CHAPTER 1: IDENTITY, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

Identity - distinctive characteristics that defines an individual or is shared by those

belonging to a particular group.
- can be influenced by sexual orientation, gender, or nationality
- can be changed over the course of a person's lifetime The distinctive traits that
define a person or a group. Can be shaped by sexual orientation, gender, nationality, and other factors. Can change
throughout a person’s life.
Culture - society's way of life
- it allows people to understand themselves in relation to others and
provides them lens through which they base what is considered the "right
way" of doing things A society’s way of life — includes beliefs, customs, traditions, and values.
Helps people understand themselves and others. Provides a guide for what is seen as the “right way” of doing
things.
Society - a group of people living in a community
- web of social relationship, which is always changing (Maclver and Page) A
group of people living together in a community. Described by MacIver and Page as a “web of social relationships”
that is always changing.

Social, Cultural, and Political Change

Suffrage - right to vote

Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

Social Sciences - the disciplines under which identity, culture, society, and politics
are studies collectively The group of academic disciplines that study identity, culture, society, and politics
together. These help us understand how people live, think, and interact.

Anthropology - systematic study of the biological, cultural, and social

aspects of men.
- from anthropos - man and logos - study
- origin and development of man; humanistic study of species
The systematic study of humans — their biology, cultures, and societies. Word Origin: Anthropos = man (Greek)
Logos = study Focus: Where humans came from, how they developed, and how they live and think as a species.
 Social Anthropology - studies how social patterns and practices and
cultural variation develop across different societies. Studies how social rules,
traditions, and practices develop in different societies. Example: How marriage customs vary in cultures.
 Cultural Anthropology - studies cultural variations across societies and
examines the need to understand each culture in its own context. Looks at
cultural differences and helps us understand each culture in its own unique context. Example: Studying
rituals or festivals.
  Linguistic Anthropology - studies language and discourse and how they
reflect and shape different aspects of human society and culture. Studies
languages and how they affect and reflect society and culture. Example: How slang changes in a
community.
 Biological or Physical Anthropology - studies the origins of humans as well
as the interplay between social factors and the processes of human
evolution, adaptation, and variation overtime. Studies human origins, evolution, and
how social factors affect human biology over time. Example: How climate affects human features.
Archaeology - deals with prehistoric societies by studying their tools and
environment. A branch of anthropology that studies prehistoric societies by
examining their tools, artifacts, and environment. Purpose: To understand how ancient people lived, what they
used, and how their cultures developed before written records.

Anthropologists:
1. Franz Boas Father of American Anthropology; promoted cultural relativism.
2. Alfred Koeber Known for his work on Native American cultures and languages.
3. Clifford Geeits Focused on symbolic and interpretive anthropology; known for “thick description” of
cultures.
4. Margaret Mead Studied how culture shapes personality; famous for her research in Samoa.

Race - physical and biological characteristics Refers to physical and biological traits, like skin color
or facial features.
Ethnic Group - cultural factors Refers to shared cultural aspects, like language, traditions, or beliefs

Sociology - the study of human social life, groups, and society (Anthony Giddens)
- scientific study of human interaction and the products of such
interaction
- social action (Max Weber) The study of human social life, groups, and society (Anthony
Giddens).The scientific study of human interaction and the things people create through this interaction. Focuses on
social action, or how people act together in society (Max Weber).

Sociologists:
1. Herbert Spencer Applied evolution to societies; known for “Social Darwinism.”
2. Emile Durkheim Studied social facts and how societies maintain order and cohesion.
3. Karl Marx Analyzed class struggles and economic systems; known for conflict theory.
4. Max Weber Focused on social action, bureaucracy, and the role of ideas in shaping society.
5. August Comte Father of Sociology; developed the theory of positivism.

Political Science - systematic study of politics; "the activity through which people
make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live." (Andrew
Heywood)
- focuses on the fundamental values of equality, freedom, and
 justice as well as the dynamics of conflict, resolution and
cooperation The systematic study of politics — the activity through which people
make, preserve, and change the general rules they live by (Andrew Heywood). Focuses on fundamental values like
equality, freedom, and justice, and examines conflict, resolution, and cooperation in society.
Public Administration - examines how the government functions and how
decisions and policies are made Studies how the government operates and how decisions
and policies are made.
Political Economy - evaluates the interplay between economics, politics,
and law and its implications to the various institutions within society Looks at
how economics, politics, and law interact and affect society’s institutions.
Comparative Politics - compares domestic politics and governance systems
across different sovereign states Compares how domestic politics and governance work in
different countries.
Political Scientists:
1. Plato
2. Aristotle
3. Niccolo Machiavelli
4. Baron de Montesquieu
5. Thomas Hobbes
6. John Locke

State - has government, people, territory, and sovereignty Government — the ruling
authority People — the population Territory — defined land area Sovereignty — supreme power within its borders

CHAPTER 2: SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Society - group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location, and

government.
"A complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes,
laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and
shares as a members of society." (Ε.Β. Taylor) A group of people who share: A common culture A
geographical location A government According to E.B. Taylor: “Society is a complex whole that includes beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge — everything that people learn and share
as members of society.”

