CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Fish is an important source of food and income to many people in developing countries.

In Nigeria, most people depend wholly or partly on the fisheries sector for their livelihood. In

recent time, many individuals and cooperatives are going into small and big scale fish farming

(Kudi. 2018, Adewuyi. 2020, and Ibok. 2023). Results from these ventures are so encouraging

that the problem of preservation is becoming a serious issue, thus, the need in providing new

affordable and effective method to reduce post harvest losses cannot be overemphasized. These

methods include chilling, super chilling, freezing, drying, smoking, salting and fermentation

(Tawari and Abowei 2021). In using the traditional methods, quality control and sustaining good

hygienic conditions are difficult where market values diminishes due to damage and non

attractive appearance of the processed fish . In Africa, drying from direct sun and smoking using

wood or coal are the most widely practiced methods of fish preservation.

In order to improve on these methods, several technological approaches has been

reported, including harnessing the solar energy for fish drying, the use of electric heaters

(Komolafe 2021), and the use of smoking kiln (Ikenweiwe 2020). The advantages of smoking

fish are manifold. Fish smoking enhances flavor, prolongs shelf life, and increases utilization in

soups and sauces. Smoking is inexpensive, requiring little energy, little equipment needed;

quality and nutritional value reasonable. It increases protein availability to people throughout the

year and makes fish easier to pack, transport and market value.

According to (Adewuyi 2020) Fish is an important source of protein to the large teaming

population in Nigeria and Across Africa. It is a major source of income for coastal-dwelling
1
communities and traders. In Nigeria, smoking is the most widely-used method for preserving

fish and is the most common activity for women in fishing communities. Practically all fish

species available in the country can be smoked. It has been estimated that between 70 and 80

percent of the domestic marine and freshwater fish catch is consumed in smoked form.

1.2 IMPORTANT OF FISH

Fish is also used as a source of valuable medicinal, feeding and technical products. Fish

is a cheap source of animal protein and fat with little or no religious rejection. This gives it an

advantage over pork, chicken or other meat. Lan and Andrew (2020) reported that the

consumption of LC omega-3 fatty acid derived from fish oil, either in fish (wild and farmed) or

as encapsulated fish oil as being shown to help maintain health, especially cardiovascular health.

Benefit have being shown in ameliorating inflammatory disorders such as asthma, eczema,

psoriasis and Crohn’s disease with the important function of Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and

Dicosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as a component of brain and nervous tissues, and in particular in

the development of these organs, dietary LC Omega-3fatty acid inclusion as an important role to

play in the last trimester of pregnancy and infant nutrition (Lan and Andrew 2020).

1.3 FISH PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

Nigeria`s aquaculture industry is largely untapped. Poor access to credit, a lack of the

requisite technical skills, and the unavailability of good quality and moderately raced fish feed

are among the road blocks inhibiting its expansion. Nigeria total annual fish demand is estimate

at 2.7 million metric tonnes (Mmt). Just 30% of this demand is met domestically, resulting in an

annual spend of #125bn on fish imports. Nigeria’s per capital fish consumption is 11kg; this is

significantly lower than the global average of 21kg. The national accounts for Q1 2016 show that

2
the fisheries segment grew by 3.3% y\y, compared with 7.0% posted in the corresponding period

of 2015.

1.4 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Nigeria fish smoking practices are here to gain prominence on a large commercial scale

due to lack of appropriate technology approach to assist the fish farming businesses. Most of the

smoking kilns available were unable to tackle the critical challenges faced by the end-users

NSPRI (2022). Therefore, the study aim to know the proximate composition of smoked dried

Clarias gariepinus from different selected fish farm.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION

Fish as perishable commodity is one of the best sources of proteins, vitamins and

minerals and are essential nutrients required for supplementing both infant and adult diets

(Abdullahi et al., 2021). It therefore important to preserve the fish to extend its shelf life and one

of the ways of fish preservation is smoking. Commercial smoking of fish will require mechanical

smoking kiln which is believed to enhance fish quality, quantity, marketability and acceptability.

