HARAPPA

TO
NALANDA
From 2600 BCE to 550 CE

SIMPLIFIED RETELLING OF INDIA’S PAST

Book 1 From the Series Of “History Made Easy”

GAURAV KUMAR
Copyright Notice

© [2025] Gaurav Kumar

ISBN: 9789334260373
All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without
prior written permission from the author, except in the case of
brief quotations for review or educational purposes.

This book is intended for educational and informational purposes

only. While every effort has been made to ensure historical
accuracy, the author does not claim this book as a scholarly or
definitive source. Readers interested in academic research should
refer to detailed historical texts and peer-reviewed studies.

Use of Maps & Illustrations

This book contains maps and illustrations sourced from

https://www.worldhistory.org/mapselect/. These maps are
used solely for educational purposes to enhance the reader’s
understanding of historical events and locations. The copyright of
these maps belongs to their respective creators and publishers.

Any resemblance to real persons, living or dead, is purely

coincidental unless explicitly stated. The views expressed in this
book are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect those of
any organization or institution.
“To the one who brings endless light to my days and nights,
my unwavering beacon of hope and love, and to my
cherished family, whose love and support make every
moment worthwhile. This work is a testament to all that
you mean to me.”
 JOURNEY DETAILS

CHAPTER 1 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (~5000 YEARS AGO) ........... 1

CHAPTER 2 VEDIC CIVILIZATION (~3500 YEARS AGO) .................... 29

CHAPTER 3 NEW THINKING (~2600 YEARS AGO) .......................... 51

CHAPTER 4 MAURYAN EMPIRE (~2300 YEARS AGO) ..................... 77

CHAPTER 5 THE INDO GREEKS (~2200 YEARS AGO) ....................... 99

CHAPTER 6 THE GUPTA EMPIRE (~1700 YEARS AGO) ................... 117

CHAPTER 7 THE WOMEN OF ANCIENT INDIA ................................. 139

CLOSING THOUGHTS ..................................................................... 149

 DISCLAIMER
This book is meant to simplify and explain history
in a way that is easy and engaging, especially for
readers who usually find history dull or difficult.
The goal is to make historical events, personalities,
and ideas more accessible through a storytelling
approach.

However, this book should not be considered a

replacement for academic research. It is an
alternative source for understanding history in the
most basic and comprehensive way. While the dates
and events provided align with current scholarly
consensus, the book does not emphasize exact
timelines but rather focuses on the broader flow of
history.

Additionally, some events, personalities, or

developments may have been omitted, as this book
aims to provide a general understanding of Ancient
India rather than a detailed account. Readers
interested in deeper research should refer to
scholarly books, articles, and academic sources for a
more thorough study.
 FOREWORD
History is a big, endless story. It is not just about
kings and wars. It is about people, ideas, dreams, and
how the world changed over time. But many people
find history boring, full of hard words and too many
dates. This book is here to change that!
This book is like a time machine. It will take you back
to the past and show you how people lived, what they
believed, and how they shaped the world we know
today. From the grand cities of the Harappans to the
mighty Gupta Empire, this book will make history
feel alive!
The goal of this book is simple—to make history fun,
easy, and interesting for everyone. It is not an
academic book filled with tough facts. It is a
storybook of our past, made for curious minds. If you
ever thought history was too difficult, this book will
change your mind!
So, step in, turn the pages, and travel back in time.
The past is waiting for you!

Gaurav Kumar
 PREFACE
History has always been an unexpected journey for
me—a subject that, surprisingly, I once disliked back
in secondary school. It felt like a never-ending list of
dates, battles, and rulers. Science seemed more
exciting, more promising. But as I explored deeper, I
realized history is much more than that. It is not just
about remembering events. It is about people. It is
about stories. It is about why things happened and
how they shaped the world we live in today.

My journey through history has been a great

adventure. Along the way, I found myself reading
books, old scriptures, and religious texts. From the
Hadith, Quran, and Upanishads to the Bhagavad
Gita, Bible, and Adi Granth Sahib, I kept finding
wisdom hidden in their words. They were not just
religious books. They were books about life, about
kindness, about being human. No matter where they
came from or which language they were written in,
they all carried the same message—peace, love, and
understanding.

Each of these texts taught me something new. Some

spoke about courage. Some spoke about sacrifice.
Some spoke about the importance of helping others.
But all of them showed me that deep down, people
everywhere are the same. They have the same
hopes. The same fears. The same dreams of a better
world. History, too, tells us this same story. It is the
story of humanity—of people rising, falling,
learning, and growing. It is a story that does not
belong to just one group, one nation, or one
religion. It belongs to all of us.

This realization changed how I saw the past. I no

longer saw history as just kings and wars. I saw it as
the story of human thought, of inventions, of great
ideas, of art and music, of traditions and customs
that still shape us today. I saw history as a long road
filled with mistakes and lessons, victories and
defeats. And most importantly, I saw that history is
not something that ends in books. It continues. It is
alive. We are all a part of it.

This book is my way of sharing that excitement

with you. I wanted to make history simple, fun, and
easy to understand. I wanted to take away the big,
difficult words and tell history in a way that feels
like a story. A story that anyone can enjoy. Because
history is not just for scholars or historians. It is for
everyone. It is for you.
I chose the title of the book to represent the journey of the
reader from lost civilization near Harappa and to the
great empires having big universities like Nalanda.

So, if you ever thought history was boring, I hope

this book changes that. If you ever thought history
was too hard, I hope this book makes it easy. And if
you already love history, I hope this book makes you
love it even more.

Let’s step into the past together. There is so much to

explore!
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing this book has been a long and challenging
journey, one that I took alone, but never truly by
myself. Many people, knowingly or unknowingly,
played a role in making this possible, and for that, I
am deeply grateful.

To my family, your patience and support gave me

the time and space to bring these pages to life. Your
encouragement was my foundation, helping me
push forward even when the road seemed uncertain.

To those whose words, presence, or silent belief in

me became a source of strength, you are woven into
the very fabric of this book. Every late night, every
moment of doubt, and every breakthrough was
made easier because of you.

This book is the result of passion, curiosity, and an

endless search for understanding. While I walked
this path alone, it was the people around me who
made the journey possible.

With heartfelt gratitude,

Gaurav Kumar
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 CHAPTER 1
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
(~5000 years ago)

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever wondered what India was like

thousands of years ago? Before great kings, before
grand temples, and before even written history—
there was a civilization. This civilization is called the
Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan
Civilization. It is one of the world's oldest
civilizations, just like Mesopotamia and Egypt.
What is the meaning of civilization? In most
basic language, a civilization is a very large group of
people who follow almost same tradition in a large
area.
But why is it called Indus Valley Civilization?
Simple! It was present near the Indus River, which
flows through present-day India and Pakistan.
Imagine people living along this river about 4600
years ago, building cities, trading, and creating
things we still don’t fully understand today.
The Indus Valley Civilization existed from 2600
BCE to 1900 BCE.

1
 But wait—what is BCE? BCE means Before
Common Era, which is the time before the birth of
Jesus. If you want to understand how old that is, just
add the BCE year to the present year. For example –

2600 BCE + 2024 (present year) = 4624 years ago!

So, this is a story of people who lived nearly 4600

years ago. But if we look at early evidences of the
Harappan people, they are as old as 3300 BCE,
which means about 5300 years ago.
But how do we know about them? There are no
history books from that time. Instead, we use
archaeology—a method where we dig the earth to
find old things like pottery, tools, houses, and even
entire cities!
One such discovery happened in 1921, when
archaeologists found a lost city called Harappa. A
year later, in 1922, they found another city—
Mohenjo-Daro. These were not just small villages.
They were well-planned cities with straight roads,
houses made of bricks, and even a drainage system
better than some modern cities!

2
 Gaurav Kumar

Now that we know the Indus Valley Civilization

was one of the oldest civilizations, let’s see how
people lived back then. You might think that people
4600 years ago had simple lives, but guess what?
They were very advanced!

Drainage System – Cleaner than Some Modern

Cities!

Imagine living in a city where dirty water never

flooded the streets. Sounds like a dream? Well, the
Indus Valley people made it a reality thousands of
years ago!

Covered Drains Everywhere – Every house was

connected to a proper drainage system. The drains
were covered with stone slabs to keep the streets
clean.
Built with Bricks – The drains were made of
baked bricks, just like modern construction! They
were strong and long-lasting.
Manholes (Yes, Like Today!) – Small openings
(manholes) were made at regular distances so that
workers could clean the drains.
Separate Drains for Wastewater – Used water
from kitchens and bathrooms flowed directly into
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

these drains, not on the streets! Even some modern

cities don’t have such an advanced system.

House Structure

Want a house that lasts for centuries? Use baked

bricks! That’s exactly what the Harappans did.

Same-Sized Bricks – Every brick was same in

size ratio. This shows they followed a proper
measurement system while building.
Single & Multi-Floor Houses – Some houses had
one floor, but bigger ones had two floors with
staircases.
Courtyards & Wells – Houses had open
courtyards for fresh air and private wells for water.
No need to step out for water!
Bathrooms Inside! – Harappan houses had
separate bathrooms with proper drainage—super
advanced for their time!
Windows & Doors for Privacy – Harappans
valued privacy. Windows were small and placed
away from streets to avoid peeping neighbors.
 Gaurav Kumar

The City of the Indus People

A long, long time ago, people built big cities near
rivers. These cities were smart, strong, and well-
planned! Let’s look inside!

The Big, Strong Part of the City – The

Citadel
This was the safest part of the city, built on high
ground with big walls around it! Important
buildings were here.

 Granaries – Big storage rooms for grains!

People may have kept food here for bad times.
 The Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro) – A HUGE
water tank! Maybe people took special baths
here for prayers.
 Assembly Halls – Big halls where leaders
may have met and talked about important
things.
 Thick Walls – Strong walls kept the city safe
from floods and enemies!

The Busy, Crowded Part – The Lower Town

This is where most people lived, worked, and
traded!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Neat Streets – Streets were straight and

crossed at right angles, like a puzzle!
 Shops & Markets – Craftsmen made things,
and traders sold them. Busy, busy place!
 Drains & Houses – Every house had a drain,
keeping the city clean. So smart!

How Did Harappans Say

Goodbye?
A long time ago, when people passed away, the
Harappans had special ways to bury them. But they
did not build big pyramids or make mummies like
the Egyptians!

Buried with Special Things – Some people

were buried with pots, tools, and even food! Maybe
they thought the person would need these in
another life.

Three Ways of Burial – Harappans had

different ways to say goodbye:
 Gaurav Kumar

 Whole Burial – The whole body was placed

in a pit and buried.
 Bone Burial – Only some bones were buried,
maybe after leaving the body in nature for
some time.
 Burning & Burying – Some signs show they
may have burned the body first and then
buried the ashes.

No Big Tombs! – Harappans didn’t build giant

tombs or temples for their rulers. Maybe they
believed in a simple afterlife.

Even though we don’t know everything, these

burials show that Harappans cared about their loved
ones, even after they were gone.

Trade – Business Across Borders!

The Indus people were business-minded. They

traded goods within India and also with faraway
lands!

Who Did They Trade With?

 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Mesopotamia (Iraq) – They called India

"Meluhha" and traded cotton, beads, and
metals.
 Dilmun (Bahrain) – A trading hub between
India and Mesopotamia.
 Magan (Oman) – Harappans imported
copper from here for making tools.
 Persia (Iran) – For silver and other
materials.

What Did They Trade?

Exports (Sent to Other Places): Cotton
textiles, beads, precious stones, shell bangles,
pottery.
Imports (Brought from Outside): Copper
(Oman), silver (Iran), lapis lazuli (Afghanistan), gold
(Karnataka).

How Did They Trade?

 Seals for Identification – They used seals

with unique symbols to mark trade goods.
 Barter System – No coins yet! They
exchanged goods instead of using money.
 Bullock Carts & Boats – Goods were carried
on land by carts and on water by boats.
 Gaurav Kumar

 Lothal’s Dockyard – Lothal had a huge

dock where ships loaded and unloaded goods.

Trade made Harappans rich and well-connected

with the world!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Craft – Masters of Art and Technology!

Harappans weren’t just traders—they were superb

craftsmen!
Bead Making –
 Small, beautiful beads made from semi-
precious stones like carnelian, lapis lazuli, and
agate.
 Used for jewelry and trade.

Pottery –
 Red & black pottery with simple designs.
 Some had paintings of animals, birds, and
plants.
Metal Tools & Weapons –
 Bronze & copper tools – axes, knives, saws,
and fishing hooks.
 Little evidence of weapons, which suggests
Harappans were mostly peaceful.
Terracotta Toys & Figurines –
 Mini carts, animals, and human figures made
of clay.
 Shows that Harappan kids played with toys
like we do today!
Seals with Animal Carvings –
 Made of steatite (soft stone).
 Gaurav Kumar

 Had bulls, elephants, unicorn-like animals,

and unknown symbols.
 Used for trade or religious purposes (we still
don’t fully understand them!).
Harappans were not just builders and traders—
they were artists, engineers, and designers!
They were also the first people to grow cotton
and make cloth! That means they might have worn
cotton clothes just like us.

