Hardware Engineer's Guide

MANAGEMENT

By Shimi Cohen
Thermal Management

HEAT EFFECT

RELIABILIT Y IMPACT
Every 10°C temperature increase reduces component life by 50%. This fundamental
relationship drives all thermal design decisions.

PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION
• Semiconductors: Leakage current doubles every 8-10°C
• Resistors: Drift increases with temperature coefficient
• Capacitors: ESR increases, capacity decreases
• Crystals: Frequency drift affects timing accuracy

DESIGN TEMPERATURE TARGETS

COMPONENT TYPE TARGET JUNCTION TEMP AMBIENT +
MCU ≤ 85°C 25°C + 60°C
MOSFETS ≤ 125°C 25°C + 100°C
LDO ≤ 100°C 25°C + 75°C
ELEC CAPS ≤ 85°C 25°C + 60°C

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ARRHENIUS RELATIONSHIP
Component failure rate increases exponentially with temperature. Arrhenius equation:

𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐴 × 𝑒^(−𝐸𝑎/𝑘𝑇)

Where:
A = Pre-exponential factor
Ea = Activation energy
K = Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temperature

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
For every 10°C reduction in operating temperature, component life approximately doubles.
Repeated Thermal Cycling Outcome:
• Solder joint fatigue
• Wire bond failures
• Package cracking
• Delamination

CRITICAL TEMPERAT URE THRESHOLDS :

MATERIAL THRESHOLD FAILURE MODE
SOLDER (SAC305) 217°C MELTING
FR-4 SUBSTRATE 130°C GLASS TRANSITION
BOND WIRE 175°C INTERMETALLIC GROWTH
DIE ATTACH 150°C DELAMINATION

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PRIMARY HEAT GENERATORS

POWER MANAGEM ENT :
• Switching regulators: 5-15% power loss
• Linear regulators: (VIN-VOUT)/VIN loss percentage
• Battery chargers: 10-20% loss typical

PROCESSING COMPONENTS :
• Microprocessors: 0.5-50W depending on performance
• FPGAs: 1-100W based on utilization
• DSPs: 0.1-10W typical range

POWER DEVICES:
• MOSFETs: I²R losses + switching losses
• Diodes: VF × IF continuous
• LEDs: 60-80% electrical power as heat

PASSIVE COMPONEN TS :
• Resistors: I²R heating, especially current sensing
• Inductors: Core and copper losses
• Transformers: Primary and secondary losses

HEAT DENSITY DISTR IBUTION :

COMPONENT TYPE TYPICAL W/CM² COOLING CHALLENGE
CPU/GPU 50-200 VERY HIGH
POWER MOSFET 10-50 HIGH
LINEAR REGULATOR 5-25 MEDIUM
LED ARRAY 1-10 MEDIUM
RESISTORS 0.5-5 LOW

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HEAT TRANSFER FUNDAMENTALS

FOURIER'S LAW & RESISTNACE MODEL

Q = -k × A × (dT/dx)
Rt = L / (k × A)
Where:
Q = Heat flow rate (watts)
Rt = Resistance Model
k = Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
dT/dx = Temperature gradient (K/m)

MATERIAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVIT IES:

MATERIAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY PCB APPLICATION
COPPER 400 TRACES, PLANES, VIAS
ALUMINUM 237 HEAT SINKS, SUBSTRATES
FR-4 0.3 STANDARD SUBSTRATE
POLYIMIDE 0.2 FLEXIBLE CIRCUITS
THERMAL EPOXY 1-3 DIE ATTACH, TIM

PCB CONDUCTION PATHS

• Copper traces: Primary horizontal heat flow
• Copper planes: Large area heat spreading
• Thermal vias: Vertical heat transfer
• Component leads: Heat input/output points

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NEW TON'S LAW OF COOLING

Q = h × A × (Tsurface - Tambient)
Where:
h = Convection coefficient (W/m²·K)
A = Surface area (m²)
T = Temperature (K)

CONVECTION T YPES
NATURAL CONVECTION:
• Buoyancy-driven air movement
• Typical h = 5-25 W/m²·K
• Orientation dependent
• Limited cooling capacity

