MTH 102 LECTURE SERIES

Topic: Functions of a real variable, graphs, limits

and idea of continuity.

By:

Dr. O. J. OMIDIRE

Department of Mathematical Sciences, Osun State University,

Osogbo.

May 2, 2024
Course Outline

Contents:
▶ Real-valued functions of a real variable
▶ graphs of functions of a real variable
▶ limits and idea of continuity.
Objective

At the end of these lessons, you should be able to:

▶ Explain the concept; real-valued function of a real variable;
▶ Determine the Domain, Co-domain and Range of a given real
valued function;
▶ Plot the graph of a given function;
▶ Explain the concepts of limit and continuity of functions; and
▶ Solve diverse problems on real-valued functions of real
variables.
References

You can consult:

▶ B.D.Bunday and H.Mulholland. Pure Mathematics for
Advanced Level.
▶ Engineering Mathematics, by K. A. Stroud
Definition

REAL-VALUED FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE

Definition of Function

Let A, B be non-empty sets.

A function f from set A to set B is a rule of correspondence that
assigns to each element a in set A a uniquely determined element
b in set B. Symbolically,

f :A→B
Definition

The arrow → indicates the mapping or assignment of elements

from A to B.
Simply put, the function f is defined by a rule or a formula that
associates each element a in A with a unique element b in B,
denoted as f (a) = b. This means that for every a in A, there is a
unique b in B such that f (a) = b.
Definition

Examples of Functions:
1. Linear Function: f (x) = mx + c, where f : R → R.
2. Quadratic Function: f (x) = a2 + bx + c, where f : R → R.
3. Exponential Function: f (x) = e x , where f : R → R.
4. Absolute Value Function: f (x) = |x|, where f : R → R.
5. Sine Function: f (x) = sin(x), where f : R → [−1, 1].
Real-valued functions of a real variable

Observe the examples given above.

They are all real functions because all the values they assume are
real numbers, i.e the set of images is in R : Range ⊆ R.

They are all functions of a real variable because their domain D is

a subset of R, D ⊆ R.
Definition of Mapping:

Given two non-empty sets A and B not necessarily of numbers,

then a rule which assigns each element from set A to a unique
element in set B is called a ”Mapping of A into B” or f : A → B.
Domain of a real-valued function

Let f : D → R represent a real-valued function, where D ⊆ R is

the domain of the function. The domain D is defined as the set of
all real numbers for which the function f is defined (or make
sense).

OR
Domain of a real-valued function of a real variable is a subset of R
in which its elements can be seen as arguments of a function for
which the expression make sense (or is defined).
Examples of Function Domains:

√
For the function f (y ) = y , the domain is D = {y ∈ R | y ≥ 0}.
1
For the function f (x) = x−2 , the domain is D = {x ∈ R | x ̸= 2}.
Examples

√
For the function f (x) = 4 − x 2 , to find the domain, we consider
the inequality:
4 − x2 ≥ 0
Solving this inequality, we get:

x2 ≤ 4
Taking the square root of both sides and considering both positive
and negative roots, we have:

|x| ≤ 2
i.e domain of function f = Df = {−2, · · · , 2}
Examples 2:

1
If function f (x) = x−7 , its domain,

Df = {x ∈ R : x ̸= 7} = R\{7}.
Inverse Image/Preimage of a Function

Let f : A → B be a function. The inverse image (or preimage) of

an element y in the codomain B under f , denoted as f −1 (y ), is
the set of all elements in the domain A that map to y .
Symbolically, the inverse image is defined as:

f −1 (y ) = {x ∈ A | f (x) = y }

For a subset Y ⊆ B, the inverse image of Y under f is defined as:

f −1 (Y ) = {x ∈ A | f (x) ∈ Y }
Examples
(i) Obtain the Inverse of f (x) = 3x + 5

Solution:

To find the inverse function f −1 (y ) for the linear function

f (x) = 3x + 5, we solve for x:

y = 3x + 5

y −5
x=
3
substitute x with f −1 (y ) so, the inverse function

y −5
f −1 (y ) = .
3
Range of a real-valued function

Range is the set of all possible values that the function can have as
output for every elements in the domain.