Interesting fact
According to recent research, the oldest place that
belong to the Indus Valley Civilization is located in
Bhirrana which is in Haryana and this place is dated
to about 7500 BCE, which means about 9500 years
ago.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

1.1 Major Cities

The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over a
large area, and many cities were discovered by
archaeologists. Each city was famous for something
unique. Here are some of the important ones:
 Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) – The first
discovered city (1921). Famous for granaries,
large public buildings, and a well-planned
drainage system.
 Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan) –
Discovered in 1922. Known for the Great
Bath, a massive granary, and an advanced
drainage system.
 Dholavira (Gujarat, India) – Discovered in
1967. Known for its water conservation
system and unique city planning with three
divisions: citadel, middle town, and lower
town.
 Lothal (Gujarat, India) – A port city
(discovered in 1954). Famous for its dockyard,
bead-making factory, and warehouse for
storing trade goods.
 Gaurav Kumar

 Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) – The largest

Indus city (discovered in 1963). Evidence of
multi-room houses, drainage, and agriculture.
 Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India) – Found in
1953. Famous for its ploughed field marks,
showing early evidence of farming. Also had
fire altars.
 Banawali (Haryana, India) – Discovered in
1973. Known for evidence of barley and wheat
farming and a different town structure
compared to other Harappan sites.
 Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan) – Found in
1931. A craft production centre known for
bead-making, bangle-making, and metalwork.
 Shortughai (Afghanistan) – Discovered in
1976. Unique for being the only Harappan
site in Afghanistan, famous for lapis lazuli
mining and trade.
 Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – Very
ancient (7000 BCE), found in 1974. It shows
early farming and domestication of
animals before the Indus cities fully
developed.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Balakot (Balochistan, Pakistan) – Found in

1973. Another port city, known for making
shell objects and ornaments.
 Gaurav Kumar

1.2 Trade
Harappans were expert traders. They traded
within their cities and also with faraway lands. Trade
happened by land and by sea.
Major Trade Routes
 Makran Coast – The coastal route along
present-day Pakistan and Iran.
 Meluhha – The name used by
Mesopotamians for the Indus region. It was a
major trade partner.
 Dilmun – Present-day Bahrain, an important
stopover for Harappan traders.
 Magan – Present-day Oman, known for
copper trade with Harappans.
What Did They Trade?
 Imports (What they brought from
outside) – Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan,
copper from Oman, gold from Karnataka, and
silver from Iran.
 Exports (What they sent to other places) –
Cotton textiles, beads, shell ornaments,
pottery, and metal tools.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Trade Methods
 Harappans used seals with symbols to mark
their goods.
 They likely bartered goods (exchanged one
item for another).
 Boats were used for sea trade, and bullock carts
were used for land trade.

What Did Harappans Eat?

Harappans ate a variety of foods, and their diet was
balanced.
 Grains – Wheat, barley, and millet were their
staple (regular) foods.
 Fruits & Vegetables – They grew dates,
melons, peas, and sesame.
 Meat & Fish – People ate fish, mutton, and
beef, though not everyone.
 Dairy – Evidence suggests they used milk
and dairy products.
They cooked food in earthen pots and used
grinding stones to make flour.
 Gaurav Kumar

1.3 Where Did the Harappans

Go?
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization remains
one of history's biggest mysteries. Did the Harappans move
somewhere else? Did they change their way of life? Many
theories try to explain what happened. Let’s go through
them one by one in the simplest way possible.
1. Did They Move to Other Places?
o Some experts believe that the
Harappans did not disappear. They
simply moved to different regions.
o Some groups might have gone to North
India, the Ganga plain, or South India.
o Over time, they could have adopted
new ways of living, like farming near
rivers that had more water.
o Some villages in North India show signs
of Harappan-like pottery and tools,
which suggests that some people from
the Indus Valley settled there.
2. Environmental Changes – A Major
Reason?
Why Did the Indus Cities Disappear?
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

A long time ago, the big, smart cities of the Indus

people slowly faded away. But why? Let’s find out!
The Weather Changed – It may have
become too hot or dry, making life harder.
The Big River Shrunk – Around 2000 BCE,
a big river in the area started drying up!
Rivers bring water for drinking, farming, and
daily life.
If a river dries up, people and animals struggle to
survive!
The Lost River – Some Indian books called
this river "Saraswati."
Scientists think it was a real river that disappeared
over time.
It may have been in northwest India and Pakistan.
People Had to Move – Harappans needed
rivers! If water was gone, they had to leave their
homes and find new places to live.
3. Floods or Earthquakes?
o Some believe that natural disasters, like
floods or earthquakes, might have
caused cities to decline.
o The movie Mohenjo Daro shows a flood
destroying the city, making people
move to the Ganga plains.
 Gaurav Kumar

o However, no strong evidence proves

this.
o Floods may have affected some cities,
but they were not the only reason for
the decline.
4. Decline in Trade and Economy
o Harappans traded with Mesopotamia
(Iraq) and Persia (Iran).
o Around 1900 BCE, Mesopotamia was
facing problems, and their trade
reduced.
o With fewer buyers for their goods,
Harappan businesses suffered.
o This could have led to a slow decline of
cities.
5. Aryan Invasion Theory – Did the Aryans
Attack?
o This theory was once very popular.
o Some British scholars, like Mortimer
Wheeler (1953), believed that the
Aryans invaded India and destroyed the
Harappan cities.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

o He pointed out skeletons found in

Mohenjo Daro as proof of a massacre.
o However, modern studies have proved
this theory wrong.
o There is no strong evidence of violent
battles between Harappans and Aryans.
6. What Ancient DNA Tells Us
Scientists now use DNA to understand history
better!
 In 2019, researchers Vasant Shinde and
Niraj Rai studied old bones from
Rakhigarhi (a Harappan city in Haryana).
 They checked the DNA and found that
Harappans were not the same as the Central
Asian steppe people (linked to Aryans).
 This shows that Aryans did not destroy the
Harappans.
 Instead, Harappan cities slowly changed
over time—not because of war, but for other
reasons!
7. Conclusion – No Sudden End!
o The Harappan civilization did not end
in one day.
 Gaurav Kumar

o It slowly declined due to many

reasons—climate change, drying rivers,
economic troubles, and migrations.
o By the time Aryans came to India,
around 1500 BCE, most of the
Harappan cities were already
abandoned or had become small
villages.
o Instead of thinking of it as a "collapse,"
it is better to say that Harappans slowly
became part of later Indian cultures.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

1.4 Harappan Script

A Mystery

The Indus Valley Civilization had its own unique script.

Archaeologists have found thousands of small inscriptions
on seals, pottery, and copper tablets. But there’s a big
problem—we still don’t know what it means! Unlike
Egyptian hieroglyphs or Mesopotamian cuneiform, the
Harappan script remains undeciphered.

1. What Do We Know About the Script?

Here are the basic facts about the Indus script:
 The script has around 400-450 symbols.
 Most inscriptions are very short (3 to 20
characters).
 Found on seals, pottery, copper tablets, and
even bones.
 Some symbols look like animals, plants, or
tools.
 It was not written in sentences like modern
languages.
 It was written continuously without gaps
between words.
 Gaurav Kumar

2. How Was It Written?

Experts have studied how the script was written.
They found two main writing styles:
 Boustrophedon Style: This means "like an ox
plowing a field." The first line is written from
left to right, the second from right to left, and
so on.
 Right to Left: Some inscriptions are written
from right to left, just like Arabic, Persian,
and Urdu.
 Left to Right: A few rare cases suggest left-to-
right writing, like Hindi and English.
3. Why Can’t We Read It?
The biggest problem with deciphering the Indus
script is that we don’t have a Rosetta Stone (a
bilingual text to help translate, like the one used for
Egyptian hieroglyphs). Here’s why decoding the
script is so difficult:
 We don’t know the Harappan language.
Unlike Sanskrit or Tamil, there is no direct
connection to any known language.
 No long texts. All inscriptions are very
short—too short to understand grammar or
sentence structure.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Lack of bilingual texts. In Mesopotamia,

people wrote in multiple languages, which
helped scholars decode them. Harappans did
not leave behind such records.
 No clear link to later scripts. Some experts
think early Brahmi (an ancient Indian script)
came from the Harappan script, but there is no
solid proof.
4. Could the Script Be Like Emojis?
According to Devdutt Pattanaik (a well-
known mythologist and writer), the Harappan
script may not be a language like English or Hindi.
Instead, it might be more like an emoji-based script.
 The symbols could represent ideas, objects, or
sounds, rather than full words or sentences.
 This means that instead of writing full
sentences, they may have used pictures to
convey meaning—just like modern emojis!
5. What Language Did Harappans Speak?
 Some experts believe they spoke a language
related to Dravidian (like Tamil, Telugu,
Kannada, and Malayalam).
 Gaurav Kumar

 Others think it was linked to Proto-Indo-

Aryan (an early form of Sanskrit-related
languages).
 There is no clear proof for either theory.
6. What Does the Movie Mohenjo Daro Show?
Is It True?
In the movie Mohenjo Daro, the characters speak
Ancient Sindhi. But in reality, we don’t know what
language the Harappans spoke! The movie took
creative liberty, but there is no solid proof that they
spoke Sindhi. Sindhi as a language developed much
later.
7. DNA Studies – What Do They Say?
Recent studies are trying to find out more about
Harappan people through DNA analysis.
 A study led by Vagheesh Narasimhan (2019)
suggests that Harappans had a mix of local
South Asian and Iranian farmer ancestry.
 Another study published in 2019 in 'Cell' by
Shinde, Narasimhan, and others examined
DNA from a site in Rakhigarhi (a major Indus
city). It found no evidence of Steppe (Aryan)
ancestry, which means Harappans were not
Aryans.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 The findings support the idea that Harappans

had their own culture and language, separate
from the later Indo-Aryans.
 Gaurav Kumar

What is a Script?
A script is a set of symbols or letters used for writing a language.
Different languages have different scripts. For example:
 Hindi is written in Devanagari script.
 English is written in the Latin script.
 Arabic, Persian, and Urdu use the Arabic script.
 Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada have their own scripts.
The Harappans also had a script, but we cannot read it yet.

What is Deciphering?
Deciphering means figuring out the meaning of an unknown script or
code. It is like solving a puzzle.
 If we find an old text in a lost script, we need to decipher it to
understand what it says.
 To decipher a script, we usually need to know what language it
represents and how it was written.
The Harappan script is still undeciphered because we don’t have
enough clues to understand it.

What is the Rosetta Stone?

The Rosetta Stone is a large stone slab found in 1799 in Egypt. It had the
same text written in three scripts:
1. Hieroglyphs (Ancient Egyptian script)
2. Demotic (a simpler Egyptian script)
3. Greek (a language that was already known)
Because experts could read Greek, they used it to decipher Egyptian
hieroglyphs. This helped unlock the secrets of Ancient Egypt.
The Harappan script does not have a "Rosetta Stone." This is why we
still cannot read what the Harappans wrote.
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 2
VEDIC CIVILIZATION
(~3500 years ago)

After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, a

new civilization emerged—the Vedic Civilization.
It was named after the Vedas, the oldest religious
texts of India compiled around 1500 BCE (3500
years ago).

If you re watch the movie Mohenjo-daro (2016) you

will see that the movie ends with a scene, where the
Harappans arrive near the bank of a river and they
name it Ganga. The scene probably hints at a
possible continuity from Harappan culture to Vedic
culture.

Urban Harappans vs. Rural Vedic People

 The Harappans lived in big cities like

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. They had a
drainage system, planned streets, and large
buildings.
 The Vedic people lived in villages, focusing
on agriculture, cattle rearing, and simple
lifestyles.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Trade was important for Harappans but was

not a priority for the Vedic people.
 The Harappans were found near the Indus
and Saraswati rivers, while the Vedic people
moved eastward, settling near the Ganga and
its tributaries.

What Are the Vedas?

The Vedas are the most important texts of the Vedic
period. They were compiled (created) during this
time but were not written down. Instead, they were
memorized and passed down orally for centuries.
Writing them down happened much later, around
1000 years after their compilation.

There are four Vedas, arranged in the order they

were composed:

1. Rig Veda (Oldest Veda) – Composed Around

1500 BCE
 The oldest and most important Veda.
 It contains hymns (poems) praising gods like
Indra (god of war), Agni (fire), and Varuna
(cosmic order), and Soma (moon or a
vegetation).
 Gaurav Kumar

 Talks about a nomadic (moving) society,

where people worshipped nature and
performed rituals.
2. Sama Veda – The Veda of Music
 Mostly contains verses from Rig Veda, but in
a musical form.
 Priests used it for chanting and singing
during religious rituals.
3. Yajur Veda – The Veda of Rituals
 A practical guide for priests.
 Describes how to perform yajnas (fire
sacrifices) and other religious ceremonies.
4. Atharva Veda – The Veda of Daily Life
 Has spells, charms, and remedies for health
and well-being.
 Talks about superstitions, magic, and
everyday life.

Compilation vs. Writing

 "Compilation" of Vedas means their creation.

They were not written down at first.
 The Vedic people memorized everything and
passed it down orally (by speaking and
listening).
 Writing happened much later, possibly after
500 BCE when writing scripts developed.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

This transition from Harappan urban culture to

Vedic rural life marks a major shift in Indian
history.

Phases of the Vedic Civilization

The Vedic Civilization is divided into two phases:

1. Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Period) –

1500 BCE to 1000 BCE
2. Later Vedic Period – 1000 BCE to 500 BCE

Each phase had different lifestyles, political systems,

religious beliefs, and economies. Let’s explore them
step by step.
 Gaurav Kumar

2.1 Early Vedic Period

(1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

Sources of Information

 The Rig Veda is the only source of this

period.
 It was composed by Aryans (Vedic people)
who settled near the Indus and Saraswati
rivers.