FORCED CONVECT ION:

• Fan or blower driven
• Typical h = 25-250 W/m²·K
• Velocity dependent
• Higher cooling capacity

CONVECTION COEFFICIENTS :
CONDITION H (W/M²·K) APPLICATION
NATURAL AIR, VERTICAL 5-25 PASSIVE COOLING
NATURAL AIR, HORIZONTAL 2-10 POOR ORIENTATION
FORCED AIR, 2 M/S 50-100 FAN COOLING
FORCED AIR, 10 M/S 100-300 HIGH-SPEED FANS

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STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
Q = ε × σ × A × (T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)
Where:
ε = Emissivity (0-1)
σ = SB constant (5.67×10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴)
A = Surface area (m²)
T = Absolute temperature (K)

SURFACE EMISSIVIT Y VALUES:

SURFACE EMISSIVITY RADIATION EFFECTIVENESS
BLACK ANODIZED ALUMINUM 0.9 EXCELLENT
GREEN SOLDER MASK 0.8 GOOD
BARE COPPER 0.1 POOR
POLISHED METAL 0.05 VERY POOR

RADIATION CONTRIBUTION
At typical PCB temperatures (60-80°C), radiation accounts for 20-40% of total heat transfer in
natural convection environments.

DESIGN IMPLICAT ION S:

• Increase surface area for radiation
• Use high-emissivity finishes
• Avoid shiny metal surfaces
• Consider radiation in thermal budget

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THERMAL PROPERTIES

FR-4 THERAL PROPERTIES:

PROPERTY VALUE UNIT IMPACT
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 0.3 W/M·K HEAT SPREADING
GLASS TRANSITION (TG) 130-180 °C MAX OPERATING TEMP
DECOMPOSITION (TD) 300+ °C ABSOLUTE LIMIT
CTE Z-AXIS 50-70 PPM/°C VIA RELIABILITY

FR-4 LIMITATIONS
• Low thermal conductivity limits heat spreading
• CTE mismatch causes via stress
• Tg limits high-temperature operation
• Moisture absorption affects properties

ENHANCED FR-4 OPTIONS

HIGH TG FR-4:
• Tg: 170-180°C vs 130°C standard
• Better high-temperature stability
• 15-20% cost premium
• Same processing requirements

LOW CTE FR-4:

• Reduced Z-axis expansion
• Better via reliability
• Improved thermal cycling performance
• 25-30% cost increase

THERMAL DESIGN WITH FR -4:

• Rely on copper for heat conduction
• Minimize through-substrate heat paths
• Use thermal vias extensively
• Consider heat spreading planes

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METAL-CORE PCB (MCPCB)

• Metal base (aluminum/copper)
• Dielectric layer (thermally conductive)
• Copper circuit layer
• Solder mask and silkscreen

THERMAL PERFORMANCE:
MCPCB TYPE THERMAL [W/M·K] APPLICATION
STANDARD ALUMINUM 1.5-3.0 LED LIGHTING
HIGH PERFORMANCE 5.0-8.0 POWER ELECTRONICS
COPPER CORE 15-25 RF POWER AMPS
CERAMIC FILLED 3.0-12 HYBRID SOLUTIONS

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
ADVANTAGES:
• Excellent heat dissipation
• Reduced thermal interface layers
• Direct mounting to heat sink
• Lower overall thermal resistance

LIMITATIONS:
• Single-sided circuits only
• Higher cost than FR-4
• Limited via options
• Special manufacturing process

POWER ELECTRONICS:
• Linear regulators > 5W
• Switching regulators > 20W
• Motor controllers
• Power amplifiers

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CERAMIC SUBSTRATES
ALUMINUM NITRIDE (ALN):
• Thermal conductivity: 170-200 W/m·K
• Electrical isolation
• Low CTE match to silicon

BERYLLIUM OXIDE (BEO):

• Thermal conductivity: 250-300 W/m·K
• Excellent electrical properties
• Toxic material, handling issues
• Specialized applications only