Rf = {y ∈ R | there exists x ∈ D such that f (x) = y }

Examples

3
Obtain the range of f (x) = x+1

We follow the following steps:

Examples

3
Step 1: Find the Inverse Function: Let y = x+1 and solve for x:

3
x= −1
y

Swap x and y : y = 3
x − 1 Solve for f −1 (y ):

3
f −1 (y ) = −1
y
Step 2: Find the Domain of the Inverse Function: The function
f −1 (y ) = y3 − 1 only makes sense if y ̸= 0. Therefore, the domain
of the inverse function, which is the range of the original function
3
f (x) = x+1 , is
R = {y ∈ R | y ̸= 0}
More Examples:
x+2
Obtain the range of f (x) = x+3

x+2
Step 1: Find the Inverse Function: Let y = x+3 and solve for x:
3y − 2
x=
1−y
Swap x and y :
3x − 2
y=
1−x
Solve for f −1 (y ):
3y − 2
f −1 (y ) =
1−y
3. Find the Domain of the Inverse Function: The function
−2
x = 3y
1−y only makes sense if 1 − y ̸= 0, so y ̸= 1. Therefore, the
domain of the inverse function, which is the range of the original
function f (x) = x+2
x+3 , is

R = {y ∈ R | y ̸= 1}
Exercises a:

Find the domain and the range of the following functions:

1. y = 5x + 2

√
2. y= 2−x

3. y = |3x|
Answers to Exercises a:

1. Domain of y = 5x + 2 is set R = {x : −∞ < x < ∞}

Range of y = R = √{y : −∞ < y < ∞}
2. Domain of y = 2 − x set D = {x : −∞ < x ≤ 2}
Range R = {y : 0 ≤ y < ∞}
3. Domain is the set R = {x : −∞ < x < ∞}
Range R = {y : 0 ≤ y < ∞}
Function of Functions

The concept of a ”function of a function” is known as the

composition of functions. When there are two functions, say f (x)
and g (x), a new function can be created by combining them. The
composition of f and g , denoted as (f ◦ g )(x) or f (g (x)), is
defined as follows:

(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x))
Below are some steps to follow while evaluating:
1. Evaluate g (x): First, evaluate the inner function g (x).
2. Plug g (x) into f (x): Take the result from step 1 and plug it
into the outer function f (x).

(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x))
Function of Functions:

This process creates a new function, and the composition can be

thought of as performing one operation and then another.
Example 1:
Consider the functions f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x + 3. Obtain
(f ◦ g )(x) or f (g (x)):
Solution:
g (x) = x + 3
Therefore,

f (g (x)) = f (x + 3) = 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6

So, (f ◦ g )(x) = 2x + 6.
More Examples:

Example 2: Consider the functions

f (x) = sin(x) and g (x) = cos(x)
Obtain (f ◦ g )(x) or f (g (x)) at x = π2
Solution:
g (x) = cos(x)
Therefore,
f (g (x)) = sin(cos(x))
π
at x = 2 this implies
π
f (g ( )) = sin(cos(90)) = sin(0) = 0
2
Function of functions; Examples:

1. If f (x) = 3x − 2; show that (fof −1 )(x) = x.

Solution

f (x) = y = 3x − 2 =⇒ 3x = y + 2 and

y +2
x= 3 . Then, f −1 (x) = x+2
3 .
So,
x +2
(fof −1 )(x) = x = f (f −1 (x) = f ( )
3
x +2 x +2
f( ) = 3( ) − 2 = x + 2 − 2 = x.
3 3
Function of functions; Examples:
2. If h(x) = x+4
2x−5 ; show that (hoh−1 )(x) = x.

Solution
x+4
h(x) = y = 2x−5 =⇒ y (2x − 5) = x + 4 and
5y + 4
x= .
2y − 1
Then,
5x + 4
h−1 (x) = .
2x − 1
So,
5x + 4
(hoh−1 )(x) = h(h−1 (x) = h( )
2x − 1
5x+4 4
5x + 4 2x−1 + 1
h( ) = 5x+4 .
2x − 1 2( 2x−1 ) − 51
Function of functions; Examples:

5x+4+8x−4 13x
2x−1 2x−1 13x
= 10x+8−10x+5
= 13
= = x.
2x−1 2x−1
13
Types of Function

1. One-To-One Function: (An injective mapping), is a type of

function/mapping from set A to B, such that:
a. Distinct Elements Map to Distinct Images: - For any two
different elements x1 and x2 in the domain A, their images f (x1 )
and f (x2 ) in the codomain B are also different.
Types of Function

2. Many-to-One Function: This is a function/mapping from set

A to B such that:
Multiple Elements Map to the Same Image: - There exist
different elements in the domain A that map to the same element
in the codomain B.
Types of Function

3. Onto Function: (A surjective mapping) is a function/mapping

from set A to B such that:
Every Element in B is the Image of Some Element in A: -
Every element in the codomain B has at least one pre-image in the
domain A. ( The range of the function is equal to its
Codomain)
Types of Function

4. One-To-One and Onto Function: (Bijective) is a

function/mapping from set A to B that is both One-to-One and
Onto (i.e it is both Injective and Surjective) function.
Types of Function

5. Even and Odd Functions

a. Even Functions: A function f (x) is considered even if it
satisfies the property:
f (x) = f (−x)
In other words, the function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Types of Function

Example 1: Consider the function f (x) = x 2 .