Society & Lifestyle in the Rig Vedic Period

 Nomadic to Settled Life: The people of the

early Vedic period were not fully settled at
first. They lived a semi-nomadic life, moving
in search of food, water, and grazing lands for
their cattle. Over time, they began settling in
small villages near rivers, especially the Indus
and Saraswati. These villages were not as
advanced as the Harappan cities but marked
the beginning of a more stable way of life.
 Cattle was Wealth: Cows were the most
valuable possession. The more cows a person
had, the more powerful they were. Wealth
was not measured in gold or land but in the
number of cattle owned. Wars were fought
over cattle, and the word for war in Rig Vedic
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Sanskrit was "Gavishthi," which literally

means "search for cows." Horses were also
important, mainly for transport and warfare.
 Simple Living: Unlike the Harappans, the
Rig Vedic people did not build grand cities.
Their houses were made of wood, bamboo,
reeds, and grass. The villages were small, with
houses scattered rather than neatly planned.
There were no fortifications, temples, or
palaces, suggesting a simpler, less structured
society.

Political System in the Rig Vedic Period

 Tribes, Not Kingdoms: Society was

organized into small tribes called Janas. Each
tribe had its own leader called the Rajan,
who acted as a protector and decision-maker.
However, he was not an absolute ruler and
had to take advice from tribal councils.
 Democratic Elements: The chief did not
rule alone. Two important councils helped in
decision-making:
o Sabha – A council of elders, mostly
made up of experienced and wise men.
 Gaurav Kumar

They advised the Rajan and handled

disputes.
o Samiti – A larger general assembly
where important matters were
discussed. This included not just elders
but also common people.
These councils show that early Vedic
society had some democratic
practices before kingship became
hereditary.
 No Hereditary Kingship: Unlike later
periods where kingship passed from father to
son, the Rajan was not always the son of the
previous ruler. Instead, he was chosen based
on bravery, leadership, and strength. His
main duty was to protect the tribe from
enemies and conduct wars when needed.
However, he did not have unlimited power
and could be removed if the people were
dissatisfied.

Economy in the Rig Vedic Period

 Main Occupation: The economy was

centered around cattle rearing and small-scale
agriculture. People grew barley (Yava), wheat,
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

and some pulses, but farming was not as

advanced as in later periods. The land was not
privately owned but used by the entire tribe.
 Trade: Trade was limited, and there was no
currency system. People used the barter
system, meaning goods were exchanged
without money. For example, grain could be
exchanged for cloth, or cattle for metal tools.
 No Taxes: Unlike later times when kings
collected taxes, there was no formal taxation
system. People gave voluntary gifts called Bali
to the Rajan, which was used for community
needs and protection. These gifts were not
forced and were mostly given during rituals
and sacrifices.

Religion in the Rig Vedic Period

 Nature Worship: The Rig Vedic people

worshipped natural forces and deities.
There were no temples or idol worship.
Instead, they performed fire sacrifices
(Yajnas) in open spaces to honor their gods.
Some of the most important deities were:
o Indra – The god of war, rain, and
thunderstorms. He was the most
 Gaurav Kumar

praised deity in the Rig Veda,

described as a warrior who killed the
demon Vritra and released the rivers.
o Agni – The fire god. He was important
because all rituals and sacrifices
were done through fire. Agni was seen
as a messenger between humans and
gods.
o Varuna – The god of cosmic order
(Rita). He ensured justice and
maintained moral laws. People
believed he could punish wrongdoers
by sending sickness or misfortune.
o Surya – The sun god. He was seen as
the giver of life and health,
controlling time and seasons.
 No Temples, No Idol Worship: Unlike later
Hinduism, where temples became central to
worship, early Vedic people did not build
temples or idols. Their religion was based on
hymns, prayers, and fire sacrifices rather than
physical representations of gods. They
believed in pleasing the gods through
offerings of ghee, grains, and soma (a sacred
drink).
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

This period laid the foundation for later religious

beliefs but was much simpler and more nature-based
compared to the highly ritualistic later Vedic period.
 Gaurav Kumar

2.2 Later Vedic Period

(1000 BCE – 500 BCE)

Sources of Information

 Three more Vedas were composed:

o Sama Veda (music and chants).
o Yajur Veda (rituals and sacrifices).
o Atharva Veda (spells, daily life
practices).
 Other texts like Brahmanas (rituals),
Aranyakas (forest teachings), and
Upanishads (philosophy) were also written.

Changes in Society During the Later Vedic

Period (1000 BCE – 500 BCE)

Moving to the Ganga Valley: At first, the Rig Vedic

people lived near the Indus and Saraswati rivers. But
over time, they moved eastward and settled along
the Ganga and its small rivers. The land here was
more fertile, which made farming easier. This led to
a more settled way of life.

From Tribes to Caste System:

In the early Vedic period, people lived in tribes and

could do different jobs. But in the later Vedic
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

period, society became stricter, and people were

divided into four groups based on birth:

 Brahmins – Priests and teachers who

performed rituals and guided religious life.
 Kshatriyas – Warriors and rulers who
protected the kingdom and fought battles.
 Vaishyas – Farmers, traders, and craftsmen
who helped the economy grow.
 Shudras – Laborers and servants who
worked for the other groups.

People could no longer change their job or status. A

person’s caste decided what they could do and who
they could marry.

Political Changes in the Later Vedic Period

Bigger Kingdoms Formed:

In the Rig Vedic period, people lived in small tribes

ruled by chiefs. But as time passed, these tribes
joined together to form large kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. Some of these kingdoms later
became powerful and led to the rise of empires in
India.

Kings Gained More Power:

 Gaurav Kumar

Earlier, a king had to take advice from councils like

the Sabha (elders) and Samiti (people’s assembly).
But during the later Vedic period, kings became
more powerful, and these councils lost importance.

To show their strength, kings performed grand

rituals like the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse
sacrifice). In this ritual, a horse was set free to
roam. If it entered another kingdom, the ruler there
had to either accept the authority of the performing
king or go to war. This allowed kings to expand
their land.

Also, kingship became hereditary, meaning that

the king’s son usually became the next ruler.

Economic Changes in the Later Vedic Period

Farming Became the Main Work:

Agriculture became the backbone of society. Unlike

the early Vedic people, who mostly grew barley and
wheat, later Vedic people also grew rice, pulses, and
millet.

Better tools, like iron plows, replaced wooden ones.

This helped farmers grow more crops.

Trade and New Jobs:

 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Trade increased, but people still used the barter

system (exchanging goods) instead of coins.

Iron tools and weapons replaced bronze, which

improved farming and warfare.

New occupations developed:

 Weaving became more common, and clothes

were made from cotton and wool.
 Pottery improved, and a famous type called
Painted Grey Ware developed.
 Metalwork expanded, and people made iron
tools, weapons, and jewelry.

Painted Grey Ware

A special kind of pottery from ancient India,

used around 1200-600 BCE. It was smooth,
grey, and had simple black designs. People of
the later Vedic period used it for daily life.
Found in places like Hastinapur and
Kurukshetra, it shows early settlements
before big cities grew.
 Gaurav Kumar

Changes in Religion During the Later Vedic

Period

Rituals Became More Complicated:

In the Rig Vedic period, people worshipped nature

gods and performed simple fire sacrifices in open
spaces. But in the later Vedic period, religious
ceremonies became long, expensive, and
difficult.

Brahmins (priests) gained more power because they

were the only ones who could perform these rituals.

New Gods Became More Important:

Earlier gods like Indra (god of war) and Varuna (god

of order) became less important. Instead, people
started worshipping:

 Prajapati – The creator god.

 Rudra (early form of Shiva) – A powerful
god linked to both destruction and healing.
 Vishnu – The protector of the universe.

Idol worship was still rare, but temples started to appear

in some places.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

This period also saw the beginning of new ideas that

later influenced Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Some people began to question the strict caste
system and elaborate rituals, leading to changes in
religious thought.

The later Vedic period was a time of big changes.

Small tribes turned into powerful kingdoms, simple
lives became structured societies, and basic prayers
turned into complex rituals. This period prepared
the way for the rise of cities, empires, and new
religions in India.

 Rise of New Ideas:

o Some people questioned rituals and
started focusing on spiritual knowledge
(Upanishads).
o These ideas later influenced Buddhism
and Jainism.

Key Differences Between Rig Vedic and Later

Vedic Periods
 Gaurav Kumar

Rig Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Feature
(1500–1000 BCE) (1000–500 BCE)
Semi-nomadic, Fully settled,
Lifestyle
village-based agriculture-focused
Advanced farming,
Cattle rearing,
Economy iron tools, trade
limited farming
growth
Tribal chiefs Powerful kings, large
Politics
(Rajan) kingdoms
No caste system,
Caste system became
Society flexible social
rigid
roles
Simple nature
Elaborate rituals, rise
Religion worship, no
of priestly class
temples

This transition laid the foundation for Indian

civilization, with new ideas shaping later religions,
philosophies, and societies.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

2.3 Vedic Goddesses – The

Powerful Mothers of Nature
A long time ago, people in India prayed to many
goddesses. These goddesses were part of the Vedic
times (very, very old times). They were like mothers
who cared for the world. Let’s meet some of them!

Usha – The Goddess of Dawn

 Usha is the goddess of the morning.

 When the sun rises, she brings light and
chases away the night.
 She wakes up the world and brings a new day!

Aranyani – The Goddess of Forests

 Aranyani is the goddess of trees and jungles.

 She lives in the deep forests, taking care of
animals and plants.
 She is silent and mysterious, just like the
woods.

Aditi – The Mother of the Gods

 Aditi is like the biggest mother of all.

 She is the mother of the sun, moon, and sky.
 Gaurav Kumar

 She gives freedom and protection to

everyone.

Vak Devi (Saraswati) – The Goddess of

Knowledge

 Vak Devi means "goddess of speech". She is

also called Saraswati.
 She gives people the power to speak, read,
and learn.
 Some people think she is not a real river but a
river of wisdom that flows in the mind!

Prithvi – The Goddess of Earth

 Prithvi is the mother of the whole world.

 She is the earth itself, holding trees, rivers,
and mountains.
 People walk, live, and grow food on her land.
She takes care of everyone!

These goddesses were loved and respected because

they gave people life, knowledge, and safety. Now,
let’s learn about the Indo-Greeks!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

2.4 The Rise of Kingdoms

As the later Vedic period ended, small tribes grew
into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. These
were powerful states ruled by kings, and they shaped
the future of India.

Famous Kings and Their Kingdoms

1. Janaka of Videha (Mithila) – A wise and

learned king, famous in the Ramayana as the
father of Sita. He loved philosophy and had
deep discussions with sages.
2. Prithu – A legendary ruler said to have made
the land fertile for farming. People believed
he was the first king to "tame" the earth and
help agriculture grow.
3. Bimbisara of Magadha – A strong and
clever king who expanded Magadha (one of
the most powerful kingdoms). He used
diplomacy, marriage alliances, and war to
strengthen his rule.
4. Ajatashatru of Magadha – Bimbisara’s son,
even more ambitious. He built a fort, a
powerful army, and fought many battles to
expand his kingdom. He would later meet
both Buddha and Mahavira.
 Gaurav Kumar

5. Mahapadma Nanda of the Nanda Dynasty

– Called “the first emperor of India,” he
overthrew old rulers and created a huge,
wealthy empire. The Nandas had a massive
army with thousands of elephants!
6. The Kuru and Panchala Kingdoms – These
were important early kingdoms where many
religious and philosophical ideas developed.
The famous Bhagavad Gita is believed to have
its roots in the Kuru land.

What Was Happening During This Time?

 Kings were becoming more powerful. Many

performed grand rituals (like Ashvamedha,
the horse sacrifice) to prove their dominance.
 Armies grew stronger with iron weapons.
Wars between kingdoms became common.
 Cities started developing, and trade increased,
but society was still ruled by strict caste
divisions.

This was the time right before Buddhism and

Jainism emerged. Society was changing, but it was
also filled with inequality, heavy taxes, and complex
rituals. Some people started questioning these
traditions, setting the stage for new ideas and
religions.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Mythology from the Upanishads and Vedas

1. What Are the Upanishads?

The word Upanishad means "sitting near the guru." These texts
are conversations between teachers and students about deep
topics like the soul (Atman), the universe (Brahman), and truth
(Moksha). One famous story is about Shvetaketu, a boy who
studied the Vedas for twelve years. When he came home, his
father asked him deep questions to test his understanding.
Through this, Shvetaketu learned that true knowledge is not just
memorizing words but understanding the meaning of life.

This story also gives one of the first ideas of marriage as a contract
between husband and wife. Before this, relationships were more
flexible, but now loyalty became important.

2. A Formless God

The early Vedas talked about gods like Indra (thunder) and Agni
(fire). But the Upanishads focused on one formless divine power
called Brahman. This is similar to the idea of God in Islam, where
God has no shape or image.

However, Hinduism is different because it does not have

Judgment Day. In Christianity and Islam, God judges people after
death. But in Hinduism, there is no final judgment. Instead, karma
and rebirth decide what happens next. People keep being reborn
based on their actions until they reach Moksha (freedom from
rebirth).

These ideas later influenced Buddhism, Jainism, and Hindu

philosophy.
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 3
NEW THINKING
(~2600 years ago)

Religion in India did not appear suddenly—it

changed and evolved over time.

