HISTORY OF ATHLETICS

- Athletics is synonymous with any sporting activity but in most cases refers to track and field events;
i.e. Athletic events are closely associated to Olympics but competition in these sports is held at
youth level, high school, college/university and professional ranks all year round throughout the
world.

ANCIENT GREEKS
 First Olympics in ancient Greece dates as far back as the 8th or 9th century BC.
 Events included running, jumping, disuss, javelin, equestrian events and boxing among others
 Olympics were most famous for Pan-hellenic Games of ancient Greece
 Olympics were held at Olympia from approximately 776BC where only one event, stadion footrace
was contested.
 Olympics were held every four years and were celebrated as solemn religious festivals where
sacrifices were offered to the Greek gods.
 Truce was declared as Greek city states were invited to send their best athletes to compete
 Ancient Olympics prized victory highly –champion expected and received great rewards from their
home cities and lived the rest of their lives at public expense.

MODERN OLYMPICS
 Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin was the driving force behind modern Olympic Games
 The games were first held in Athens Greece in 1896.
 Events included 100m, 400m, 1500m, 110mH, pole vault, discus, shot putt, javelin, long jump,
triple jump and high jump
 14 nations were represented by 241 athletes, 43 events were done
 Due to war, the games were not held in 1916, 1940 and 1944. Political turmoil resulted into large
boycotts during the Cold War and limited participation in 1980 and 1984 Olympic Games.
 Games started as amateur sports only but rules have been relaxed and highly paid athletes can now
compete.
 Rituals and symbols covered by modern Olympics include the flag, torch as well as opening and
closing ceremonies.

GROWTH OF ATHLETICS
 Athletics regained popularity after 1896 Olympics.
 17 countries got together to form an international governing body
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 In 1912, International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) was born
 Pinnacle of athletics competition for many years was Summer Olympics
 Major tack and field events for people living with disability were first introduced in 1960 Summer
Olympics
 Athletics gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage in the 1960s.
 Professionalism in athletics started in the late 1970s after half a century of amateurism.
 In the 1970s, more world championships in various events began to take place.
 In 1982, IAAD rebranded by dropping amateur and renaming it international Association of
Athletics Federations.
 In 1983, IAAD World Championships in Athletics was established – It was the first everl global
competition for athletics only.
 In the 1990s, IAAF membership had grown to over 200 members
 Track and field have since remained an area of interest.
 Prize money was first introduced in 1997
 In 1998 IAAF Golden league US $1 million jackpot provided higher incentive
 Diamond league, a more lucrative series, replaced Golden league in 2010.

21ST CENTURY
 By 2011, 50 outdoor and 25 indoor events had been recognized under IAAF authority and rules.
 Some events e.g. 50m sprint are no longer part of Olympics events but are retained under some
school programs.
 Modification has been done on some events through the years
 Other than decathlon, heptathlon, 110nH other events for men and women are almost similar.
 Women do not have 50km walkrace.

OLYMPIC HOST CITIES SINCE 1900

1900 - Paris, France
1904 - St. Louis, United States
1908 - London, United Kingdom
1912 - Stockholm, Sweden
1916 - scheduled for Berlin, Germany*
1920 - Antwerp, Belgium
1924 - Paris, France
1928 - Amsterdam, Netherlands
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1932 - Los Angeles, Unites States
1936 - Berlin, Germany
1940 - Scheduled for Tokyo, Japan*
1944 - Scheduled for London, United Kingdom*
1948 - London, United Kingdom
1952 - Helsinki, Finland
1956 - Melbourne, Australia
1960 - Rome, Italy
1964 - Tokyo, Japan
1968 - Mexico City, Mexico
1972 - Munich, West Germany (now Germany)
1976 - Montreal, Canada
1980 - Moscow, U.S.S.R. (now Russia)
1984 - Los Angeles, United States
1988 - Seoul, South Korea
1992 - Barcelona, Spain
1996 - atlant a, United States
2000 - Sydney, Australia
2004 - Athens, Greece
2008 - Beijing, China
2016 - London, United Kingdom
2016 - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2020 - Tokyo, Japan

FIELD EVENTS
THROWS
1. DISCUS
Components needed to achieve maximum distance include speed, technique and strength.