FLEXIBLE SUBSTRATES
POLYIMIDE WIT H THERMAL FILLERS:
• Enhanced thermal conductivity: 1-3 W/m·K
• Maintains flexibility
• Higher cost than standard
• Specialized applications

LIQUID CRYSTAL POLYMER (LCP):

• Low loss at high frequencies
• Good thermal stability
• Moderate thermal conductivity
• RF/microwave applications

APPLICATION PRIMARY NEED RECOMMENDED SUBSTRATE

HIGH-POWER LED HEAT DISSIPATION ALUMINUM MCPCB
RF POWER AMP HEAT + RF PERFORMANCE COPPER MCPCB
PRECISION ANALOG THERMAL STABILITY HIGH TG FR-4
POWER MODULE MAXIMUM HEAT REMOVAL ALN CERAMIC

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COMPONENT HANDLING

POWER DISSIPATION CALCULATION

LINEAR REGULATORS :
𝑃𝐷 = (𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇) × 𝐼𝑂𝑈𝑇 + (𝑉𝐼𝑁 × 𝐼𝑄)
Example LM1117-3.3:
• Input: 5V, Output: 3.3V, Current: 1A
• PD = (5V - 3.3V) × 1A + (5V × 5mA) = 1.725W

SWITCHING R EGULATORS:
PD = POUT × (1 - η) / η + PSWITCHING
MOSFETs:
• Conduction loss: 𝐼²𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 𝑅𝐷𝑆(𝑜𝑛)

• Switching loss: ½ × 𝑉𝐷𝑆 × 𝐼𝐷𝑆 × (𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑓) × 𝑓𝑠𝑤

MICRO-CONTROLLER:
PD = VCC × ICC + Dynamic power

COMPONENT POWER RATINGS:

PACKAGE TYPE TYPICAL POWER THERMAL RESISTANCE
SOT-23 0.2W 250°C/W
SOIC-8 0.5W 150°C/W
QFN-16 1.0W 50°C/W
TO-220 15W 60°C/W
D2PAK 25W 3°C/W

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Thermal Management

HEAT SOURCE DISTRIBUTION

SPACING R EQUIREM ENTS:
• Minimum 5mm between HP components
• Consider airflow patterns

PLACEMENT PR IORIT Y:
1. Highest Power Components:
• Center of board for heat spreading

• Access to maximum copper area

• Direct thermal path to heat sink
2. Medium Power Components:
• Distribute around high-power devices

• Consider cooling airflow

3. Low Power Components:
• Fill remaining areas

• Normal placement rules apply

BOARD ZONES
ZONE TYPE TEMPERATURE SUITABLE COMPONENTS
HOT ZONE >70°C POWER DEVICES ONLY
WARM ZONE 40-70°C DIGITAL LOGIC, DRIVERS
COOL ZONE <40°C PRECISION ANALOG, REFERENCES
PLACEMENT RULES
POWER MANAGEM ENT:
• Place switching regulators away from sensitive analog
• Linear regulators need heat sinking above 1W
• Keep feedback components cool
• Minimize input/output ripple coupling

PROCESSING UN ITS:
• Center placement for heat spreading
• Direct thermal path to system cooling
• Consider package orientation for airflow
• Separate power and I/O connections

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COPPER POUR STRATEGY

GROUND PLANE UTILIZAT ION:
• Connect hot components directly to ground plane
• Maximize copper area under components
• Use plane cutouts only when necessary

THERMAL RELIEF CONSIDERATIONS

Standard thermal reliefs reduce heat conduction by 80-90%. Use direct connections for
thermal management.

TRACE WIDTH FOR T HERMAL CONDUCTION:

CURRENT STD WIDTH THR WIDTH IMPROVEMENT
1A 0.5MM 2.0MM 4X HEAT CONDUCTION
3A 1.5MM 4.0MM 2.7X HEAT CONDUCTION
5A 2.5MM 6.0MM 2.4X HEAT CONDUCTION

HEAT SPREADING TECHNIQUES

COPPER FLOODING:
• Fill unused areas with copper
• Maintain electrical isolation where required
• Provide stitching vias between layers

THERMAL PADS:
• Large copper areas under components
• Multiple via connections to planes
• Solder mask opening for heat sink contact