Long ago, during the Indus Valley Civilization,

people worshipped nature, animals, and fertility
gods. There were no grand temples, but seals and
figurines suggest they believed in divine forces.

Then came the Vedic religion with the arrival of the

Aryans. People performed yajnas (fire rituals) to
please gods like Indra (rain and war), Agni (fire),
and Varuna (cosmic order). Life centered around
prayers, sacrifices, and chants from the Rig Veda
(oldest Veda).

Over time, society changed. The Later Vedic Period

saw the rise of powerful kings, strict caste rules, and
grand religious ceremonies controlled by Brahmins.
People had to follow rituals blindly, and questioning
them was not allowed.

The Upanishads (7th-6th century BCE) brought a

shift. They challenged idol worship and focused on
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

deep spiritual ideas like Brahman (ultimate reality)

and Atman (soul). Instead of pleasing gods with
sacrifices, they asked:
"Who are we? Why are we born? How do we escape
suffering?"

This was when Jainism and Buddhism emerged.

They were not completely new but offered an
alternative path. Both religions rejected fire rituals,
caste rules, and the growing power of priests.
Instead of focusing on Bhogi life (enjoying worldly
pleasures), they promoted a Yogi life (renouncing or
leaving the world).
 Gaurav Kumar

3.1 Jainism
(7th Century BCE - 2700 years ago)

Jainism is older than Buddhism. It was founded by

Mahavira, but the religion existed before him. Jains
believe in 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), and
Mahavira was the last one. The first Tirthankara
was Rishabhanatha, who is even mentioned in
Hindu texts.

Why Did Jainism Rise?

 Society was divided into rigid castes, and only

Brahmins had religious power. Jainism said
anyone could seek truth.
 Fire sacrifices were expensive. Jainism
promoted simple living instead.
 People were tired of rituals and wanted a
more direct spiritual path.

But Jainism made some things very difficult. It

believed in completely withdrawing from the
world—leaving family, wealth, and even clothes
behind. The goal was not to rule or enjoy life but to
achieve Moksha (liberation from rebirth).

Sources of Jainism
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

To understand Jainism, we rely on ancient texts:

1. Agamas – Teachings of Mahavira.

2. Kalpa Sutra – Biography of Mahavira.
3. Tattvartha Sutra – Main philosophy of
Jainism.

Main Teachings of Jainism

Ahimsa (Non-Violence) – The Heart of Jainism

Jains believe that all living things have a soul—not

just humans and animals, but even tiny insects and
plants. Because of this, they follow Ahimsa, which
means never harming any living being.

This is not just about avoiding fights or wars. It

means:

 No killing animals for food – Most Jains are

strict vegetarians.
 No harming insects – Some Jains gently move
bugs out of their way instead of stepping on
them.
 No hurting plants unnecessarily – Many Jains
avoid eating root vegetables like onions and
 Gaurav Kumar

potatoes because pulling them out kills the

whole plant.

Some monks and nuns take Ahimsa even further.

They:

 Cover their mouths with a cloth to avoid

accidentally swallowing tiny insects.
 Sweep the ground before walking so they
don’t step on small creatures.
 Refuse to eat after sunset because bugs might
fall into their food without them noticing.

This idea of extreme non-violence later influenced

Buddhism. Even Mahatma Gandhi was inspired by
Jain Ahimsa and used it in his non-violent fight for
India's freedom.

2. Anekantavada (Many-Sided Reality)

Jainism believes truth is complex. Different people

see the same thing differently. Imagine six blind
men touching an elephant:

 One touches the trunk and says it's a snake.

 One touches the leg and says it's a pillar.
 One touches the tail and says it's a rope.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

None of them are completely wrong, but each

person sees only part of the truth. Jainism teaches us
to respect different perspectives.

3. The Hard Path to Moksha

 Jains believe the soul is trapped in the cycle of

birth and rebirth.
 The only way to break free is through severe
discipline:
o No killing, no stealing, no lying.
o No attachments (family, wealth, or
emotions).
o Complete celibacy (no marriage or
children).

Monks even gave up clothes to avoid material

attachment. Some practiced Sallekhana, fasting to
death, believing it purified the soul.

Jainism Over Time – Changes and Famous

Followers

At first, Jainism was very strict. Following Ahimsa

(non-violence) completely was hard for normal
 Gaurav Kumar

people. Because of this, Jainism split into two

groups:

1. Digambaras ("Sky-Clad") – These monks

believe in living with absolutely no
possessions, not even clothes. They say that
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, lived this
way.
2. Shvetambaras ("White-Clad") – These monks
wear simple white robes and follow slightly
easier rules.

Over time, Jainism became more flexible. Most Jains

today are not monks. They live regular lives but still
follow key Jain values like non-violence, honesty,
and self-control. Many are successful in business
because they avoid industries that harm living
beings, such as meat, leather, and alcohol.

Famous Jains in Modern Times

Jains have made big contributions to business,

education, and charity. Some well-known Jains
include:

 Gautam Adani – One of India’s richest

businessmen, leading the Adani Group.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Virchand Gandhi – A Jain scholar who

represented India at the World Parliament of
Religions in 1893.
 Bhagwan Mahaveer Foundation – A major
charity organization inspired by Jain
teachings.

Even today, Jain values like hard work, honesty, and

non-violence shape many successful people and
businesses.

1. History of Jainism
Jains believe that their religion is eternal and was
revived by 24 great teachers called Tirthankaras. The
last and most famous Tirthankara was Mahavira (599
BCE – 527 BCE), who spread Jain teachings. He was
a contemporary (same time) of Buddha.
Jainism grew alongside Buddhism and influenced
Indian society. It became strong in western and
southern India, where rulers like Chandragupta
Maurya (321–297 BCE) and King Kharavela (1st
century BCE, Odisha) followed or supported Jainism.

2. Jain Monks and Their Lifestyle

 Gaurav Kumar

Jain monks live a very simple life with strict rules:

 No possessions – They give up all material
things, even clothes (for Digambaras).
 Ahimsa in daily life – They Walk carefully to
avoid stepping on insects and do not eat after
sunset.
 Meditation and fasting – Many practice
extreme fasting to cleanse the soul. Some take
Sallekhana, fasting until death, as a spiritual
choice.
 Teaching and guiding – They travel from
village to village, preaching Jain values.
Laypeople (common Jains) follow these values in a
simpler way. They live regular lives but practice
vegetarianism, honesty, and charity.

3. Jainism and Education

Jains have always supported learning and
knowledge. Many ancient Jain texts were written in
Prakrit and Sanskrit. Jain scholars contributed to
subjects like:
 Mathematics – Jain texts mention advanced
concepts like infinity and logarithms.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Astronomy – Jains studied planets and time

cycles.
 Medicine – Jain monks preserved ancient
healing knowledge.
 Philosophy – Jain ideas of karma and rebirth
influenced Indian thought.
Today, Jains run many schools, colleges, and
libraries, such as the Shravanabelagola Library in
Karnataka, which preserves ancient manuscripts.

4. Jain Festivals and Practices

 Paryushan Parva – The most important Jain
festival, lasting 8–10 days. Jains fast, pray, and
ask for forgiveness.
 Mahavir Jayanti – Celebrates the birth of
Mahavira with prayers and charity.
 Diwali – Jains celebrate Diwali as the day
Mahavira attained Nirvana (liberation).

Jainism’s Influence and Modern Relevance

Though Jainism is a small religion today (around
4.5 million followers in India), its ideas have shaped
Indian culture, ethics, and even politics. Mahatma
 Gaurav Kumar

Gandhi was inspired by Jain Ahimsa in his fight for

India’s independence.
Even in modern times, Jains are highly educated,
successful in business, and contribute to society
through charity, environmental work, and education.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

3.2 Buddhism
500 BCE - 2500 years ago

Buddhism – The Path of Peace and Wisdom

After learning about Jainism, let's talk about another

great religion that started in India—Buddhism. Just
like Jainism, Buddhism challenged the caste system,
focused on non-violence, and emphasized kindness.
But unlike Jainism, Buddhism spread far beyond
India, reaching China, Japan, Sri Lanka, and even
Europe.

So how did it all begin?

1. The Birth of Buddhism – Story of Siddhartha

Gautama

Around 563 BCE, a prince named Siddhartha

Gautama was born in Kapilavastu, in present-day
Nepal. His father, a powerful ruler, wanted to shield
him from suffering, so Siddhartha lived in luxury,
never seeing sickness, old age, or death.

One day, he stepped outside the palace and saw

something that changed his life—a frail old man, a
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sick man, and a dead body. Then he saw a monk,

who had given up everything but looked peaceful.
This made him question everything.

At 29, he left his royal life in search of truth. After

years of meditation and deep thinking, he attained
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya.
From then on, he was called the Buddha, meaning
"The Enlightened One."

2. Buddha’s Teachings – A Simple Path to Peace

The Buddha believed that suffering is a part of life,

but it has a cause and can be ended. He taught:

 The Four Noble Truths: Life is full of

suffering, suffering has a cause, and there is a
way to overcome it.
 The Eightfold Path: A guide to living with
wisdom, kindness, and self-control.

Unlike Hinduism, which followed the caste system,

Buddha welcomed everyone, from kings to beggars.
He even allowed women to become monks, which
was unheard of at the time.
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3. Buddhism Challenges Society

During Buddha’s time, Brahmins controlled

religious life, and people of lower castes had little
hope of moving up in society. Buddhism rejected
this system and taught that anyone, regardless of
birth, could achieve Nirvana, or liberation from
suffering.

This idea made Buddhism popular among common

people, just as Jesus Christ later welcomed the poor
and the outcast in Roman society. Both Buddha and
Jesus stood against discrimination and preached
love, kindness, and equality.

4. Bodhisattvas – The Helpers of Humanity

Some Buddhist monks, instead of reaching Nirvana,

chose to stay on Earth to help others. These
compassionate souls were called Bodhisattvas.

They dedicated their lives to teaching, healing, and

guiding people. Many Buddhist kings considered
themselves Bodhisattvas and ruled with kindness.
One of the most famous was Avalokiteshvara,
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known as the "Lord of Compassion," whose

teachings spread from India to China and Japan.

5. Rise of Buddhism and Ashoka’s Influence

Buddhism remained a small movement until King

Ashoka, who ruled the Maurya Empire from 268 to
232 BCE, converted to Buddhism.

After witnessing the horror of the Kalinga War,

Ashoka gave up violence and spread Buddhism
instead. He built stupas, inscribed his teachings on
stone pillars, and sent monks to spread Buddhism
across Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and even Greece.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh is one

of his most famous contributions.

6. Mahajanapadas and Buddhism

Buddhist texts mention the sixteen great kingdoms

of ancient India, called Mahajanapadas. These
included:
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 Magadha – The most powerful kingdom,

ruled by kings like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
 Kosala – The land where Buddha spent his
early years.
 Vajji – A democratic kingdom where people
made decisions together.

These kingdoms shaped India’s early political and

economic landscape, influencing trade and culture.

7. Jataka Tales – The Buddhist Stories

Just like Hindu mythology has the Ramayana and

Mahabharata, Buddhism has the Jataka Tales, a
collection of over 500 stories about Buddha’s past
lives.

These stories teach lessons about honesty, kindness,

and wisdom.

 One story tells how Buddha was once a wise

rabbit who sacrificed himself to feed a hungry
beggar.
 Another talks about a kind monkey king who
saved his troop from a cruel human king.
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These tales became popular in India, Sri Lanka,

China, and Japan and are still told today.

8. Buddhism’s Global Influence and Connection

to Jesus

As Buddhism spread, it reached Greece, Egypt, and

even influenced early Christianity. Some historians
believe that Buddhist monks traveled to the Middle
East and met early Christian thinkers.

Both Buddha and Jesus preached about love,

compassion, and rejecting social divisions. Just like
Buddha’s monks, Jesus welcomed fishermen, tax
collectors, and sinners, teaching that all people are
equal.

This is why Buddhism and Christianity share values

like kindness, peace, and selfless service.

The Great Split in Buddhism: Hinayana,

Mahayana, and Vajrayana
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Buddhism, like all religions, changed over time. As

it spread to different places, people started
interpreting the teachings in their own ways. This
led to a major split in Buddhism into two main
branches: Hinayana (Theravada) and Mahayana.
Later, a third branch, Vajrayana, emerged.

Hinayana (Theravada) – The Oldest Form

Hinayana means "Lesser Vehicle," but this name was

given by its rivals in Mahayana. Those who
followed Hinayana preferred calling it Theravada,
meaning "Teachings of the Elders."

Theravada Buddhists believed in following Buddha’s

original teachings as closely as possible. They
focused on personal enlightenment, meaning each
person must work hard to reach Nirvana (freedom
from suffering).

 Only monks and nuns could fully dedicate

their lives to reaching Nirvana.

 Common people could gain good karma by

supporting the monks, donating food, and
following moral teachings.
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 Buddha was seen as a teacher, not as a god.

Theravada Buddhism became strong in Sri Lanka,

Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, and
Laos.

Mahayana – The Bigger Path

As Buddhism spread, many people found Theravada

too strict. Not everyone could become a monk, and
not everyone wanted to wait for many lifetimes to
reach Nirvana. Around 100 BCE, a new form of
Buddhism emerged – Mahayana, meaning "Great
Vehicle."

Mahayana Buddhism believed:

 Anyone could reach enlightenment, not just

monks.

 Compassion was more important than

personal Nirvana.