Phases
1. The Hold/Grip
- Palm down and flat on the discus
- Hook first three fingers over the edge of the discus
- Cock wrist towards the rear half to enable it snap during the throw
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 - Thumb and small finger determine flight of the discus
2. The Stance
- Feet close together pointing towards back of the circle; toes of right foot near the edge and
those of left six inches from the back of the circle.
- Relax
- Feet shoulder width apart
- Place ball of right foot and heel of left on the centre line
- Slightly flex hips and knees

3. The Turn
- Two or three turns will help to gain poise and relaxation
- During the swings, discuss is brought infront of the body, knuckles uppermost
- Left hand is for support
- Turn body fully away from the hips
- Weight shifts from one foot to the other
- Stretch left arm out to the direction of the throw
- On the last swing, pivot on the left foot, right foot lands slightly ahead of the centre of the
circle and to the left of intended direction of the throw
- Keep body low, knees bent in a crouch
- Final half turn is made with the ball of right foot and a short hopping step by the left foot
- Snap left foot in front of the circle
- Discuss remains smooth and level above the hips
- Athlete is balanced, both feet on the ground but right bent and supporting the weight
- Throw with explosive force, thrust arm backward while the right comes forward
- Wrist snaps discuss so that it rotates clockwise off the first and second fingers

4. Release
- Release at angle of 45o
- Whip throwing hand across the body for follow through
- Toes of right foot point to the left of the circle
- Left foot is pushed to the back of the circle for balance and to prevent fouling the throw

2. JAVELIN
i) Carriage
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 - Finish style-carry javelin above right shoulder, hand slightly above the ear, point up
- American (i) carry over the shoulder point higher than horizontal (ii) Carry with ar down and
extended back, javelin tip high, palm away from body so that it does not rotate
- The third style will tend to slow the approach speed and makes it difficult to keep javelin
straight in flight.
ii) Approach
- Total approach distance is 35 m with two check marks
- One check mark is 10m from take-off and the other 10m from the first but may vary with
individuals
- Initial run is to gain speed
- Left foot strikes 1st check mark, athlete gains top speed, uses 8 strikes to get to 2nd check mark
- From 2nd check mark, thrower counts five steps and completes the throw
- On the 2nd step, thrower does a front cross step
- On 4th count, thrower takes a long stide with left foot to get to the delivery position
- Follow through is the fifth count and a step, right foot comes down just behind the scratch line
- Upper body velocity is gained through running with high speed and quick steps
iii) Recovery/Delivery
- Arm action is timed with five count foot work
- Javelin is kept in line of flight
- Withdraw javelin at the count of three
- Use wide stance, both feet firmly on the ground
- Land with heel or right foot, body leaning at 30o.
- Follow through with the body, and final wrist flip, hop once or twice on right foot to retain
balance,
- Right foot should land half a metre from the scratch line.

iv) Shot Putt

- Shot is made of solid iron other approved metal softer than brass and is spherical.
- 4kg for senior women, 7.25kg for senior men, for others we consider age group and gender.
- Throw from within the circle with one hand.
- Leave the circle after the shot has landed through the rear

Conventional Method
a) The Stance
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 - Upright position for beginners, tucked or bunch for more experienced athletes
- Eye focused in front
- Free arm wrapped across body hand outside rear knee, shoulder pressed in towards
starting direction.

b) The Hold/Grip
- Hold with base of middle three fingers
- Support with thumb and little finger
- Middle fingers not far apart
- Press shot to the hollow at base of the neck, wrist pressed under neck and throwing
elbow high

c) The Shift/Glide
- Displace shot downwards by bending upper body towards rear of throwing half.
- Push rear leg under the body towards diameter line, eyes focused to back of the circle.
- Head and shoulders low

d) Delivery/Release
- Extend right leg and pivot with it to create a lifting action.
- Partially flex left leg
- Deliver the shot upward and out with complete shoulder extension
- Elbow behind shot as arm extends, left elbow brought back and down forcefully
- Wrist snap and flip of fingers adds speed and distance to the shot
- Both feet on the ground
- Shot leaves fingertips before right foot leaves to give driving force