LAYER ASSIGNMENT:
• Dedicate inner layers to heat spreading
• Use thick copper (2oz/70µm minimum)
• Provide cross-layer thermal connections

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LAYER STACK-UP

THERMAL PERFORMANCE VS LAYER COUNT

LAYER COUNT THERMAL IMPROVEMENT COST IMPACT APPLICATION

2-LAYER BASELINE 1X SIMPLE, LOW POWER
4-LAYER 2-3X 1.5X MODERATE COMPLEXITY
6-LAYER 3-4X 2X HIGH PERFORMANCE
8+ LAYER 4-5X 3X+ COMPLEX SYSTEMS

HEAT CONDUCTION PATHS

2-LAYER BOARDS:
• Limited to top and bottom copper
• Thermal vias essential
• Component placement critical
• External heat sinking often required

4-LAYER BOARDS:
• Internal power/ground planes
• Better heat spreading
• Reduced thermal resistance
• Standard for moderate power

6+ LAYER BOARDS:
• Dedicated thermal planes possible
• Multiple heat spreading paths
• Lower overall thermal resistance
• Required for high-power density

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STANDARD COPPER WEIGHTS

COPPER WEIGHT THICKNESS RESISTANCE THERMAL BENEFIT

0.5OZ 17µM HIGH LIMITED
1OZ 35µM STANDARD GOOD
2OZ 70µM LOW VERY GOOD
3OZ 105µM VERY LOW EXCELLENT

THERMAL CONDUCTANCE SCALING

Thermal conductance increases linearly with copper thickness. 2oz copper provides 2x thermal
performance vs 1oz.

PERFORMANCE
1OZ COPPER (STANDARD):
• Adequate for <2W/cm²
• Most common choice

2OZ COPPER:
• 2x thermal performance
• Good for 2-5W/cm²

3OZ COPPER:
• 3x thermal performance
• Required for >5W/cm²

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THERMAL STRATEGY
DEDICATED THERMAL PLANES:
• Separate layer for heat spreading
• Not used for electrical connections
• Maximum copper retention
• Connected via thermal vias

POWER PLANE UTILIZATION:

• VCC planes conduct heat
• Multiple power domains create thermal barriers
• Ground planes typically best thermal conductors
• Consider plane assignment for thermal management

PLANE CONNECTION METHODS

CONNECTION TYPE THERMAL RESISTANCE ELECTRICAL FUNCTION

DIRECT CONNECT LOWEST POWER/GROUND
THERMAL VIA LOW ISOLATION
THERMAL RELIEF HIGH STANDARD ELECTRICAL
NO CONNECTION INFINITE ISOLATION

PLANE SPLITS
THERMAL IMPACT OF SPLITS:
• Plane splits block heat flow
• Create thermal barriers
• Force heat through limited paths
• Should be minimized in hot areas

DESIGN RULES:
• Avoid splits under hot components
• Provide thermal bridges across splits
• Use multiple narrow splits vs single wide
• Consider thermal via arrays at splits

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THERMAL VIAS

VIA THERMAL RESISTANCE

Rth_Via = L / (k × A) + Contact resistances

Where:
L = Via length (board thickness)
k = Copper thermal conductivity
A = Via barrel area

STANDARD VIA THERMAL PERFORMANCE:

VIA SIZE DRILL/PAD THERMAL RESISTANCE CURRENT CAPACITY
0.2MM 0.2/0.4MM 100°C/W 1A
0.3MM 0.3/0.5MM 70°C/W 2A
0.5MM 0.5/0.8MM 40°C/W 4A
0.8MM 0.8/1.2MM 25°C/W 8A
VIA ARRAY DESIGN

N = Rtotal / Rvia
EXAMPLE:
• Required thermal resistance: 5°C/W
• Single via resistance: 50°C/W
• Required vias: 50/5 = 10 vias minimum

VIA SPACING:
• Minimum: 3x drill diameter
• Optimal: 5x drill diameter for manufacturing
• Maximum: Constrained by component size
• Pattern: Regular grid preferred