 Enlightened beings, called Bodhisattvas, could

choose to stay back and help others instead of
entering Nirvana.
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This made Buddhism more flexible and easier for

common people to follow. Many new sutras
(Buddhist texts) were written, and Buddha was
sometimes worshipped like a divine figure.

Mahayana spread to China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam,

and Nepal, blending with local cultures. Famous
schools like Zen Buddhism (Japan) and Pure Land
Buddhism (China) belong to Mahayana.

Vajrayana – The Diamond Path

The third major branch, Vajrayana, appeared later

around the 7th century CE. It developed mainly in
Tibet and blended Buddhist ideas with Hindu
Tantra (mystical practices). Vajrayana means
"Diamond Vehicle" because it was believed to be the
fastest way to enlightenment.

Vajrayana practices included:

 Mantras (sacred chants)

 Mandalas (spiritual diagrams)

 Mudras (symbolic hand gestures)

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 Lamas (spiritual teachers, like the Dalai

Lama)

Vajrayana Buddhism spread mainly to Tibet,

Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Nepal.

Why Did Buddhism Split?

The divisions happened because people had

different needs. Some wanted a strict path
(Theravada), some wanted a more open and
compassionate path (Mahayana), and others wanted
a mystical and powerful path (Vajrayana).

But despite these differences, all forms of Buddhism

share the same core teachings of compassion,
mindfulness, and the end of suffering.
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Interesting Facts About Buddhism and Jainism

1. Māra – The Demon of Desire

In Buddhism, Māra is the demon of desire and
illusion. Buddhists believed that the world is under
Māra’s control. This was likely because early
Buddhists wanted to avoid worldly pleasures,
including sexual desires, and encouraged others to do
the same. Jainism had a similar idea—desires and
attachments were seen as obstacles to reaching
enlightenment.

2. Women Were Not Welcome at First

When Buddhism first started, women were not
allowed to join as monks. They were seen as
distractions because they could arouse desire in men,
which went against Buddhist teachings of self-control.
Later, Mahapajapati Gotami, the Buddha’s aunt and
stepmother, convinced him to allow women into the
monastic community, but with extra rules.
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3.3 5th Century BCE –

Important Events
A lot of important things happened in the 5th
century BCE. This was a time of learning and new
ideas. Let’s look at two major events from this time.

Yaska and Sanskrit Grammar

During this period, a scholar named Yaska wrote a

book called Nirukta. This book is one of the oldest
works on Sanskrit grammar. It helped people
understand the meaning of Sanskrit words. Nirukta
became the foundation for later Sanskrit grammar
books. Even today, it is considered a very important
text.

Greek Contact with India

In 516 BCE, a powerful Persian king named Darius

the Great conquered the Indus region (modern-day
Pakistan and northwest India). This made the
Indians and Greeks part of the Achaemenid Empire
(Persian Empire).

A Greek historian named Herodotus wrote about

this land and called it "India" or the "Indus land".
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

This is one of the earliest records of India’s name in

Greek writings. This contact between Persians,
Greeks, and Indians led to the exchange of ideas,
culture, and trade.

This period was important because it shaped the

language, history, and identity of India in many
ways.
Gaurav Kumar
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 4
MAURYAN EMPIRE
(~2300 years ago)

1.1 Introduction

Alexander in India – The Battle with Porus

While Buddhism was spreading across India, a
major event was unfolding in the northwest. In 326
BCE, a young and ambitious king, Alexander of
Macedon, arrived at the borders of India. He had
already conquered Persia, Egypt, and much of the
known world. Now, he wanted to expand further
east.
But India was not empty land waiting for him. The
region was divided into several kingdoms, each ruled
by powerful kings. One of them was Porus, the ruler
of the land near the Jhelum River (in present-day
Pakistan). Unlike some other rulers who surrendered
to Alexander, Porus chose to fight.
The battle was fierce. Alexander's army was well-
trained, but Porus and his soldiers, including his
famous war elephants, fought bravely. The battle
took place in heavy rain, making it even more
difficult. In the end, Alexander won, but he was so
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

impressed by Porus that he let him continue ruling

his kingdom.
Why Didn't Chandragupta Maurya and Porus
Meet?
Many people wonder if Porus and Chandragupta
Maurya ever met. Both lived around the same time,
and both resisted foreign rulers. But there are a few
reasons why they probably never crossed paths.
1. Distance – Chandragupta was in Magadha
(modern Bihar), while Porus ruled in Punjab
(modern Pakistan). India was vast, and there
were many small kingdoms in between.
Traveling such long distances was not easy.
2. Lack of Sources – Ancient records do not
mention any meeting between the two.
History is based on sources, and if there is no
proof, we cannot assume it happened.
3. Different Enemies – Porus was busy fighting
Alexander, while Chandragupta was focused
on overthrowing the Nanda rulers in
Magadha. Their struggles were separate.
4. Uncertain Timeline – Some historians
believe Chandragupta was still very young
when Porus fought Alexander. By the time
 Gaurav Kumar

Chandragupta rose to power, Porus might

have already been dead.
History is full of mysteries, and sometimes, we
simply do not have enough evidence to know
everything for sure.
The Nanda Dynasty – Wealthy but Unpopular
While Alexander was fighting in the northwest,
Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty. The
Nandas were extremely rich and had a massive army.
Greek sources even mention that the Nandas had
200,000 soldiers, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots,
and 3,000 elephants.
But despite their wealth, the Nandas were
unpopular. They were strict rulers, imposed heavy
taxes, and were not liked by the common people. The
last Nanda king, Dhanananda, was especially known
for his arrogance. This led to his downfall.
Kautilya and the Fall of the Nandas
One of the most interesting figures of this time
was a man named Kautilya (also known as
Chanakya). He was a brilliant scholar from
Takshashila, an ancient university city in present-day
Pakistan. Kautilya came to Dhanananda’s court,
hoping to serve as an advisor.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

But Dhanananda insulted him and threw him out.

Furious, Kautilya vowed to destroy the Nanda
dynasty. He needed a strong leader who could
challenge the Nandas, and this is where
Chandragupta Maurya entered the story.
The Rise of Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta was a young and ambitious warrior.
Some sources say he was from a humble background,
while others claim he had royal blood. Kautilya saw
great potential in him and began training him in
warfare, politics, and strategy.
Together, they gathered an army and started
attacking the Nandas. Over time, they won battles,
gained supporters, and finally defeated Dhanananda.
Chandragupta Maurya became the new ruler of
Magadha, marking the beginning of the powerful
Maurya Empire.
This was the start of one of the greatest dynasties
in Indian history, an empire that would change the
fate of the subcontinent.
 Gaurav Kumar

1.2 Sources of Information

Before we dive into the Mauryan timeline, let's
first talk about how we know about this great empire.
Unlike modern history, where we have written
records, photos, and even videos, ancient history
depends on sources—things like old texts,
inscriptions, coins, and archaeological remains.
For the Mauryan Empire, our main sources are:
1. Arthashastra (by Kautilya/Chanakya) – A
detailed book on politics, economics, and war,
believed to be written by Chanakya, the
brilliant minister of Chandragupta Maurya. It
tells us about governance, taxation, spies, and
even how kings should behave.
2. Indica (by Megasthenes) – A Greek
ambassador named Megasthenes came to India
during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign. He
wrote about the empire’s administration,
economy, and society, though his book is lost.
We know about it from later Greek and
Roman writers.
3. Buddhist and Jain Texts – Buddhist texts
like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa (from Sri
Lanka) and Jain texts like the
Parishishtaparvan tell us about Mauryan
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

rulers, especially Chandragupta Maurya.

However, they sometimes add religious
legends rather than historical facts.
4. Ashokan Inscriptions – The most reliable
source of Mauryan history! Emperor Ashoka
left rock and pillar inscriptions all over India,
written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramaic. These
give us direct information about his policies
and thoughts.
5. Archaeological Evidence – Coins, remains
of cities like Pataliputra, and old roads give us
a glimpse into the Mauryan period.
Now that we understand where our knowledge
comes from, let’s look at the Mauryan timeline!

Timeline of the Mauryan Empire (321 BCE –

185 BCE)
The Mauryan Empire was India’s first major
empire, stretching across almost the entire
subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta
Maurya and reached its peak under Ashoka the Great.
Here’s how it unfolded:
1. Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE – 297 BCE) –
The Founder
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 After Alexander the Great left India (c. 325

BCE), his generals ruled parts of the
northwest.
 Chandragupta, guided by Chanakya (Kautilya),
defeated the last Nanda king Dhanananda and
took over Magadha (modern Bihar).
 He expanded his empire westward, defeating
Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s
generals. In return, Seleucus gave
Chandragupta his daughter in marriage and
gifted him 500 war elephants.
 His capital was Pataliputra (modern Patna),
and he ruled with strict policies.
 In his later years, Chandragupta converted to
Jainism, gave up his throne, and went to
Shravanabelagola (Karnataka), where he is
believed to have fasted to death.
2. Bindusara (297 BCE – 273 BCE) – The
Forgotten Emperor
 Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara, expanded the
empire southward, bringing parts of Deccan
under Mauryan rule.
 He was called "Amitraghata" (Slayer of
Enemies).
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 Greek sources say that he had good relations

with the Greek rulers of Syria and Egypt.
 However, not much is known about him, as he
did not leave inscriptions like his son Ashoka.
3. Ashoka the Great (273 BCE – 232 BCE) – The
Emperor Who Turned to Peace
 The most famous Mauryan ruler!
 Early in his reign, he fought the Kalinga War
(261 BCE), which was so bloody that he
decided to follow Buddhism and stop fighting.
 Ashoka spread Dhamma (moral teachings) and
sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka,
Central Asia, and even Greece.
 His inscriptions, written on rocks and pillars,
talk about kindness, religious tolerance, and
justice.
 He built stupas, including the famous Sanchi
Stupa, to spread Buddhism.
 After his death, the empire started to weaken.
4. Decline of the Mauryan Empire (232 BCE –
185 BCE)
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 After Ashoka, weaker rulers took the throne.

His son Dasaratha Maurya tried to rule, but the
empire started breaking apart.
 The last known Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha,
was assassinated by his own general,
Pushyamitra Shunga, in 185 BCE, marking the
end of the Mauryan dynasty.

Why Did the Mauryan Empire Fall?

Even though the Mauryan Empire was strong, it
collapsed within 50 years of Ashoka’s death. Some
possible reasons are:
 Too Large to Control – The empire was
massive, and local rulers started rebelling.
 Weak Successors – None of Ashoka’s
descendants were as powerful as him.
 Pushyamitra Shunga’s Coup – The
Mauryan army general killed the last Mauryan
king and started the Shunga Dynasty.
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1.3 Life in the Mauryan

Empire
The Mauryan Empire (321 BCE – 185 BCE) was
huge and well-organized. It had a strong economy, a
powerful army, and a system of governance that kept
things running smoothly. Let’s take a look at how
people lived during this time.
Economy: The Backbone of the Empire
The Mauryan economy was based on agriculture,
trade, and taxes. Most people were farmers,
growing rice, wheat, barley, and millet. The
government collected a part of their crops as tax.
Trade was booming! Goods like spices, textiles,
and precious stones were traded within India and
even with other countries like Greece and China. The
empire had well-built roads, and special officers made
sure trade routes were safe. Coins were now being
used for trade, which made buying and selling easier.
A Strong Army
The Mauryan army was one of the strongest in the
world at that time. It had:
 600,000 soldiers with swords, bows, and
shields.
 Gaurav Kumar

 30,000 cavalry (soldiers on horses) for fast

attacks.
 9,000 war elephants, which terrified enemies
in battle.
The army was well-paid, and there were spies to
keep an eye on threats. The Arthashastra, a famous
book written by Kautilya (Chanakya), gives details
about how the army worked.
Governance: How the Empire Was Run
The Mauryan Empire was ruled by a king, but he
did not do everything alone. He had ministers and
officers to help him. Ashoka, the most famous
Mauryan ruler, made Dhamma Mahamatras, who
were officers that spread kindness and maintained
peace.
The empire was divided into provinces with
governors. Cities had officials to look after law, trade,
and sanitation. There were even secret spies who
reported directly to the king!
Daily Life of the People
Life was simple for most people. Farmers worked
in the fields, traders sold goods, and craftsmen made
pottery, jewelry, and tools.
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 Food: People ate rice, wheat, barley, pulses,

and dairy products. Rich people enjoyed more
variety, including meat and sweets.
 Clothing: Most people wore cotton clothes.
Richer people had silk and jewelry.
 Entertainment: People enjoyed music,
dance, storytelling, and festivals. Wrestling
and chariot racing were popular sports.
 Education: Children from rich families
studied in gurukuls (ancient schools).
Subjects included religion, philosophy,
medicine, and war tactics.
The Mauryan period was a time of great growth
and organization, making India one of the most
powerful regions of the ancient world.
 Gaurav Kumar

1.4 Ashoka: The Kind King

A long time ago, there was a powerful king named
Ashoka. He was the grandson of Chandragupta
Maurya and ruled a huge kingdom called the
Mauryan Empire. At first, Ashoka was a strong and
tough king who fought many battles. But one day,
something happened that changed him forever. He
became kind, gentle, and wanted to help people
instead of fighting.

The Big War That Changed Everything

Ashoka wanted his kingdom to grow bigger, so he

fought many wars. The biggest war was the Kalinga
War. It was a terrible war where many, many people
died—some say more than 100,000! When Ashoka
saw all the pain and suffering, he felt very sad. He
didn’t want to fight anymore. Instead, he decided to
follow a new way of living called Dhamma—a life
of kindness, truth, and peace.