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The general objective of the study is to know the proximate composition of smoked dried

Clarias gariepinus from different selected fish farm.

The specific objectives are to;

 Determine proximate composition of smoked dried Clarias gariepinus from different

selected fish farm.

3
  Determine the sensory evaluation of smoked dried Clarias gariepinus from different

selected fish farm. .

1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Tawari (2016), Davies and Davies (2019) also reported that most of the fish processing

communities in Nigeria employed traditional techniques that have been in existence for more

than ten years. In order to reduce post harvest losses and to improve the quality of fish and

fishery products, traditional processing technology must be improved upon in Nigeria. This

includes upgrading the traditional fish processing technology and adoption of artificial dryers.

Most of the modern drying technologies available are expensive and not appropriate for a

developing country like Nigeria.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Fish Handling process and preservation

Fish is a major source of protein and its harvesting, handling, processing and distribution

provide livelihood for millions of people as well as providing foreign exchange earning to many

countries (Al-Jufaili and Opara, 2016). The need for the fish preservation and processing

machinery and techniques for effective fish handling, harvesting, processing and storage can

never be over emphasized especially now that aquaculture production is on the increase in

Nigeria (Davies, et al., 2018). Appropriate processing of fish enables maximal use of raw

material and production of value-added products which is obviously the basis of processing

profitability. Freshwater fish processing, like the processing of the other food raw materials

should assure best possible market quality, provide a proper form of semi-processed final

product, assure health safety of products, apply the most appropriate processing method and

reduce wastes to the barest possible extent.

Akinneye et al., (2017) and Davies (2015) reported that the development of appropriate

fishing machinery and techniques that employed effective production, handling, harvesting,

processing and storage, cannot be over-emphasized especially in the age when aquaculture

development is fast gathering momentum in Nigeria. One of such good handling practices is to

ensure that, captured live fish are not allowed to struggle and die of asphyxia or oxygen

starvation. Struggling after capture, except in the case of the catfishes, will hasten spoilage post-

mortem by accelerating chemical reactions in the flesh of the fish. This will reduce the period the

fish will remain in rigor or stiffened; thereby, accelerate bacteria attack and spoilage. Catfishes

are known to remain alive for a long time after capture and should not be stunned (Ayuba and

5
Omeji, 2016). Opara and Al-Jufaili (2016), reported high incidence of fish losses as a major

impediment to the realization of government goal towards increasing the contribution of the

sector to the overall national economy. The use of appropriate technology which is a radical

approach to stem up production and processing technique, has become subordinate to social

need, and is of paramount importance.

2. 2 World Fish production statistics

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2015), the world harvest in

2005 consisted of 93.2 million tonnes captured by commercial fishing in wild fisheries, plus 48.1

million tonnes produced by fish farms. The number of individual fish caught in the wild has been

estimated at 0.97-2.7 trillion per year not counting fish farms or marine invertebrates (FAO,

2020 and Hastein, 2024). The trend towards increased global fish catch has been achieved partly

through exploitation of new and or less valuable species and partly through aquaculture. Illegal,

unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is widespread and hinders the achievement of

sustainable fishery management objectives. Captured fisheries and aquaculture supplied the

world with over 156 million tonnes of food fish in 2011 and provided an apparent per capital

supply of 18.5 kg in 2009 (in live weight equivalent). Aquaculture has been growing and has

surpassed capture fisheries as a source of fish production in many countries. In 2021 it accounted

for about 40% of global fish production (i.e. 63 million tons) (FAO, 2021). This growth has

occurred more quickly in some regions of the world than in others. Unlike captured fisheries,

aquaculture offers opportunities to use farming systems and management practices to enhance

food production while alleviating pressures on natural stocks. However, aquaculture also has

negative effects on local ecosystems, and its dependence on fishmeal and fish oil products. The

proportion of moderately exploited or underexploited fish stocks is 13%. More than half of all

6
stocks (57%) are fully exploited, producing catches at or close to their maximum sustainable

limits. The remaining stocks are overexploited (30%), thus yielding less than their maximum

potential owing to pressure from excess fishing in the past. It should be noted, however that there

are still a large number of stocks which it has not yet been possible to determine stock status

(OECD, 2021; Morton et al, 2018). Table 1 shows the state of world fish production in 2010.