Elements of Society:
1. social solidarity unity and cooperation among members
2. shared identity and culture common way of life and beliefs
3. common language for communication and understanding
4. large population and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of
Members enough people to continue society for future generations
5. definite geographical area a clear territory or place
 6. political, economic, and social organization systems for order, livelihood, and interaction

Major types of Societies:

1. Hunting and gathering - first societies; the family and local clan with
- organized hunting and gathering and distributed the
accumulated food supply First and oldest societies Organized family or local clans People hunted animals
and gathered wild plants Shared and distributed food among members
2. Horticultural - relied on the cultivation of plants as their primary source of
food Main food source: planting and growing crops Relied on simple farming and gardening
3. Pastoral - depended on the domestication of animals Depended on raising and
domesticating animals (e.g., sheep, cattle) Moved around to find pasture for herds
4. Agricultural - food production become more efficient; invention of more
advanced tools; establishment of permanent settlements Farming became more
efficient with better tools (like the plow) People lived in permanent villages or towns Produced surplus food, which
supported larger populations
5. Industrial - invention of machines that improved production Used machines for
mass production of goods Factories and cities grew rapidly Many people worked in manufacturing
6. Post-industrial - knowledge is a commodity and technological innovation is
key to long-lasting growth and development Focuses on knowledge, information, and
services rather than factories. Technology and innovation drive economic growth Examples: computer and
information industries

Culture - set of beliefs, ideas, values, practices, knowledge, history and shared
experiences, attitudes, as well as material objects and possessions accumulated
overtime and shared by the members of society. A set of beliefs, ideas, values, practices,
knowledge, history, shared experiences, attitudes, and material objects collected and shared by a society over
time.
Material Culture - composed of the physical or tangible objects
Examples:
1. Painting and other works of art
2. Architectural styles
3. Weaponry
4. Toys
Nonmaterial Culture - consists of intangible properties and elements of
society that influence the patterns of action and behaviour of its
members Intangible parts of culture that shape how people think and behave.
Examples:
1. Language
2. Beliefs
3. Values
4. Attitudes
 5. Ideas
6. Norms (prescriptive - legal and proscriptive - illegal) Prescriptive
norms → what is allowed/legal. Proscriptive norms → what is forbidden/illegal
Folklore - community stories and other type of narratives shared
within societies. Traditional community stories and legends.

Vital Cultural Components:

1. Symbols - refer to things that convey meaning or represent an idea Objects or
signs that stand for ideas (e.g., flag, logo).
2. Language - set of symbols that enables members of the society to
communicate verbally and nonverbally A system of symbols that lets people communicate
(spoken, written, gestures).
3. Values - shared ideas, norms, and principles that provide members of society
the standards that pertain to what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable
or undesirable. Shared beliefs about what is right/wrong, good/bad.
4. Norms-shared rules of conduct that determine specific behaviour among
society members. Rules on how to behave properly.
 Folkways - norms that may violated without serious consequences;
repeating habits Everyday habits; not serious if broken.
 Mores - norms with moral connotations; strong norms Morally important; strongly
held.
 Laws - norms that are legally enacted and enforced Written rules enforced by
authority.
*taboo - illegal; prohibited Taboo: Forbidden actions; socially unacceptable.

Socialization - lifelong process of forging identity through social interactions Lifelong

process of learning social rules and building identity.
Enculturation - process by which an individual learns or acquires the important
aspects of his or her society's culture Learning your own culture’s key values
and practices.
Context - particular circumstances of a certain culture The situation or setting that explains
cultural behavior.

Society and Culture According to the Three Disciplines

Anthropology - considers culture as the central focus of its discipline
- examines and provides explanations for the existence of different
cultural patters as well as the similarities and differences between
different cultures Focuses on culture: its patterns, differences, and similarities.

Relativistic approach - considers culture as equal All cultures are equally important.
Ethnocentric Approach Belief that one’s own culture is better than others.
Ethnocentrism- believes that one's culture is superior to other cultures
Xenocentrism - consider their culture as inferior to others Preference for foreign cultures
over one’s own.
Cultural Relativism - recognizes and accepts the cultural differences between
societies (celebrated) Respect and appreciate cultural differences.

Sociology - relates culture with the overall context of social order Studies how culture
keeps society organized and stable.

Sociological Perspectives:
1. Structural-functionalism - operates on the assumption that society is a
stable and orderly System; equilibrium (role conflict, strain, exit) Society stays
balanced; problems cause strain/conflict.

2. Conflict Theory - assumes that there is a constant power struggle among

the various social groups and institutions within society Society has power struggles between
groups.

3. Symbolic interactionism - views individual and group behaviour and social

interactions as defining features of society; believe that cultures provides
shared meanings to the members of society. Society is built through daily
interactions and shared meanings.
4. Social Exchange - give and take Relationships are based on give-and-take.

Political Science - examines culture as a vital aspect of society Sees culture as key in
shaping politics and government.

Multiculturalism - an ideology that acknowledges and promotes cultural diversity

within society Promotes respect for different cultures in society.

Cultural Sensitivity - advances awareness and acceptance of cultural differences

but encourages a critical stance in dealing with issues regarding diversity.
Understanding and respecting differences, but staying aware of diversity issues.