Scary Stories About Ashoka

Before Ashoka became kind, some people say he was

very cruel. There is a legend that he killed 99 of his
brothers to become king! Another story says he built
a terrible prison called Ashoka’s Hell, where bad
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

people were punished in horrible ways. But after he

changed, he stopped all cruelty and became a father
to his people, treating them with love and care.

Ashoka’s Rules for a Happy Kingdom

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka made new rules. He

told people to be kind, tell the truth, and respect
each other. He asked everyone to take care of
animals and help those in need. He told his people to
love their parents, be kind to their neighbors, and
stop fighting. These ideas were part of Dhamma,
and they were meant for everyone, not just
Buddhists.

Ashoka and Buddhism

Ashoka loved Buddhism. He built many temples and

stupas (special buildings for Buddha’s teachings). He
also helped monks and made sure people learned
about peace and kindness. Ashoka didn’t keep
Buddhism to himself—he wanted the whole world
to know about it! So, he sent missionaries (teachers)
to many places. His son Mahinda and daughter
Sanghamitta even traveled to Sri Lanka to spread
Buddhism. Because of Ashoka, Buddhism reached
China, Thailand, Egypt, and many other countries.
 Gaurav Kumar

Ashoka’s Special Messages

Ashoka wanted his people to remember his

teachings, so he wrote them on big rocks and pillars.
These messages are called Edicts. They were written
in a special language called Brahmi and Kharosthi
scripts. Many years later, a smart man named James
Prinsep figured out how to read them in the 1830s.
Thanks to him, we know what Ashoka wanted to
tell his people!

Ashoka’s Friends in Other Lands

Ashoka didn’t just spread peace in India—he sent

ambassadors (important messengers) to other
countries too! He sent messages to Greek kings in
Egypt and Syria, telling them about peace and
kindness. Because of Ashoka, many countries
learned about Buddhism, and it became a big
religion in the world.

Ashoka’s Gift to India

Ashoka’s story is amazing. He started as a fierce king

but became one of the kindest rulers in history.
He showed that a good leader is not someone who
wins wars but someone who wins people’s hearts.
Even today, his Lion Capital is India’s national
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

symbol. His message of peace, love, and truth still

inspires people all over the world!
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1.5 The Great Stories:

Mahabharata and Ramayana
The Mahabharata and Ramayana are two big and
important stories from India. They are very old and
teach us about life, being good, and what happens
when people fight. Some people call them myths, but
myths are not just made-up stories. As Devdutt
Pattanaik says, myths are truths that people believe
in, different from fiction (which is nobody’s truth)
and facts (which are true for everyone). These stories
were first told by people to each other, long before
they were written down.
Who Wrote These Stories?
The Mahabharata was written by Vyasa, and the
Ramayana was written by Valmiki. If we look at what
happens in the stories, the Ramayana is older than the
Mahabharata. It tells about a time when kings were
very kind and did not want to fight. But if we look at
the way the stories are written and the places they
talk about, the Mahabharata seems older.
Both stories talk about kings, power, greed, and
what happens when people want too much. The
Ramayana shows a time when kings gave up their
throne to keep peace. The Mahabharata shows a time
when kings fought over land and power.
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The Main Characters

The Ramayana is about Rama, the 7th form of
Vishnu. He is a good king who follows the rules, even
when it is hard. He always does what is right. The
Mahabharata is about Krishna, the 8th form of
Vishnu. Krishna is different from Rama. He believes
in being smart and finding new ways to solve
problems, even if it means breaking some rules.
The Big War in Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is about a big fight between two
groups of cousins—the Pandavas and the Kauravas.
They both want to be kings. This story is very long,
with more than 100,000 verses, making it the biggest
poem in the world. It is not just about war, but also
about how people feel, what is right and wrong, and
why life is not always simple.
One special part of the Mahabharata is the
Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna teaches Arjuna
about life, duty, and how to be strong in tough times.
Many people believe that the Gita helps solve all big
problems in life.
The Story of Rama in Ramayana
The Ramayana is about Rama’s journey. He is sent
away from his kingdom, and his wife Sita is taken by
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the demon king Ravana. Rama fights to bring her

back. This story is about love, sacrifice, and doing
what is right. Unlike the Mahabharata, which has
many confusing choices, the Ramayana clearly shows
good and bad.
When Were These Stories Written?
Both the Ramayana and Mahabharata were
written down during the Mauryan Empire and Indo-
Greek times (see chapter 5). That means even though
the stories are very old, they were written when India
had kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
These stories have traveled to many countries and
have different versions around the world. It is also
important to remember that these stories are not
permanent or fixed. They kept evolving and
changing with time. Mahabharata is therefore
considered as a story that developed over a period of 1000
years.
Why Do These Stories Matter?
Even today, people learn from these stories. They
help us understand what is right and wrong, how to
be a good leader, and how to live with others. These
stories are not just religious—they are part of Indian
culture and teach lessons that people still use today.
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The Ramayana teaches kindness, duty, and

honesty. The Mahabharata teaches about choices,
power, and why life is not always fair. Both stories
are still important because they help people
understand life’s biggest questions.
These are not just stories from the past—they still
teach us lessons today!
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100 BCE
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 5
THE INDO GREEKS
(~2200 years ago)

Who Were the Indo-Greeks?

A long time ago, there were kings and warriors
who mixed Greek and Indian cultures. These rulers
were called Indo-Greeks. But what does "Indo-
Greek" mean? Let’s break it down!
What Does Indo-Greek Mean?
 "Indo" means India.
 "Greek" means people from Greece (Today a
country in Europe).
 Indo-Greek means Greek kings who ruled
parts of India a long time ago.
What is Hellenistic?
 A king named Alexander the Great from
Greece came to India in 326 BCE.
 After he left, his generals ruled different
places.
 The culture they spread was called Hellenistic
(which means "Greek-like").
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 The Indo-Greeks were part of this Hellenistic

world.
When did the Indo-Greeks Rule?
 The Indo-Greek kingdom started around 180
BCE.
 It lasted for about 200 years in parts of India
and Pakistan.
 Greek kings ruled cities, but they also followed
Indian traditions.
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5.1 Origins
A long time ago, before the Indo-Greeks ruled
India, there was another kingdom called Graeco-
Bactrian Kingdom. Let’s learn about it!
What Was the Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom?
 It was a Greek kingdom far away in a place
called Bactria (modern-day Afghanistan and
Tajikistan).
 The Greeks came there after Alexander the
Great left.
 A king named Seleucus I Nicator ruled this
land after Alexander.
What Was Bactria?
 Bactria was a rich and powerful kingdom.
 It was famous for trade, gold, and beautiful
cities.
 The Greeks in Bactria later moved into India,
creating the Indo-Greek kingdom.
Who Brought Greeks to India?
 Around 180 BCE, a king named Demetrius I
led the Greeks into India.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 He conquered parts of Afghanistan and

Punjab.
 This was the beginning of Indo-Greek rule in
India!

Famous Indo-Greek Kings

Demetrius I (180 BCE)
 He was the first Indo-Greek king in India.
 He made a big kingdom in Northwest India.
 He mixed Greek and Indian cultures.
Antimachus II (170 BCE)
 He ruled from Hindu Kush mountains to
Punjab.
 He helped spread Greek ideas in India.
Menander I (160 BCE - 130 BCE)
 The most famous Indo-Greek king.
 He became a Buddhist and helped spread
Buddhism in India.
 He asked many questions about life in a book
called Milinda Panha.
 Gaurav Kumar

The Indo-Greeks ruled for many years, but new

groups started coming to India. One of them was the
Scythians!

Who Were the Scythians?

 The Scythians were strong warriors from
Central Asia.
 In India, they were called Shakas.
 They came after the Indo-Greeks, around 100
BCE.
 They ruled Western India for a long time.
What Did the Scythians Do?
 They made big forts and cities.
 They helped trade grow between India and
other countries.
 Some of them became Buddhist and built
stupas (big temples).
One of the most famous kings was Rudradaman I.

Rudradaman I and Sudarshana Lake

 Rudradaman I was a Shaka (Scythian) king
who ruled in Western India.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 He fixed Sudarshana Lake, which helped

farmers get water.
 This made farming better and helped people
grow more food.
The Indo-Greeks and Scythians helped shape India
in many ways. But soon, another powerful group
arrived—the Kushans!
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5.2 The Kushanas

After the Indo-Greeks and the Scythians, another
powerful group arrived—The Kushanas!
Who Were the Kushanas?
 The Kushanas came from Central Asia and
made a strong empire in India.
 They ruled from 1st century CE to 3rd century
CE.
 Their empire stretched from Afghanistan to
North India!
Famous Kushana Kings
Kujula Kadphises (30 CE - 80 CE)
 He was the first Kushana king in India.
 He made strong trade links with Rome and
China.
Vima Kadphises (80 CE - 100 CE)
 He expanded the Kushana empire.
 He loved gold coins and made many!
Kanishka the Great (127 CE - 150 CE)
 He was the most famous Kushana king.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 He spread Buddhism to faraway places like

China and Central Asia.
 He held a big Buddhist council to discuss
religious ideas.
 He built great Buddhist stupas and
monasteries.

What Did the Kushanas Do?

 They helped trade grow along the Silk Road.
 They built beautiful temples and sculptures.
 They brought Greek, Indian, Persian, and
Chinese cultures together.
Now, let’s look at some important writings from
this time!

Some Inscriptions
Yavanarajya Inscription (Mathura)
 Found in Mathura.
 Talks about the Greek rule in India.
 It says "the last day of year 116 of Yavana rule."
 Gaurav Kumar

 This tells us that Indo-Greeks ruled Mathura

for a long time.
Reh Inscription (Ganges Valley)
 Mentions King Menander.
 Calls him "Great King of Kings, the Savior".
 This shows that Menander was a powerful and
respected ruler.
Maghera Inscription (Near Mathura)
 Says "In the 116th year of the Greek kings…"
 Shows that Indo-Greek rule lasted until
around 70 BCE.
Hathigumpha Inscription (1st century BCE)
 Mentions a Greek king (possibly Menander).
 Says he retreated to Mathura after losing a
battle to an Indian king, Kharavela.
Besnagar Pillar Inscription (Near Vidisha)
 Talks about relations between Indo-Greek
kings and Indian rulers.
 Mentions Vaishnavism, showing how
Hinduism and Greek culture mixed.
Kharoshthi Inscription (Swat, Gandhara)
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Written in Kharoshthi script.

 Talks about a Greek leader named Theodorus.
Signet Ring Inscription (Bajaur, Gandhara)
 Found on a signet ring.
 Mentions King Theodamas, the last known
Indo-Greek ruler.

Indo-Greek Coins
 Indo-Greek coins had Greek on one side and
Pali on the other.
 They show Greek gods, Indian symbols, and
kings' faces.
 These coins tell us about Indo-Greek culture,
trade, and rulers.

The End of the Indo-Greeks

 The Indo-Greek rule slowly ended as the
Scythians, Kushanas, and Indian kings took
over.
 But they left behind coins, inscriptions, and
cultural ideas that stayed in India.
 Gaurav Kumar

Numismatics: Learning History from Coins

Have you ever looked at an old coin and wondered
what story it tells? Numismatics is the study of coins,
and it helps us understand history!
Coins are like tiny history books—they tell us
about kings, religions, trade, and even art styles from
different times.
Indo-Greek Coins: A Blend of Two Worlds
The Indo-Greeks were among the first rulers in
India to make coins with their own faces on them—
just like Greek and Roman kings!
What Makes Indo-Greek Coins Special?
 Bilingual Inscriptions: Greek on one side,
Prakrit (written in Kharoshthi or Brahmi) on
the other.
 Images of Greek Gods: Zeus, Athena, Apollo,
and Hercules.
 Indian Symbols: The wheel (Dharma Chakra),
elephants, and Lord Krishna’s symbols.
 Realistic Faces: Unlike earlier Indian coins,
Indo-Greek coins showed detailed portraits of
rulers, with sharp noses, curly hair, and beards.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

These coins helped spread Greek ideas into Indian

art and culture!
 Gaurav Kumar

5.3 Satavahanas: South India

Long ago, after the great Mauryan Empire ended,
a new kingdom rose in South India—the
Satavahanas. They ruled for nearly 400 years (from
around 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE) and
became one of the strongest dynasties of ancient
India.
Who Were the Satavahanas?
The Satavahanas ruled Deccan and Central India,
with their capital at Paithan (Pratishthana) in
Maharashtra. They controlled important trade
routes and connected India with Rome, Persia, and
China.
Famous Satavahana Kings
 Simuka – The founder of the Satavahana
dynasty.
 Gautamiputra Satakarni – The greatest
Satavahana king. He defeated the Shakas
(Western Kshatrapas) and called himself the
destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and
Yavanas (Greeks).
 Vasishthiputra Pulumavi – He expanded the
kingdom further.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Yajna Sri Satakarni – The last strong ruler,

known for bringing stability.
Satavahanas and Trade
Satavahanas were great traders! They traded
spices, pearls, cotton, and ivory with Rome and
Southeast Asia. Roman gold coins have been found
in India, showing how rich their trade was.
Religion and Culture
The Satavahanas supported Hinduism and
Buddhism. They built many stupas (Buddhist
monuments), like the famous Amaravati Stupa.
They also encouraged Prakrit literature, which was
simpler than Sanskrit.