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VIA FILL OPTIONS

UNFILLED VIAS:
• Lowest cost
• Good thermal performance
• Potential solder wicking
• Standard manufacturing

FILLED VIAS:
• Prevent solder wicking
• Slightly better thermal performance
• Higher manufacturing cost
• Required for via-in-pad

CAPPED VIAS:
• Plugged with soldermask
• Lowest cost fill option
• Good for most applications
• Standard capability

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VIA-IN-PAD BENEFITS
• Maximum thermal efficiency
• Shortest thermal path
• Reduced PCB area
• Better electrical performance

MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS
• Via filling mandatory
• Planarization required
• Higher cost process
• Extended lead times

DESIGN GUIDELINES
VIA SIZE SELECT ION :
• Smaller vias preferred for filling
• 0.1-0.2mm typical for via-in-pad
• Aspect ratio <8:1 recommended
• Consider manufacturing capabilities

PAD DESIGN:
• Pad size accommodates via and tolerances
• Via centered in pad
• Multiple vias per pad if size allows
• Maintain solder joint integrity

PROCESS COMPATIB ILITY:

FILL METHOD COST THERMAL PERFORMANCE RELIABILITY
CONDUCTIVE EPOXY MEDIUM GOOD GOOD
ELECTROPLATED COPPER HIGH EXCELLENT EXCELLENT
SOLDERMASK PLUG LOW FAIR FAIR

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MICRO-VIAS
BURIED THERMAL VIAS:
• Connect internal layers only
• Lower thermal resistance
• Higher manufacturing complexity

STACK ED MICRO-VIAS:
• Sequential build-up
• Very low thermal resistance
• Advanced HDI capability required

VIA PATTERNING STRATEGIES

THERMAL VIA ARRAYS:
• Regular grid pattern
• Uniform heat distribution
• Predictable thermal performance

VIA WALLS:
• Linear via arrangements
• Thermal barriers or channels
• Direct heat flow control

HYBRID VIA STR ATEGIES:

• Combine different via types
• Optimize cost vs performance
• Match thermal requirements

THERMAL VIA PLACEMENT

COMPONENT-CENTRIC:
• Radial pattern from heat source
• Shortest thermal path
• Maximum effectiveness

SYSTEM-LEVEL:
• Board-wide thermal network
• Heat spreading and collection
• Multiple heat sources

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HEATSINK MATERIALS

HEAT SINK THERMAL RESISTANCE

Rth = (Tj - Ta) / P - Rth_jc - Rth_interface

HEAT SINK T YPES

TYPE THERMAL RESISTANCE COST APPLICATION

STAMPED ALUMINUM 15-50°C/W LOW <5W COMPONENTS
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM 5-20°C/W MEDIUM 5-25W COMPONENTS
BONDED FIN 2-10°C/W HIGH 25-100W COMPONENTS
VAPOR CHAMBER 0.5-3°C/W VERY HIGH >100W COMPONENTS

HEAT SINK SIZING

Required area ≈ Power / (h × ΔT)

EXAMPLE:
• Power dissipation: 10W
• Temperature rise limit: 40°C
• Natural convection h = 10 W/m²·K
• Required area: 10W / (10 × 40) = 0.025m² = 250cm²

FIN EFFICIENCY:
Longer, thinner fins have reduced efficiency due to thermal resistance along the fin length.

OPTIMAL FIN SPACIN G:

CONVECTION TYPE FIN SPACING OPTIMIZATION
NATURAL 8-12MM MINIMIZE INTERFERENCE
LOW SPEED FORCED 4-8MM BALANCE AREA/FLOW
HIGH SPEED FORCED 2-4MM MAXIMUM AREA

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COMPONENT-LEVEL INTEGRATION:
TO-220 PACKAGES:
• Thermal interface required
• Electrical isolation considerations
• Multiple mounting options

SURFACE MOUNT PACKAGES:

• Heat sink attachment to PCB
• Thermal pad connections
• Assembly complexity

SYSTEM-LEVEL INTEGRATION:
CHASSIS INTEGRAT ION:
• PCB mounted to chassis
• Component thermal pads contact chassis
• Maximum heat dissipation

DEDICATED COOLING SYSTEM S:

• Separate heat sink assemblies
• Heat pipes for heat transport
• Liquid cooling for extreme cases

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ACTIVE & PASSIVE COOLING

BUOYANCY-DRIVEN FLOW
Natural convection relies on density differences in heated air to create airflow.