Table 1: World Fish Production.

Country quantity (metric tonnes)

Uganda 95,207,323.37

Egypt 91,958,571.38

Japan 71,828,41.35

Chile 70,104,227.21

Brazil 47,939,918.61

India 46,488,518.72

Ecuador 27,191,910.55

Indonesia 23,048,284.32

Nigeria 20,053,515.57

Kenya 12,154,50.94

Zambia 10,290,20.80

Ghana 10,200,50.79

Tunisia 5,424,80.42

South Africa 3,133,50.24

Source: FAO (2012).

2. 3. Fish Production Statistics in Nigeria

7
 Fish farming in Nigeria started 50 years ago with the establishment of a small

experimental station at Onikan, Lagos and Industrial farm (20 ha) at Panyam in Plateau State by

the Federal Government, under the auspices of the Federal of Trade and Industries,. This

generated a lot of interest. However, the growth rate of fish farming in Nigeria is still very poor

(Ayoola, 2020). Since the time the Government of Nigeria made a tariff reduction on all fishery

products in 2001 from 25 % to 5 %, Nigeria has become a major destination for imported

seafoods. The total market demand in Nigeria according to industrial source has grown to more

than one million tonnes per annum, making it the largest market in West Africa, in the industry.

There are various species of frozen fish imported into Nigeria. Examples are herring, horse

mackerel, croaker, sardinella, blue whiting and others, with species like horse mackerel and

croaker more expensive compared to the other species.

Tilapia and catfish are the major species farmed by local fish farmers (Ayoola, 2020).

Given its relatively cheaper cost, fish has become the major source of nutrition for the people of

Nigeria, most of who are not economically well off. Fish remains the main product consumed in

terms of animal protein in Nigeria. Osagie (2015) examined the federal government’s move to

prohibit the importation of fish, as previously done with other essential commodities for which

Nigeria has comparative advantage, and advocates extra caution in the case of fish to avoid

causing a more severe socio-economic problem than it is trying to solve. On the average, Nigeria

spends 100 billion naira annually, buying fish from other nations of the world. At any rate, this is

an alarming statistics and for a country with Nigeria’s profile where over 100 million people live

on less than 150 naira a day, it certainly calls for a response from any responsible government.

Fish has been recognized to contribute 55 % to the protein intake in Nigeria. However, local fish

production has been below consumption with imports accounting for about 48.8 million dollars

8
in 2012 (Central Bank of Nigeria, 2014). Olopade and Adeokun (2015) reported Nigeria as one

of the largest importers of fish with a per capital consumption of 7.52 kg and a total consumption

of 1.2 million metric tonnes with imports making up about 2/3 of the total consumption. Fish

production, harvesting, processing, preservation and marketing are ancient economic activities of

Nigerian people especially those living along the coastal region (Davies and Davies, 2019).

Nigeria has the resource capacity to produce 2.4 million metric tonnes of fish every year, yet the

country, as at 2007 is still a large importer of frozen fish annually from all sources (Fasakin,

2018). Akinrotimi et al., (2007) reported that Nigeria fish supply by sector as shown in Table 2.

Table 2; Nigeria Fish Supply by Sector (Metric tonnes)

Sector Year

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Artisanal 450,965 446,203 434,830 513,537 524,332 504,257

Aquaculture 30,664 33,667 432,950 56,355 84,523 85,087

Industry 30,091 33,882 30,421 33,778 33,778 28, 193

Imported fish 663, 180 152,611 152,646 484,646 784,737 656,421

Source: Akinrotimi et al. (2011)