The Ikshvakus: Rulers of Andhra

After the Satavahanas declined, the Ikshvakus
took control of Andhra Pradesh around the 3rd
century CE. Though they ruled for a short time,
they built many Buddhist stupas and viharas
(monasteries).
Their most famous king was Vasishthiputra
Chamtamula, who patronized Buddhism and helped
monks.
 Gaurav Kumar

The Vakatakas: The Empire of the Deccan

After the Ikshvakus, another dynasty took over
Deccan—the Vakatakas (3rd–6th century CE). They
ruled parts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Why Were They Important?
 Great Patrons of Art – They supported the
Ajanta caves, famous for their beautiful
paintings of Buddha's life.
 Powerful Alliances – They married into the
Gupta Empire, making their kingdom
stronger.
Their most powerful king was Harishena, under
whom the Ajanta caves flourished.

The Western Kshatrapas: The Rival Kings

We have already looked at how Scythians came,
they were known as Kshatrapa. The Western
Kshatrapas were Shaka (Scythian) rulers who
controlled Gujarat, Rajasthan, and parts of Madhya
Pradesh. They were enemies of the Satavahanas.
Their famous king Rudradaman I (2nd century
CE) is remembered for:
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Defeating the Satavahanas.

 Repairing Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat,
showing his focus on public welfare.
 Issuing inscriptions in Sanskrit, the first
known royal Sanskrit inscription in India.

The Contribution of These Kingdoms

 The Satavahanas connected North and South
India through trade and culture.
 The Ikshvakus and Vakatakas kept Buddhism
and art alive.
 The Western Kshatrapas (also known as
Scythians) introduced foreign influences to
Indian culture.
Each of these kingdoms added something new to
Indian history, shaping the land and culture we see
today!
 Gaurav Kumar

Greek Influence on Indian Art:

A long time ago, Greek artists made strong, powerful statues. Their
gods had big muscles, sharp abs, and strong arms. They believed a
perfect body was the best way to show a powerful god or hero.

Now, look at Hindu gods today—Shiva, Vishnu, Hanuman. Many of

them have big muscles and warrior-like bodies. But Hindu gods didn’t
always look like this! Before meeting the Greeks, Indian art showed
gods with soft, smooth bodies, peaceful faces, and calm poses.

Then, the Greeks came to India. Their art mixed with Indian styles,
creating something new!

This change can be seen in Gandhara art. Artists in Northwest India

(now Pakistan and Afghanistan) made Buddha statues with:

 Curly Greek-style hair.

 Flowing robes like Greek gods.
 More realistic faces and muscles.

This style spread to many places, even China and Japan!

Greek ideas also appeared in Indian temples and paintings. Some early
Indian temples have Greek-style columns. The Ajanta cave paintings
show people with realistic faces and flowing clothes, just like Greek
art.

So next time you see a muscular Hindu god, remember—it’s a little bit
of India and a little bit of Greece mixed together in art!
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 6
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
(~1700 years ago)

The Story Before the Guptas

A long time ago, India had a great empire—the
Mauryas! They were strong rulers, with
Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka the Great leading
the way. Ashoka spread peace and Buddhism across
the land. But after him, the empire became weak.
Slowly, small kings and rulers started taking over
different parts of India.
After the Mauryas, new rulers came:
 The Shungas – They ruled after the Mauryas
but were not as powerful.
 The Satavahanas – They ruled in southern and
central India and were great traders.
 The Kushanas – They ruled in the north and
brought Greek, Persian, and Indian ideas
together. Their king, Kanishka, supported
Buddhism and art.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 The Kshatrapas and Vakatakas – They ruled

different parts of India and built beautiful
temples and cities.
Feudalism
During this time, big empires broke into smaller
kingdoms. Kings couldn’t control everything alone,
so they started giving land to local leaders. These
leaders became powerful landlords, collecting taxes
from farmers and giving some to the king. This
system is called feudalism. It started after the Mauryas
and became very strong under the Kushanas and the
Guptas.
But who would unite India again? Who would bring
back a golden age?
The answer was the Guptas! They started as small
rulers but soon became one of the greatest empires in
Indian history. Their time was full of peace,
knowledge, art, and science. The Gupta period is
known as India’s Golden Age!

Who Started the Gupta Empire?

The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He
was a small ruler, not very famous, but he laid the
foundation for something big. His son Ghatotkacha
 Gaurav Kumar

continued ruling a small kingdom, but the real rise of

the Guptas started with Chandragupta I (320 CE).
What is CE? Just like BCE, CE refers to Common
Era. If you want to simplify it then subtract the CE
year from present year:
320 CE = 2025-320, that is 1705 years ago.

A long time ago, India had a great king named

Chandragupta Maurya. He built the Maurya Empire,
the biggest empire India had ever seen. But after
many years, the Maurya Empire ended. The land
broke into small kingdoms, and many rulers came
and went. But then, a new Chandragupta appeared!

Wait! Are Chandragupta Maurya and

Chandragupta I the same?
No!
Chandragupta Maurya lived hundreds of years
earlier. He was a Maurya king. But Chandragupta I
was a Gupta king. They had the same name but
ruled in different times.

Now, let’s talk about Chandragupta I.

 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

6.1 Chandragupta I – The First

Important Gupta King
Chandragupta I started something big. He was not
the very first Gupta ruler, but he was the one who
made the Gupta Empire powerful.

How Did He Do It?

 He married a Lichchhavi princess – This was

a smart move! The Lichchhavis were a strong
clan. This marriage made Chandragupta I
more powerful.
 He took control of Magadha – Magadha
(modern Bihar) was a very important land,
just like in the time of the Mauryas. It had
rich land, strong armies, and great cities.
 He expanded his kingdom – From Magadha,
he slowly grew his empire by taking over
nearby regions.
 He became Maharajadhiraja! – This means
"King of Kings." It showed that he was no
ordinary ruler—he was a mighty emperor!
 Gaurav Kumar

What is a Clan?
A clan is like a big family. Imagine you have many cousins, uncles, aunts,
and grandparents. Now, imagine all these families stay together for many
generations and follow the same traditions. That’s a clan!
 People in a clan help and protect each other.
 Clans have their own leaders, warriors, and rules.
 Many kings and queens belonged to strong clans.
Why Was Marriage Important for Kings?
In old times, kings didn’t just marry for love. They also married to make
alliances!
What is an Alliance?
An alliance means two or more groups become friends and promise to
help each other.
 When a king married a princess from another powerful clan, it
created peace between the two groups.
 This made the king’s empire stronger because now he had more
soldiers and land.
 If an enemy attacked, the allied clans fought together like one
big family!
Example: Chandragupta I’s Smart Marriage
Chandragupta I married a Lichchhavi princess. The Lichchhavis were an
old and respected clan. Because of this marriage:
✔ The Lichchhavis and Guptas became allies.
✔ Chandragupta I got more power, wealth, and warriors.
✔ His empire grew faster!
So, marriage wasn’t just about love—it was also about building a strong
kingdom!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

6.2 Samudragupta
The Mighty Warrior King
(c. 335 CE – 375 CE)

After Chandragupta I, his son Samudragupta

became king. He was not just a ruler—he was a
warrior, poet, and lover of music! People called him
the "Napoleon of India" because he won many
battles and made the Gupta Empire super powerful!

The Allahabad Inscription – A Special Story

Carved in Stone!

Samudragupta was so great that his achievements

were written on a big stone pillar in Allahabad. This
is called the Allahabad Prashasti (prashasti means
praise). A poet named Harisena wrote it.

This inscription tells us:

✔ Samudragupta fought and won many battles—he
defeated around 20-30 kings!
✔ He was kind to defeated kings—he let them rule
their lands but made them pay taxes to him.
✔ Many rulers from faraway lands sent gifts and
asked to be his friends.
 Gaurav Kumar

✔ He loved music, poetry, and learning—he even

played the veena (a musical instrument)!

Samudragupta’s Empire – The Golden Age Begins!

By the time Samudragupta became king, India was

becoming rich and strong again. He expanded his
empire to:
✔ North India (Punjab, Rajasthan, Ganga Valley)
✔ Central India (Madhya Pradesh, Odisha)
✔ South India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu—
though he didn’t rule directly)

Life During Samudragupta’s Time

1. Society – Happy and Rich People!

 People had big markets, farms, and trade.

 Gold and silver coins were everywhere!

 Merchants traveled to Sri Lanka, China, and

Persia to trade silk, pearls, and spices.

 Society was mostly Hindu, but Buddhists and

Jains were also respected.

2. Literature – Stories and Poems Everywhere!

 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Samudragupta himself wrote poetry!

 Sanskrit became more popular.

 Many dramas, poems, and religious texts

were written.

 Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata were

being told and rewritten beautifully.

3. Samudragupta’s Coins – A Peek into History!

Samudragupta loved gold coins. His coins had:

✔ His face on one side.
✔ Him playing a veena (showing he loved music).
✔ Him killing a lion (showing his bravery).

Samudragupta’s Contribution

After ruling for 40 years, Samudragupta left behind

a huge, strong empire. His son Chandragupta II
would take it to even greater heights!

Samudragupta was not just a warrior—he was a

thinker, an artist, and a leader who brought peace
and power to India. He set the stage for the greatest
time in Indian history—the Gupta Golden Age!
 Gaurav Kumar

6.3 Chandragupta II
The King of the Golden Age
(375 CE – 415 CE)

Long ago, India had a king named Chandragupta II.

He was not just any king. He was Vikramaditya,
which means "The Sun of Power." His empire was
huge, rich, and full of wisdom. People built temples,
wrote books, studied the stars, and made great
discoveries.

This time in history was called the Golden Age of

India. Why? Because everything shined like gold—
knowledge, art, science, trade, and even the
economy.

How Did Chandragupta II Make India Stronger?

Chandragupta II was a clever ruler. He did not just

fight battles—he made smart marriages and alliances
to make his empire grow without too much war.

 He defeated the Western Kshatrapas,

powerful rulers who controlled parts of
western India for 300 years!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 By doing this, he took control of Gujarat,

Rajasthan, and Malwa, which were rich
trading centers. Now, his empire stretched all
the way to the Arabian Sea!

 Trade with Rome, China, and Southeast Asia

made the empire even richer. Roman coins
have been found in India, proving that
Roman merchants bought Indian silk, spices,
and gems.

 Farmers had plenty of land, and cities were

full of artists, writers, teachers, and scientists.

The Nine Gems of Vikramaditya’s Court

Chandragupta II loved wisdom and learning. He

gathered nine of the greatest minds in his court.
They were called the Navratnas, or the Nine Gems.

1. Amarsimha – A great Sanskrit poet who

wrote the first Sanskrit dictionary!

2. Dhanvantri – A brilliant doctor who knew

how to cure diseases with plants and herbs.
 Gaurav Kumar

3. Harisena – A poet and historian who wrote

about Chandragupta’s victories.

4. Kalidasa – One of the best poets and

playwrights in history. His stories, like
Shakuntala, are still read today.

5. Kahapanaka – A famous astrologer who

studied the stars and planets.

6. Sanku – A genius architect who helped design

cities and temples.

7. Varahamihira – An astronomer who studied

the universe and weather patterns.

8. Vararuchi – A grammar expert who helped

shape the Sanskrit language.

9. Vetalbhatta – A magician and philosopher

who studied mystical knowledge.

These nine men made India a place of learning and

discovery.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

The Great Thinkers of the Gupta Period

This was a time when brilliant minds changed the

world.

 Aryabhata – A genius who said that the Earth

moves around the Sun—1,000 years before
Europeans figured it out! He also worked
with zero and pi (π) and invented algebra.

 Varahamihira – He wrote about planets,

eclipses, and even earthquakes!

 Sushruta – A surgeon who described 300

types of surgeries and 120 surgical
instruments. He even performed plastic
surgery on noses!

 Charaka – A doctor who wrote about how the

human body works and explained that
diseases were not caused by curses, but by
food, lifestyle, and germs.

 Vatsyayana – He wrote the Kamasutra, a book

about life, relationships, art, and culture.
Many people think it is only about love, but it
 Gaurav Kumar

also talks about ethics, philosophy, and how

to live a happy life.

How Did People Live During Chandragupta II’s

Time?

 Farmers grew plenty of wheat, rice, and

sugarcane.

 Traders sold silk, spices, gold, and gems to

other countries.

 Sculptors made stunning statues of gods and

kings.

 Artists painted on cave walls and palaces.

 The Iron Pillar of Delhi, made in his time,

still stands today and has never rusted!

The End of a Glorious Era

Chandragupta II ruled for about 40 years. Under

him, India became one of the richest and smartest
places in the world. After him, his son Kumaragupta
I took over. But soon, the empire would face new
enemies, like the Huns, who came from Central
Asia.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Even though the Gupta Empire would later decline,

the knowledge from this time still inspires the world
today. This was truly India’s Golden Age!
 Gaurav Kumar

6.4 Vikram – Betal Story

The Talking Ghost

A long time ago, there was a wise and brave king

named Vikramaditya. He ruled with justice,
wisdom, and great strength. One day, a mysterious
sage gave him a task—he had to capture a ghost
named Betal from a tree and bring it to him.

But there was a problem! Betal was a tricky ghost.

Every time the king tried to carry him, Betal started
telling a strange, puzzling story. At the end of each
story, Betal asked Vikram a question.

"If you know the answer, O King, and still stay

silent, your head will explode!" Betal warned.

