remain behind.

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