2. 4. Chemical Composition of Fish

9
 Abisoye et al., (2011) reported the protein content of 20.80 and 19.97 % for osmotically

dehydrated catfish and mackerel respectively, with the fish species all rich in calcium and

magnesium. Fat content varied between species with fresh water fish; 0·6–14 g/100 g and marine

fish; 0·5–9·2 g/100 g. comparatively, marine fish varieties had lower fat content than freshwater

fish. The fats of fish are readily digestible and valuable source of energy. The high value of

polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), Omega-3 fatty acids, decosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and

eicosapentaeioc acid (EPA) contribute to reduction of blood cholesterol and provide protection

against renal disease, human coronary artery disease, and can as well reduce the incidence of

conditions such as breast cancer in people that consume lots of fish (Fatioye et al., 2008,

Osibona et al., 2009). Fish is rich in fat soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E and K and

contains high amount of water soluble vitamin B group. (Ababouch, 2011). This is the reason

why cod liver oil was given to children before multivitamin tablets became common.

2. 5 Catfish

Catfishes are a diverse group of ray-finned fish named forth eirprominent barbells which

resemble a cat's whiskers. Catfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest and longest, the

Mekong giant catfish from Southeast Asia and the second longest, the wells catfish of Eurasia, to

detritivores (species that eat dead material), and even to a tiny parasitic species commonly called

the candiru (Vandellia cirrhosa). There are armour-plated types and also naked types neither

having scales. Despite their name, not all catfish have prominent barbells. Members of the

Siluriformes order are defined by features of the skull and swim bladder. Catfish are of

considerable commercial importance. Many of the larger species are farmed or fished for food

and many of the smaller species are important in aquarium hobby. Extant catfish species live

inland or in coastal waters of every continent except Antarctica (Nelson, 2006). They are found

10
in freshwater environments, though most inhabit in shallow running water. Representatives of at

least eight families are hypogean (live underground) with three families that are also troglobitic

(inhabiting caves). One such species is Phreatobius cisternarum, known to live underground in

phreatic habitats. (Fayose, et al., 2007). While the vast majority of catfish are harmless to

humans, a few species are known to present some risk. Many catfish species have “stings”

(actually non-venomous in most cases) embedded behind their fins; thus precautions must be

taken when handling them (Lundberg et al., 2003). Many foods taken from marine environments

are near the top of the food chain and can concentrate undesirable pollutants from that

environment. Unfortunately, human activities have resulted in pollution of many marine

environments with biological and chemical pollutants.

African Catfish inhabit calm waters from lakes, streams, rivers, swamps to floodplains

and have developed in addition to gills, an accessory cauliflower like organ (arborescent organ)

that enables the fish to obtain oxygen from air when the oxygen level is too low in water or the

swamps have dried out (Okwuosa, 2009). The fish is omnivorous and can eat almost anything

they see, with the adults prefer eating other smaller fishes Ogbonnaya and Mohammed (2009)

reported 71.85, 19.51 and 14.28 % for moisture, protein and lipid of smoked catfish respectively,

while Osibona et al,. (2006) reported the proximate composition of fresh and smoke dried

African catfish as shown in Table 3. Omega-3 fatty acids in the fish may help lower the risk of

heart disease mainly by lowering triglycerides and countering inflammation, as well as help

lower the risk of cancer and arthritis, if it is consumed regularly.

Table 3; Nutritional value of catfish (%)

11
 Moisture Ash Fabre Protein Fat Carbohydrate Sample

68.112 4.453 0.100 21.203 8.577 4.111 Fresh fish

9.125 6.211 0.142 76.114 15.003 5.802 Smoked fish

Source: Osibona et al,. (2006)

2.6 Fish processing methods

The processing and preservation of fresh fish were of utmost importance since fish is

highly susceptible to deterioration immediately after harvest and to prevent economic losses

(Okonta and Ekelemu, 2005). If fish is not sold fresh, preservation methods should be applied to

extend shelf- life. These include freezing, smoking, drying and heat treatment (Sterilization,

pasteurization, etc). Efficient preparation of fish is important when top quality, maximum yield

and highest possible profits are to be achieved (Davies and Davies, 2009). Refrigeration by

chilling or freezing and smoking are other ways of fish preservation. The smoking method does

not only preserve but give fish desirable odour and flavour. The process involves cleaning,

brimming, soaking, drying and smoking for about 30 to 45minutes with 85 0C using hardwoods

and or plant leaves (Mario, 2011).