For any value of x, f (x) = f (−x). This function is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis, such that

f (x) = f (−x) =⇒ (x)2 = (−x)2

Example 2: The function g (x) = cos(x).

The cosine function cos(x) is an even function. It has the property
that cos(x) = cos(−x) for all x. Therefore g (x) = g (−x)
Odd Functions

A function f (x) is considered odd if it satisfies the property:

f (x) = −f (−x)

In other words, the function has a rotational symmetry of 180

degrees about the origin.
Types of Function

Example 1: Consider the function h(x) = x 3

For any value of x, h(x) = −h(−x). This function has rotational
symmetry about the origin, such that

g (x) = −g (−x) =⇒ x 3 = −x 3

Example 2: The function g (x) = sin(x).

The sine function sin(x) is an odd function. It has the property
that sin(x) = − sin(−x) for all x. Therefore g (x) = −g (−x)
Types of Function

6. Polynomial Function: A function of the form

f (x) = a0 x n + a1 x n−1 + a2 x n−2 + · · · + an−1 x

where a0 , a1 , · · · , an are real numbers, n is non-negative integer

and a0 ̸= 0 is called a polynomial function of degree n in the
variable x. The numbers a0 , a1 , · · · , an are called the coefficients of
the function.
Types of Function

A polynomial function of degree zero, i.e f (x) = a is called a

constant function.
Types of Function

The function f (x) = x is called an identity function (or

invariant).
Types of Function

7. Rational and Algebraic functions: A function of the form

p(x)
f (x) = , q(x) ̸= 0
q(x)

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions is called a rational

function.
Types of Function

8. Absolute Value function: The function f (x) = |x|, where

(
−x if x < 0
f (x) =
x if x > 0

is called the absolute value function.

Graph of functions of real variable:
Limits and Continuity:
WHAT DO YOU THINK WILL HAPPEN TO POLYGON AS ’N’
(NUMBER OF SIDES ) BECOMES VERY LARGE?

N=4 N=6
N=5
N=3
LIMITS

DEFINITION:
The limit of a function f (x) as ′ x ′ approaches a particular value
′ a′ , written as lim
x→a f (x) is the number L that the function f (x)
approaches as x approaches a from both right and left.

That is:
f (x) → L as x → a.
e.g
polygon → circle as n(no of sides) → ∞
INTUITIVE DEFINITION OF LIMITS:

limx→a f (x) = L exists if the following conditions are satisfied:

1. f (x) is defined in an open interval containing a but not
necessarily at a;
2. limx→a+ f (x) and limx→a− f (x) exist; and
3. limx→a+ f (x) = limx→a− f (x) =L.
LIMITS

The limits of a function f (x) is the number G that the function

approaches as x approaches some number c, which implies

lim f (x) = G
x→c
LIMITS

EXAMPLE:
Find the limits if it exist:
x2 − 1 1
(a.) limx→1 (b.) limx→3 (x 3 − 2x + 6) (c.) limn→∞ ( )n
x −1 3
LIMITS

SOLUTION
(a.) If
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x −1
then, f (1) does not exist.
However,
x2 − 1
f (x) = = x + 1.
x −1
If x ̸= 1 then,

x2 − 1
limx→1 = limx→1 (x + 1) = 2.
x −1
(b.)
limx→3 (x 3 − 2x + 6) = 27.
Some Rules (or Theorems) of Limits:

Let f (x), g (x), f1 (x),· · · ,fn (x) be real functions, then their limit as
x → c are expressible in the form

lim f (x), lim g (x), lim f1 (x), . . . , lim fn (x)

x→c x→c x→c x→c

Then,
LIMITS

1. Sum Rule
" #
lim f (x) + g (x) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→c x→c x→c

and

" #
lim f1 (x) + f2 (x) + . . . + fn (x) = lim f1 (x) + . . . + lim fn (x)
x→c x→c x→c

2. Constant Rule of a function

Suppose k is an arbitrary constant, then

lim Kf (x) = K lim f (x)

x→c x→c
LIMITS
1. Product Rule

" #
lim f1 (x)·f2 (x), · · · fn (x) = lim f1 (x)· lim f2 (x) · · · , lim fn (x)
x→c x→c x→c x→c