King Vikramaditya always knew the right answer.

So, he spoke. The moment he did, Betal flew back to
the tree! This happened again and again.

After 24 such stories, Vikram finally outsmarted

Betal and completed the task. But in the end, he
realized that the sage was evil and wanted to use
Betal’s powers for dark magic! So, Vikram defeated
the evil sage and freed Betal.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Is This Really Chandragupta II’s Story?

Some people believe that the real Vikramaditya was

Chandragupta II. Why?

1. Chandragupta II had the title

"Vikramaditya," which means "Brave as the
Sun."

2. He was known for his wisdom and justice,

just like the Vikram in the stories.

3. The Gupta period was rich in storytelling and

literature, so these legends may have been
inspired by real events.

But there’s no historical proof that Chandragupta II

actually met a ghost! The stories were written many
years later in the 11th century in a book called
"Kathasaritsagara". The tales became so famous
that even today, kids in India hear them as bedtime
stories.

Why Are Vikram-Betal Stories Important?

 They teach wisdom—each story has a moral

lesson.
 Gaurav Kumar

 They show how a true king must be

intelligent, patient, and just.

 They mix adventure, mystery, and

philosophy, making them fun and
meaningful.

Even though we don’t know if Chandragupta II

really met Betal, his name as Vikramaditya lived on
forever in stories!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

6.5 Towards the Decline

After Chandragupta II, his son Kumaragupta I took

the throne in 415 CE. He ruled for about 40 years,
keeping the empire strong and peaceful. He was a
kind and clever king, just like his father. He built
Nalanda University, which became one of the
greatest learning centers in the world! Students
from faraway places came here to study subjects like
astronomy, medicine, and mathematics.

But everything wasn’t easy. Towards the end of his

rule, trouble started brewing. New enemies, the
Pushyamitras, started attacking the empire.
Kumaragupta fought bravely but couldn’t stop all
the problems.

Skandagupta: The Last Great Gupta King

When Kumaragupta died, his son Skandagupta

became king around 455 CE. The biggest threat
during his time was the Hunas (a Central Asian
tribe, also called the White Huns). These warriors
 Gaurav Kumar

were fierce and attacked the Gupta Empire many

times.

Skandagupta fought them bravely and won, saving

India from a huge disaster. But the wars cost a lot of
money, and the empire became weaker.
Skandagupta worked hard to protect the people, but
after his death, things started falling apart.

The Decline of the Gupta Empire

After Skandagupta, the empire had many weak

rulers. They couldn't handle the Huna invasions,
and slowly, different parts of the empire started
breaking away. By 550 CE, the mighty Gupta
Empire was no longer the powerful kingdom it once
was.

Even though the empire ended, its golden age of art,

science, and literature never faded. The knowledge
and wisdom from this time inspired India for
centuries to come!
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

Nalanda University
Place of Learning

A long, long time ago, in ancient India, there was a

wonderful place called Nalanda University. It was
not just any school—it was a giant, magical city of
knowledge!

How Big and Beautiful Was It?

Imagine a place with huge red-brick buildings, tall
towers, and big, green gardens. There were nine
giant libraries filled with books and scrolls. The
classrooms were open, with cool breezes flowing in.
Beautiful ponds with lotus flowers were
everywhere, making the place peaceful and calm.

At night, the whole university glowed like a golden

palace because of the thousands of lamps that
students used to study. People said Nalanda never
slept—students and teachers were always learning,
discussing, and sharing ideas!

Why Was Nalanda So Famous?

Nalanda was the greatest university in the world at
that time! Students came from India, China, Korea,
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Tibet, Sri Lanka, Persia, and even Greece! They

traveled thousands of miles just to study here. Some
famous students, like Xuanzang from China, wrote
about how amazing it was.

What Did They Study?

At Nalanda, students learned everything—not just
one subject! They studied:

 Mathematics (counting, numbers, and tricky

puzzles!)

 Astronomy (stars, planets, and the secrets of

the sky!)

 Medicine (how to cure people with herbs

and science!)

 Philosophy (big questions about life and the

universe!)

 Buddhism and other religions (learning

about peace and kindness!)

Teachers and students debated all day—not with

anger, but with excitement! They asked tough
questions and solved big mysteries of the world.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

What Happened to Nalanda?

For many centuries, Nalanda was the heart of
learning. But one day, in the 12th century, invaders
came and burned down the great libraries. It is said
that the books burned for months because there
were so many! The beautiful university was lost, but
its knowledge never faded.

Even today, people remember Nalanda as a shining

jewel of wisdom—a place where learning was as
precious as gold!

A Turkish invader, Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded India and burnt the University
around 1193. It is said that the university kept burning for 3 months
 Gaurav Kumar

CHAPTER 7
THE WOMEN OF ANCIENT
INDIA
The history of India is filled with tales of kings,
warriors, and scholars. But what about the women?
They, too, shaped history, ruling, fighting, and
making discoveries. Their journey from the
Harappan times to the Gupta period was filled with
both power and struggles. They were traders, poets,
queens, doctors, and warriors. But over time, society
changed, and their roles became more restricted.
This is their story.

Women in Harappan Society

Independent and Respected
In the Harappan civilization (2600 BCE – 1900
BCE), women had important roles. Seals and
figurines show that women were treated with
respect. Many were traders, artisans, and even
religious figures. Unlike later times, there were no
signs of child marriage or the purdah system (where
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

women had to cover themselves). Women could

own property, participate in trade, and even lead
households. The society seemed balanced, where
both men and women contributed equally.

Harappan women likely played a role in religious

life as well, with mother goddess figurines
suggesting they were worshipped. Some scholars
believe women may have held positions of power in
local councils. The lack of warfare-related artifacts
suggests it was a peaceful society where men and
women coexisted without strict hierarchies.

Women in Vedic Times

Education and Rights
During the Rig Vedic period (1500 BCE – 1000
BCE), women had freedom. They were educated and
even became scholars, known as Brahmavadinis.
Women like Lopamudra, Gargi, and Maitreyi were
famous for their wisdom. Gargi even debated with
great sages. Marriage was a partnership, and there
are stories of women choosing their own husbands
in swayamvaras. Women composed hymns,
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performed sacrifices, and had the right to question

religious practices.

Women also participated in warfare, with texts

mentioning female warriors. The later Vedic period
(1000 BCE – 500 BCE) saw a decline in women's
status, with restrictions on education and freedom.
Their roles became limited to household duties, and
patriarchal norms became stronger.

Sati
The Truth Behind the Fire
Sati is often seen as a cruel practice where a widow
was forced to burn herself on her husband’s pyre.
But the original Vedic tradition was very different!
In the earliest texts, a widow only lay beside the
funeral pyre. She was not burned. Instead, she was
allowed to move on and even choose another
husband if she wished. But centuries later, people
twisted this tradition into something horrific. It
became a forced practice in many regions, though
not all. Many rulers and saints opposed it, but it
took centuries to stop it completely. Some powerful
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

women, like Rajmata Ahilyabai Holkar, openly

fought against it.

Powerful Women in Indian History

Some women defied societal norms and took control
of their lives:

 Prabhavati Gupta (4th century CE): A

powerful Gupta princess, she ruled as a queen
in the Vakataka kingdom. She issued royal
inscriptions and held property rights,
something rare for women in later times.

 Naganika (1st century BCE): A Satavahana

queen, she led her empire after her husband’s
death and even issued coins in her name.

 Queens of the Kalinga and Tamil Kingdoms:

Many South Indian queens, like those in the
Chola and Pandya dynasties, led armies and
ruled wisely.
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 Harshacharita mentions Queen Yasomati,

who fought for her kingdom even after her
husband’s death.

 The Women of Mahabharata and Ramayana:

Women like Draupadi, Kunti, and Sita had
significant influence over politics and family
affairs, though their struggles reflected the
changing times.

Women in the Mauryan Empire

Progress and Struggles
The Mauryan Empire (321 BCE – 185 BCE) saw
both good and bad times for women. Chanakya’s
Arthashastra mentions how women could own
property and even work in administration. The
royal women of the Mauryan court were influential.
Ashoka’s daughters, Sanghamitra and Charumati,
were sent to spread Buddhism, showing their role in
religious matters.

However, there were also strict rules about women’s

roles. Women who were part of royal harems were
heavily guarded, and widow remarriage was
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discouraged. However, women worked as spies,

bodyguards, and even warriors in certain cases.
Buddhist nuns gained respect and influence during
this time, spreading education and philosophy
across Asia.

Indo-Greek Influence: A Different View on Women

When the Indo-Greeks ruled parts of India (2nd
century BCE – 1st century CE), they brought a
different perspective on women. Greek influence led
to women appearing in artwork, and royal women
had a say in politics. Greek and Indian traditions
mixed, and this led to more freedom for women in
some areas. However, this was limited mostly to the
elite. Indo-Greek Queen Agathocleia ruled as a
regent and issued her own coins, showing the high
status some women enjoyed. Women in cities
enjoyed greater freedom, participating in trade and
cultural activities.
 Gaurav Kumar

Women in the Gupta Empire

The Gupta period (3rd century CE – 6th century
CE) is called a “Golden Age,” but for women, things
were different. Society became stricter, and women
had fewer rights than before. Child marriage became
common, and their role was mostly confined to the
home. Even powerful women like Prabhavati Gupta
were exceptions, not the norm.

But women still contributed to culture and

knowledge:

 Kalidasa’s plays featured intelligent and

strong women.

 Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra was not just about

love but also about women’s education,
behavior, and their role in society.

 Medicine and Science: Women studied

Ayurveda and worked as midwives and
doctors.

 Religious Women: Women played key roles

in Buddhism and Jainism, becoming nuns and
spreading knowledge.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

 Varahamihira’s works mention women

astronomers and scholars.

 Sushruta’s texts include female doctors who

performed surgeries.

Women were still active in some fields, but society

saw an increasing preference for male dominance in
governance and literature. Even education became a
privilege only for upper-class women.

The Journey Continues

From the Harappan times to the Gupta period,
women’s rights changed—sometimes for better,
sometimes for worse. They were rulers, scholars,
warriors, and poets. Even when society tried to
control them, many broke free and shaped history.

Women were never just silent figures in the

background. They were thinkers, leaders, and
fighters, just like the men. And their legacy
continues to inspire even today. Despite restrictions,
their voices, skills, and courage kept shining
through history. Their journey did not end with the
 Gaurav Kumar

Guptas—it continued into the medieval and modern

ages, proving that no force could silence them
forever.
INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK
 Gaurav Kumar

Closing Thoughts
The Story Never Ends

History is like a never-ending river, always flowing,

always changing. We started our journey from the
Harappan people, saw the rise of mighty kings, and
traveled through the grand Gupta Empire. But
history does not stop here! The end of the Gupta
Empire does not mean the end of history—it is only
the beginning of a new chapter, filled with new
rulers, new ideas, and new stories.

During the time of the Guptas (320-550 CE), India

was not just one kingdom. Many powerful dynasties
existed alongside them. In the Deccan, the
Vakatakas ruled with great influence. In the south,
the Pallavas were growing in power, building
beautiful temples and spreading new styles of art. In
western India, the Maitrakas were carving their
own history while the Kadambas in Karnataka and
the Kalachuris in central India made their mark.
Each dynasty had its own story, its own heroes, and
its own way of ruling.
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But history is not just about kings and wars. It is also

about the people, their beliefs, and their way of life.
This was the time when Hindu religious texts called
the Puranas became very important. The Puranas
took the deep knowledge of the Vedas and made it
simple for everyone. People could now understand
God while living their daily lives, taking care of
their families, and following their duties. Stories of
Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, and Kartikeya
became more popular, shaping how people prayed
and lived. The Puranas gave strength to Hindu
traditions while also challenging the strong
influence of Buddhism and Jainism. Many local gods
and goddesses became part of the Hindu pantheon,
blending new beliefs with old traditions.

Meanwhile, other religions were also growing.

Jainism and Buddhism still had followers, and new
Buddhist monasteries were built in places like
Nalanda and Vikramashila. These became great
centers of learning, attracting scholars from
different parts of the world. Traders, travelers, and
monks carried Indian ideas to faraway lands like
China, Southeast Asia, and even Rome. This was a
 Gaurav Kumar

time when knowledge traveled far and wide,

connecting India to the world.

So, what comes next?

The first millennium CE (1 CE - 1000 CE) is full of
new adventures in history! After the Guptas, great
dynasties like the Pushyabhutis, the Chalukyas,
the Rashtrakutas, the mighty Cholas,
Harshavardhana, and the Pratiharas rose to
power. There were wars, new cities, grand temples,
and changes in society. The Rajputs emerged as
strong warriors, and regional cultures started
shaping the future of India. India’s history kept
moving, always growing, always changing.

This book was just the first step in a bigger journey.

In the future, we will explore the world of early
medieval India, the rise of great empires in medieval
India, the struggles and victories of modern India,
and even the lives of the very first humans in the
Stone Age. There are endless stories waiting to be
told! The past is full of mysteries, waiting to be
uncovered.
 INDIAN HISTORY HANDBOOK

History is not just about the past. It is a guide for the

future. As we close this book, remember—the story
is never truly over. It continues with you, with your
curiosity, with your search for knowledge. Keep
exploring, keep asking, and keep discovering the
incredible history of India! Every story is a piece of a
bigger puzzle, and every question leads to new
answers. Let history be your guide, your teacher,
and your inspiration!