2.7 TYPE OF FISH PRESERVATION

2.7.1 Chilling

Chilling may be defined as cooling of fish to low temperatures without necessarily

hardening fish. Chilling does not prevent spoilage. However, the colder the fish the better and

the lower are the incidences of microbial or enzymatic spoilage. Bacteria or enzyme action are

not completely stopped but they may be temporarily halted by chilling. To chill fish, the fish has

12
to be surrounded by colder medium, which could be solid such as ice or liquids such as

refrigerated water (Ita, 1972).

2.7.2 Super Chilling

This is not a common method. Super chilling implies reducing the temperature of fish
uniformly below 0ºC. At this temperature half the water in the fish freezes, bacteria action is
greatly reduced and self-life is extended. Fish are initially chilled using ice before storage in
refrigerator holds at temperatures below freezing of ice. The temperature in the hold is
maintained by means of cold or circulating refrigerated brine. This method is known to extend
shelf life of fish by up to 14 days (Ita, 1972).

2.7.3 Freezing

Freezing is the easiest, most convenient, and least time-consuming method of preserving

food. The extreme cold temperature slows the growth of microorganisms and the chemical

changes that affect quality or cause spoilage. Freezing does not, however, sterilize food or

destroy the organisms that cause spoilage. During freezing; enzyme action is slowed but does not

stop. If not inactivated, these enzymes can cause colour and flavour changes and loss of nutrients

even during storage in the freezer (Anon, 2006). Pure water freezes at 0ºC. Fish contains about

80% water, salts and minerals. As would be expected therefore, fish can be frozen at

temperatures lower than 0ºC. As the water freezes out, the concentration of salts and chemicals

increase thereby lowering the freezing temperature. At about -5ºC, up to 20% of water in fish is

still unfrozen. The freezing stage in fish has been divided into three. The first stage includes the

period when the temperature falls rapidly to about -1ºC. At -1ºC, the temperature remains fairly

constant and up to 75% of the water freezes. This is the thermal arrest stage of which there is no

change in the temperature. In the third stage, the temperature begins to drop and most of the

remaining water freezes (Bolaji, 2005). In the process of freezing, heat is transferred from the

13
fish to be frozen to some surrounding of adjacent material. It is necessary that a sufficiently cold

surrounding must be supplied to effect this change (Davies, 2006). The cold temperature is

supplied by, a refrigeration plant.

2.7.4 Drying

Drying is defined as the removal of water by evaporation. When applied to fish, drying is

the removal of water by any method as a means of fish preservation to prolong the shelf life. In

areas where sun drying is used traditionally, the effects of wind and weather conditions are

important. Basically, the drying effect of the sun depends on the emission of heat from the sun.

This is transferred to the fish and; it is accompanied by, heat transfer within the fish. During

drying, the fish shrinks and undergoes irreversible changes. Water is removed from the surface in

the following sequence. Firstly, water on the surface of fish evaporates. Water migrates to the

surface of the fish from within fish tissues and evaporates. The air surrounding the fish then

experiences a drop in temperature. This is accompanied by cooling of the surface of the fish.

The energy required to drive the moisture from the surface of the fish can be obtained from a

variety of sources including wood smoke, sun drying, solar drier electricity and mechanical

driers (Davies et al., 2008). During drying, water is removed from the surface of the fish. As the

surface water is removed, it is replaced by water drawn up from the fish tissue, which leaves the

fish surface. The rate of drying, consequently, the rate of removal of water is dependent on the

air speed, relative humidity and temperature of the surrounding air (Delgade et al., 2003).