2. Quotient Rule

f1 (x) limx→c f1 (x)

lim = , lim g1 (x) ̸= 0
x→c g1 (x) limx→c g1 (x) x→c

3. Power Rule
" #p " #p
lim f1 (x) = lim f1 (x)
x→c x→c

If f1 (x) = x n , we have

lim x n = b n , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , b ̸= 0, if n ≤ 0.

x→c
Limits

Examples:
(1) Evaluate
lim (3x 3 + 4x 2 − 5x)
x→2

Solution.

lim (3x 3 + 4x 2 − 5x) = 3(2)3 + 4(2)2 − 5(2) = 30

x→2
Limits

(2) Solve
3x 2 + 2x − 1
lim
x→1 x 2 + 2x − 1

Solution
3x 2 + 2x − 1
lim
x→1 x 2 + 2x − 1

Let f1 (x) = 32 + 2x − 1 and g1 (x) = x 2 + 2x − 1,

3x 2 + 2x − 1 3(1)1 + 2(1) − 1 3+2−1 4

lim 2
=⇒ 2
= = =2
x→1 x + 2x − 1 (1) + 2(1) − 1 1+2−1 2
Limits
(3) Find

3x 2 + 2x − 1 x 3 + 3x + 6
a. lim b. lim
x→∞ x 2 + 2x − 1 x→∞ x 5 + 2x 2 + 9

Solution
When solving a function which tends to ∞, we need to first divide
the function in the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of variable before substituting the limit. So we have
 3x 2 2x
+ − x12 3+ 2
− 1
3+ 2
− 1
    
x2 x2 x x2 ∞ ∞2
a. lim x2 2x
= lim 2 2
= 2 2
x→∞
x2
+ x2
− x22 x→∞ 1+ x − x2
1+ ∞ − ∞2

3
= =3
1
Limits

b.
x 3 + 3x + 6
lim
x→∞ x 5 + 2x 2 + 9

divide all through by the highest power of x.

1 3 6
2 + x4 + x5
= limx→∞ x =0
1 + x23 + x95
Limits

(4) Evaluate
3x 2 − 27
lim
x→3 3 − x

Solution.

3x 2 − 27 3(32 ) − 27 0
lim = = (indeterminate)
x→3 3 − x 3−3 0
Factorizing the function in numerator and simplify,
3x 2 −27 3(x 2 −9)
3−x = 3−x = 3(x−3)(x+3)
−(3−x) = −3(x + 3)
Now,

3x 2 − 27
lim = lim [−3(x + 3)] = −3(3 + 3) = −3(6) = −18
x→3 3 − x x→3
L’Hopital’s rule for finding Limit

If the limiting value of a function

f (x)
G (x) = = indeterminate
g (x)

that is, if the direct substitution of x = a gives the indeterminate

form 00 (meanining f (x) = 0 and g (x) = 0)
We find the derivative of numerator separate and derivative of
denominator separate. Then, find the limit of their ratio.
L’Hopital’s Rule for finding Limit

Consider the example (4) above again.

Evaluate
3x 2 − 27
lim
x→3 3 − x

Solution.

3x 2 − 27 3(32 ) − 27 0
lim = = (indeterminate)
x→3 3 − x 3−3 0
Now, differentiate the numerator, we have 6x
and differentiate the denominator, we have −1
Then,
3x 2 − 27 6x 18
lim = lim = = −18.
x→3 3 − x x→3 −1 −1
L’Hopital’s Rule for finding Limit
Example
1. Evaluate
x3 + x2 − x − 1
lim
x→1 x 2 + 2x − 3
Solution

First substitute x = 1, we have

x3 + x2 − x − 1 0
lim 2
=
x→1 x + 2x − 3 0
Then, differentiate numerator and denominator separately, and
take the limit as x → 1.
x3 + x2 − x − 1 3x 2 + 2x − 1 3+2−1
lim 2
= lim = = 1.
x→1 x + 2x − 3 x→1 2x + 2 2+2
L’Hopital’s Rule for finding Limit
Example 2.
Determine
x 2 − sin 3x
lim
x→0 x 2 + 4x

Solution

Direct substitute x = 0, we have

x 2 − sin 3x 0
lim =
x→0 x 2 + 4x 0
Then, differentiate numerator and denominator separately, and
take the limit as x → 0.
x 2 − sin 3x 2x − 3 cos 3x 0−3 3
lim 2
= lim = =− .
x→0 x + 4x x→0 2x + 4 0+4 4
L’Hopital’s Rule for finding Limit

Example 3.