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

h = C × (ΔT/L)^n
Where:
C = Constant based on geometry
ΔT = Temperature difference
L = Characteristic length
n = Exponent (typically 0.25)

BOARD ORIENTATION EFFECTS:

VERTICAL ORIENTAT ION:
• Best natural convection
• Unobstructed airflow
• 25-30% better than horizontal
• Recommended when possible

HORIZONTAL (COMPONENTS UP):

• Moderate convection
• Component interference
• Hot air pooling
• Standard orientation

HORIZONTAL (COMPONENTS DOWN):

• Poor convection
• Heat trapped
• Worst case scenario
• Avoid if possible

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FAN SELECTION CRITERIA:

AIRFLOW VS STAT IC PRESSURE:
• High airflow: Open systems, low restriction
• High static pressure: Restricted systems, heat sinks

FAN CURVES
Every fan has a characteristic curve relating airflow to static pressure.

TYPICAL FAN PERFORMANCE:

FAN SIZE FREE AIR FLOW MAX STATIC PRESSURE NOISE LEVEL
40MM 10-20 CFM 5-15 MMH2O 25-40 DBA
60MM 25-50 CFM 8-20 MMH2O 20-35 DBA
80MM 40-80 CFM 10-25 MMH2O 18-30 DBA
120MM 80-150 CFM 12-30 MMH2O 15-25 DBA

FAN PLACEMENT STRATEGIES

EXHAUST CONFIGURATION:
• Fan pulls air through system
• Negative pressure inside enclosure
• Slightly better cooling efficiency

INLET CONFIGURAT ION:

• Fan pushes air through system
• Positive pressure inside enclosure
• Direct component cooling

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THERMAL ARCHITECTURE PLANNING

HEAT SOURCE MAPPING:

• Identify all significant heat sources
• Calculate individual power dissipation
• Map thermal interaction zones
• Plan heat removal paths

SYSTEM THERMAL BUDGET:

COMPONENT POWER (W) LOCAL TEMP RISE (°C) COOLING METHOD
CPU 25 45 HEAT SINK + FAN
POWER SUPPLY 15 35 NATURAL CONVECTION
LED ARRAY 8 30 MCPCB + HEAT SINK
LINEAR REGULATOR 3 25 COPPER PLANE
TOTAL 51 - SYSTEM FAN

LIQUID COOLING INTEGRATION

WHEN TO CON SIDER LIQUID COOLING:
• Power density >200W/L
• Quiet operation required
• Remote heat rejection needed

LIQUID COOLING TYPES:

• Closed loop systems
• Custom loops
• Phase change cooling

IMPLEMENTAT ION CHALLENGES:

• Leak prevention critical
• Pump reliability
• Maintenance requirements

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THERMAL SIMULATION CATEGORIES

COMPONENT-LEVEL:
• Package thermal models
• Junction-to-case resistance
• Thermal test chip data
• JEDEC standard models

BOARD-LEVEL:
• PCB layer stack-up modeling
• Component placement optimization
• Via thermal network analysis
• Airflow interaction

SYSTEM-LEVEL:
• Enclosure thermal modeling
• Fan curve integration
• Multi-board interactions
• Environmental conditions

POPULAR SIMULAT ION TOOLS:

TOOL CAPABILITY COST APPLICATION
ANSYS ICEPAK FULL 3D CFD HIGH PROFESSIONAL
MENTOR FLOTHERM ELEC FOCUSED HIGH PROFESSIONAL
SIWAVE SI/PI/THERMAL MEDIUM BOARD LEVEL
OPENFOAM OPEN SOURCE CFD FREE ACADEMIC

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT METHODS

THERMOCOUPLES:
• Wide temperature range
• Good accuracy (±1-2°C)
• Multiple point monitoring

INFRARED CAMERAS:
• Full surface temperature map
• Real-time monitoring
• Emissivity compensation required