2.7.5 Salting:

14
 There are four standard methods for salting fish. These are brine, dry, ketch and pickle

salting methods. In brine salting, the fish are immersed in a solution of salt in water. Where

granular salt is rubbed into the surface of fish, the process is referred to as dry salting. Granular

salt is also used in ketch salting. In this process, the salt is rubbed into the surface of split fish

and the fish are stored with salt placed between each layer of fish. The liquid formed is not

allowed to drain off the fish, which will eventually become covered with the liquid. The liquid is

referred to as pickle. In pickle salting, the fish are packed in watertight containers with salt

between each layer of fish. If the pickle formed does not cover the fish within 4 h, saturated

brine is added to the fish so that, it becomes immersed by the pickle. Otherwise, the fish may

spoil (FAO, 1971b).

In brine salting, a saturated brine solution is used. Brine is prepared by dissolving

270-360 g of salt in one liter of water. Fish are then completely immersed in the solution. Due to

uptake salt, the concentration in brine drops as consequence of water exuding from the fish. Fish

may be stirred occasionally to enhance the uptake of salt. The latter may be eliminated if the

brine is much (FAO, 1981). In dry and kench salting, the fish are packed, surrounded by dry

granular salt. The salt dissolves on the fish surface. The liquid, which exudes from the fish, does

not cover the fish thereby exposing surface of the fish to air. It is therefore the practice to keep

fish in saturated brine until salt has been rubbed into fish. Otherwise, fat oxidation, discoloration

of fish flesh and the development of rancidity ensure. During pickle curing of fish, the large

quantity of salt used, ensures that the salt is available in sufficient quantity to form the prickle in

which the fish is eventually immersed. The person who now contains blood as well as other

compounds in solution reduces fat oxidation and the development of rancidity (FAO, 2002).

Different fish species has different rates of salt uptake. Fatty and thick fish fillets tend to

15
absorb salt slowly. The thicker the fish fillet the slower is the rate of uptake towards the center of

fish. Fresh fish may absorb salt readily but slowly (FAO, 1985). Salt uptake by fish increases

with increasing temperature up to an optimum. It is known that increased temperature also

enhances fish spoilage. Salt replaces the water in fish. Therefore, there is less water to be

reduced by drying. The higher the salt content, the less is the water to be removed. However,

during sun drying, salted fish dry very slowly. The obvious reason is that, salt tends to absorb

water in the air surrounding the dry fish. In the humid areas, excess salt may make absolute

drying possible. It is recommended to begin the initial salting at reduced temperature up to an

optimum (Igbeka, 1986).

2.7.6 Fermenting

Fish preservation by fermentation is traditional. Small size fish that will not command

premium price in the markets are generally used. Fatty fish such as Brycinus and Lates species

when used are burnt in earthen pots and allowed to ferment for a period ranging from 6 to 12

months. The end product is filtered. The bones are removed and the paste is sun dried.

Fermentation by this method results in the incomplete oxidation of nutrients and the end product

is alcohol and organic acid. The flavor and odor depend on the length the fish is allowed to

ferment. Salt may be added (Opara and Al-Jufiaili, 2006). Mackerel species are also frequently

fermented. They are gutted, cleaned of the gills, salted and are placed in concrete tanks. Organic

acid is added and the fish remain in the brine for about four months. The end product keeps for

up to one year. Where fermentation is allowed to continue for a very long time, sauces are

produced. Sauces are liquids containing mixtures of amino acids and protein degradation

products. They have very high salt content and may provide a good flavor. In preparing fish

sauces, the fish is submerged in brine for up to 18 months. The ripen sauce color ranges from

16
yellow to dark brown. The aroma and flavor are characteristic and determine the grade. Sauces

are stable and may be kept for extremely long time (Oyelese, 2006). The successful preservation

of fish by biological fermentation method is depended on the production of lactic acid. Lactic

acid bacteria ferment the sugars present to organic acid resulting in the lowering of PH. The low

PH inhibits growth of pathogen organisms and putrefactive organisms. Since fish contains only

small amount of fermentable carbohydrates. Mixtures of malt, corn or tapioca should be added

(Tawari, 2006).