Evaluate
ex − 1
lim
x→0 x 2 + x

Solution

ex − 1 ex
lim = lim = 1.
x→0 x 2 + x x→0 2x + 1
L’Hopital’s Rule for finding Limit
Example 4.

Evaluate
2 sin x − sin 2x
lim
x→0 x − sin x
Solution

2 sin x − sin 2x 2 cos x − 2 cos 2x 0

lim = lim =
x→0 x − sin x x→0 1 − cos x 0
differentiate again
−2 sin x + 4 sin 2x 0
= lim =
x→0 sin x 0
differentiate again
−2 cos x + 8 cos 2x
= lim = 6.
x→0 cos x
Exercises

1. Evaluate
lim (x 2 + 4x)
x→1

2. Find
4x 2 − 3x − 2
lim
x→−1 x −2
3. Evaluate
x2 − 2
lim
x→∞ x 2 − 1

4. Find " #
1 12 3 (n + 1)
lim 2
+ 2 + 2 +·+
x→∞ n n n n2
Exercises

5. Evaluate
(x 2 − 4)
lim
x→2 x − 2

6. Find
x 2 + 4x − 3
lim
x→2 5 − 2x
7. Evaluate
x − sin x
lim
x→0 x2
8. Find
tan x − x
lim
x→∞ x3
Continuity

A function f (x) at a point ′ c ′ is said to be continuous if it is

continuous at any points of its domain provided.
1. f (x) is defined
2. limx→c f (x) exists
3. limx→c f (x) = f (c)
Continuity

Example 1

Check if the following functions are continuous at the given points:

a.
x
f (x) = 2 at x = 1
x −2
b.
1
f (x) = at x = 1.
x −1
Continuity

Solutions

a) We will check if f (x) satisfies conditions (1) − (3) above.

1
(1) f (1) = 1−2 = −1; hence f (x) is defined at x = 1.
(2) limx→1 x 2x−2 = −1; hence the limit exists.
(3) limx→1 x 2x−2 = f (1).

Therefore, since conditions (1)-(3) are satisfied, then f (x) is

continuous at x = 1.
Continuity

Solutions

b.) We will check if f (x) satisfies conditions (1) − (3) above.

1
(1) f (1) = 1−1 = ∞; hence f (x) is not defined at x = 1.
x
(2) limx→1 x−1 does not exists at the point x = 1.

Therefore, since one of the conditions does not hold, then f (x) is
not continuous at x = 1.
Discontinuous Functions:

If a function f (x) is not continuous at a point x0 then it is said to

be discontinuous at the point x0 , and the point x0 is called a point
of discontinuity of the function.
Types of Discontinuities:

1. Removable discontinuity: If limx→x0 exists and is not equal

to f (x0 ), then x0 is said to be a point of removable discontinuity of
f (x).
However, we can redefine the function f (x) in a way that

f (x0 ) = lim f (x),

x→x0

then f (x) is made to be continuous at x = x0 .

Discontinuous Functions:

Examples:

Show that the function

x2 − 2
f (x) =
x −2
has a removable discontinuity at the point x = 2.
Discontinuous Functions:

Solution
Since f (x) is not defined at x = 2. Applying L’Hopitals’s rule gives
2x and limx→2 = 4.
Redefine the function as
(x − 2)(x + 2)
f (x) = =x +2
x −2
then,
f (2) = 4
and
f (2) = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2
Types Discontinuity:

2. Non-Removable discontinuity:
If the right and left hand limits exist but do not equal, or do not
exist, then such function f (x) is said to have non-removable
discontinuity at x = x0 .
Discontinuous Functions:

Example:

The function
1
f (x) = sin
x
is continuous for all x ̸= 0. But has non-removable discontinuity at
x = 0. (Both right and left hand limits do not exist.)
Exercises

1. Let f (x) = x 2 + 3x − 2 for x = −1. Show that it is continuous

at the given point.
 2
x − 4, x = ̸ 2
2. Check whether the function f (x) = is
2, x =2
continuous or discontinuous.
3. Check the continuity of the function
 2
x + x − 6, if x ̸= 2
f (x) =
5, if x = 2

4. For what interval is each function continuous?

i. f (x) = x 100 − 2x 22 + 25
2
ii. g (x) = x x+3x−5
2 −4
x 3 +2x+5
5. Investigate the continuity of l(x) = x 2 +x−6
 THANK YOU

FOR LISTENING.