THERMAL TEST POINTS:

• PCB-mounted temperature sensors
• Specific location monitoring
• Continuous operation data

MEASUREMENT ACCURACY FACTORS:

FACTOR IMPACT MITIGATION
THERMAL MASS MEASUREMENT DELAY SMALL SENSORS
CONTACT RESISTANCE LOWER READINGS THERMAL INTERFACE
AIR CURRENTS FLUCTUATING READINGS SHIELD SENSORS
EMISSIVITY VARIATION IR CAMERA ERRORS CALIBRATION

VALIDATION PROCESS
THERMAL TEST PROTOCOL:
• Power-up sequence documentation
• Steady-state temperature recording
• Transient response measurement

CORRELATION WITH SIMULAT ION:

• Compare measured vs predicted
• Update simulation models
• Refine design parameters

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ADVANCED TOPICS

ACCELERATED TESTING
TEMP CYCLING:
• -40°C to +125°C typical
• 1000+ cycles standard
• Solder joint reliability
• Package stress analysis

POWER CYCLING:
• On/off thermal stress
• Bond wire fatigue
• Die attach reliability
• Real-world simulation

LIFE PREDICTION MODELS

ARRHENIUS MODEL: COFFIN-MANSON MODEL:
h = C × (ΔT/L)^n Nf = A × (ΔT)^-n
Where:
Nf = Cycles to failure
ΔT = Temperature swing
n = Material constant
A = Material constant

DESIGN FOR RELIABILIT Y

• 20°C margin from limits
• Conservative design approach
• Extended operational life
• Reduced warranty costs

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ADVANCED PCB TECHNOLOGIES

EMBEDDED COMPONENTS:
• Components inside PCB
• Improved thermal paths
• Reduced assembly height
• Manufacturing complexity

3D PR INTED HEAT EXCHANGERS:

• Complex geometries
• Optimized heat transfer
• Custom solutions
• Rapid prototyping

SMART THERMAL MANAGEMENT

ADAPTIVE COOLING:
• Temperature-based fan control
• Dynamic power management
• Predictive thermal control
• System optimization

THERMAL MONITORIN G NETWORKS:

• Distributed sensors
• Real-time monitoring
• Predictive maintenance
• System health assessment

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DESIGN GUIDELINES SUMMARY

DENSITY PCB MATERIAL COPPER COOLING METHOD

<1W/CM² STANDARD FR-4 1OZ NATURAL CONVECTION
1-5W/CM² HIGH TG FR-4 2OZ HEAT SINK + NATURAL
5-15W/CM² MCPCB 3OZ FORCED AIR
>15W/CM² CERAMIC HEAVY LIQUID COOLING

POWER VIA COUNT VIA SIZE SPACING

<1W 4 0.2MM 1.5MM
1-5W 9 0.3MM 2.0MM
5-15W 16 0.5MM 2.5MM
>15W 25+ 0.8MM 3.0MM

POWER HEAT SINK TYPE TH RESISTANCE TYPICAL COST

1-5W STAMPED ALUMINUM 20-50°C/W $0.50-2.00
5-25W EXTRUDED ALUMINUM 5-20°C/W $2.00-10.00
25-100W BONDED FIN 2-10°C/W $10.00-50.00
>100W VAPOR CHAMBER 0.5-3°C/W $50.00-200.00

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THERMAL ANALYSIS:
• [ ] Power dissipation calculated for all components
• [ ] Junction temperatures verified within limits
• [ ] Thermal resistance paths analyzed
• [ ] Worst-case scenarios considered

PCB DESIGN:
• [ ] Appropriate PCB material selected
• [ ] Copper weight optimized for thermal performance
• [ ] Thermal vias properly designed and placed
• [ ] Component placement optimized for heat flow

COOLING SYSTEM:
• [ ] Heat sinks properly sized and selected
• [ ] Thermal interface materials specified
• [ ] Airflow requirements calculated
• [ ] Fan selection and placement optimized

VALIDATION:
• [ ] Thermal simulation completed
• [ ] Temperature measurements planned
• [ ] Reliability analysis performed
• [ ] Design margins verified

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