2.8 Fish smoking process

Fish for smoking are handled carefully to avoid bruising and tearing (Monks, 2006,

Olapade, and Adeokun, 2005). Guts, gills, membranes and blood decompose more rapidly than

the fish flesh so they are removed speedily, and the fish flesh are cut or trimmed into sizes for

smoking. Fish can be salted either by packing in solid salt (dry salting) or immersing in strong

brine (wet salting). The salting has both preservative, appearance and flavour effect. The osmotic

changes which occur are quite complex. In dry salting, the salt in addition to diffusing into the

flesh also extracts water from the tissue, which dissolves the salt to form saturated brine. When

fish are mixed with salt in piles on the floor, this brine removes and there is an appreciable over-

all reduction in weight. If fish are salted by dipping in brine (“brining”), there is no appreciable

over-all change in weight in 70-80% saturated solution. In more concentrated brines, there can be

a percent or two net losses of weight and in weaker brines a gain in weight. Brining is quicker

method of imparting salt than dry-salting, probably because the area of contact with the flesh is

greater in the case of a liquid (Cutting, 1985).

17
 In a 90-100% saturated brines, there is a 2-3% loss in weight, with absorption of 2-3% of

salt and a rather glossy cut surface results, as well as crystallization of salt as a white powder on

exposed parts. Unbranded fish are extremely dull, rough and matt in appearance. In 50% brine,

the split fish tend to swell a little, gaining 2-3% in weight and again appearing dull. The split fish

should be stretched out somehow so as to ensure thorough exposure to the smoke. Typical

methods of fish smoking are hanging on pairs of square hooks, nailed at regular interval along a

wooden stick. Fish can be smoked satisfactorily on wire gauze trays provided that the wire mesh

does not mark the skin or flesh excessively. After removing from the kiln, smoked fishes are

usually allowed to cool somehow before grading and packing. Smoked fish can lose an additional

1-2% of weight by further evaporation at this stage, and even up to 5% if left hanging overnight in

dry conditions. Packing while still warm however results in deposition of moisture on the inside

of the wrappers, which is conducive for mould growth. The cooled smoked fish is normally

packed in wooden boxes or in films and polythene bags.

2.9 Type of Smoking

Smoking is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a

material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or

otherwise mixed into the mass (Mohagheghzadeh et al ., 2006). It is commonly an unwanted by-

product of fires (including stoves, candles, oil lamps, and fireplaces). Smoking or smoke curing

of fish is a method of preservation effected by a combination of drying and the deposition of

naturally produced chemicals resulting from the thermal breakdown of wood. It is one of the

most popular and widely used methods of fish preservation. It is cheap and easy to use. The fish

is first cut, eviscerated and immersed in brine, and some time the fish is not brined. It is then

exposed to smoke from burning wood. The preservative effect of the smoking process is due to

18
drying and the deposition of smoke compounds. The smoke from the burning wood contains a

number of compounds such as tars, phenols and aldehyde which inhibits bacterial growth and

enzyme activity which may cause spoilage (Shaifur, 2006). The smoked fish produce desirable

colour and flavour which are cherished by consumers. Two methods of smoking are to be

distinguished. They are cold and hot smoking, depending on the amount of heat to which the fish

is subjected. Cold smoking involves the normal smoke of temperature not more than about 300 C

and the smoked fish is not cooked. On the other hand, hot smoking, the temperature of kiln rises

at times to above 1000 C while the flesh of the fish reaches 600 C. The fish are intentionally

cooked in the hot smoking process, and the heat treatment results in partial sterilization. When

fish are subjected to hot smoking, the smoke constituent are deposited on the exposed surfaces

and simultaneously moisture evaporates, resulting in loss of weight, and keeping quality is

enhanced (Eyoo, 2001; Ogbonnaya and Mohammed, 2009).

2.9.1 Hot Smoking: In this type, the temperature should be maintained above 30 oc and the
normal range is 70-80oc. In hot smoking fish is completely cooked and consumer can take it
without further cooking.

2.9.2 Cold Smoking: In cold smoking temperature should be maintained below 30 oc. Here
meat will not be cooked and it is used to impart flavour in the meat. So it has to be cooked before
consumption. This method is followed in temperate countries as temperature in these countries is
very low.

2.9.3: Combined Method of Hot and Cold Smoking: Here fish is first smoked below 30 oc for
few hours and finally it is hot smoked.

2.9.4: Liquid Smoking: Liquid smoking extract is prepared by dry distillation of wood and
then it is concentrated to a particular degree and later it is used in proper dilution. Dilute smoke
is concentrated, fishes are dipped into it for required time and then it is dried.

19
2.9.5: Electrostatic Smoking: Here smoked particles are charged into an electrical field
(usually positively charged) and at the same time fishes are negatively charged. The positively
charged smoke particles are attached by the fish. It is a rapid process.

2.10 Chemistry of wood smoke

The combination of combustion and destructive distillation which occurs when smoke is

produced from smoldering wood results in a complex mixture of aliphatic and aromatic

compounds in addition to water and carbon (vi) oxide and traces of hydrogen and carbon

monoxide (Carlone, 2009). The British Empire Cancer Campaign (1991) reported that polycyclic

aromatic compounds could not be detected in wood smoke and that there was no evidence of

wood smoke having carcinogenic activity. But it is commonly believed that the paralysis of

many organic natural products give rise to traces of 3,4-benzpyrene and related compounds and

it seem likely that the use of the refined chromatographic techniques now available would

establish the presence of microscopic traces of these compounds in wood smoke.

2.11 Bactericidal property of smoke

Fish is one of the most perishable of all staple commodities. Spoilage occurs as the result

of the action of enzymes (autolysis) and bacteria present in the fish and also chemical oxidation

of the fat which causes rancidity. At the high temperatures prevalent in tropical countries like

Nigeria, bacterial and enzymic actions are enhanced. Fish invariably become putrid within a few

hours of capture unless they are preserved or processed in some way to reduce this microbial and

autolytic activity and, hence, retard spoilage. If the moisture content of fresh fish is reduced

during drying to around 25%, bacteria cannot survive and autolytic activity will be greatly

reduced, but to prevent mould growth, the moisture content must be reduced to 15%. Also the

presence of salt retards bacterial action and, in addition, it aids the removal of water by osmosis

20
(Khoshmanesh, 2006). Olayemi et al., (2012) carried out analysis on microbial quality of cat

fish (Clarias gariepinus) smoked with the developed smoking kiln by Nigerian Stored Products

Research Institute (NSPRI). The total bacteria count was 2.0 x 10-4 cfug and 0.7 x 10-4 cfug for

mould/yeast. The result showed that no Pseudomonas, Escherichia coli or Salmonella species

was found on the smoked fish. Generally, the total bacteria count was higher than the

mould/yeast count. The sensory evaluation of the smoked fish showed that the fish was generally

acceptable in taste and flavour. He concluded that the cat fish smoked with NSPRI developed

smoking kiln is of high microbiological standard and suitable for human and livestock

consumption.

2.12 Smoking kiln

A study conducted (Ikenweiwe et al ., 2010) to fabricate a smoking kiln to

improve on the existing fish smoking kiln technology showed that most of existing kilns

are not lagged, waste lots of time for smoking and the products are also vulnerable to

contamination. The effects of smoke-drying temperatures and duration of drying in the

quality of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) has been investigated by Idah and

Nwankwo (2013) using a drum kiln dryer. They observed that smoke drying temperature

and time influences both nutritive and physical quality of fishes. Consequently, there is

need to develop a more efficient and affordable equipment to enhance fish processing

and reduce drudgery associated with some traditional methods. According to Ighodaro

and Abolagba (2010), smoking reduces the moisture content of fish to a point that it

impairs the activities of spoilage microbes. The source of any product determines it

quality as no two products of different sources are the same. Some sources have got poor

sanitary practices, thus, product from such sources ought to be avoided. Nigerian

21
consumers of fish bother more about quantity and less about quality as a result they buy

the product without considering health implications

22
23