Recovery
- Reverse the feet; right replaces left, left replaces right (for b alance) at the front of circle
- Follow shot over stop-board

e) Hammer
- Takes place in a cage (safety)
- Throwing circle is 2.135m in diameter
- Weight and specification depends on gender and age
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- Hammer is a steel bar to attached to a wire via a spindle inserted into the ball and wire
is attached to a steel handle.
- Special fingerless gloves maybe used for protection
- Special shoes that reduce friction and gain maximum speed may be used.
i) The Grip
- Grip handle between 2nd and 3rd joints of left hand
- Place right hand inside the handle on top of left hand
ii) The Swings
- Stand at rear of circle, feet parallel
- Your back facing throwing a sector
- Initial swings help gain momentum
- Swing starts from right side of the body, put hammer forward and away from the
body and over the head
iii) Turns
- The turning phase starts at the end of the swings
- Hammer is directly in front of thower
- Shoulders relaxed, head passive, trunk engaged
- Knees hips flexed, feet in contact with circle
- Push hammer to the left

The Turns
- Are series of movements performed to increase speed.
- Number of turns depends on individual athlete
- Feet work together for balance, legs and hips generate power
- Right foot turns through toes, left foot through heel
- Right foot is then lifted off the circle with driving action of right knee
- Right hip rotates up, back and round while the foot touches down on to the circle
- Rotations increase the acceleration
- Left foot turns throughout in this phase and is in contact with the circle
- Upper body is in passive position
- Shoulders relaxed, arms straight

iv) Delivery
- Both feet in contact with circle and still hammer upward and out
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 - Release hammer at high point

v) Jumps
Long Jump
- Per formed on sand pit 2.75m by 3m
- Runway not less than 40m
- Take-off board not less than 1m from pit, 1.22m in length, 10cm thickness, painted white
- Check marks not allowed but maybe placed on the outside of the runway
i) Approach
- Length depends on athlete athlete
- The run comprising odd number of strides is preferred (tae off leg is maintained up to
take-off board)
- In early phase, body leans forward acceleration occurs
- In mid-phase, body is relaxed and upright (high speed phase)
- In final phase (conclusion), athlete eases/smoothly and gathers to leap

ii) Take-off
- Toes of take-off leg hit the board while heels slightly touch it
- Hip, knee and ankle joint extends powerfully
- High knee lift of free leg
- Hands aid in balance
- Trunk is erect, head naturally aligned with shoulders
- Hips forward for maximum lift

iii) Flight
Style used in the air depends on preference of the athlete
i) Hitch-Kick Style
- Athlete takes a stride in the air
- Free leg is swept out and back in a cycling motion
- Hips pressed forward, body erect
- Hands behind hips
- Give in at knee while landing, keep head low and throw trunk forward
- Bring hands forward forcefully to assist in landing

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 ii) Hang Style
- Both legs trail the body after take-of
- Forcefully fling them forward to gain distance
- Fling hands to the sides
- Back is arched

iii) Sale Style

- Tuck knees to chest
- Extend arms straight forward
- Body bent forward, eyes on the ground
- It is least preferred since it interferes with proper landing

vi) Tripple Jump

- A physically demanding event
- Facilities similar to those of long jump
- Take-off board is far from pit to allow the hop and step landings before athlete reaches pit
- Take-off board is 11m from pit for senior men, 9m junior men/senior women and 6m for
junior girls
- “Hop” is on same take-off foot, “step” landing on other foot
- Landing is on flat foot and hop phase is quick, low and horizontal

Approach
- Similar to long jump but with less speed which depends on individual athletes ability at
landing and take-off and landing between hop and step.

Take-off
- Take-ff with stronger leg which will be used for hop and step
- Horizontal take-off with much speed
- Erect body position with little backward tilt
- Hips forwards and outwards away from take-off board
- Single or double arm action may be used depending on athlete

Hop
- Body erect, head focused ahead
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 - Take-off leg fully extended, foot relaxed
- Take-off foot pulled to buttocks, drive leg rotates from in front of body to behind it
- Take-off leg pulls forward, is extended and forcefully driven forward readyfor landing
- Aim for short hop
Step
- Extend take-off leg fully behind the body heel held high, drive leg parallel to the ground
with toes flexed
- Extend drive leg, flex ankle an snap it downward
- No forward rotation of landing foot or sudden braking
- Little delaying action in the air before landing in “step”
- Aim for long step

Jump
- Drive free leg to waist level
- Arms forward and up, torso erect, chin up, eyes focused beyond pit
- Legs bent at knees, body in a hang position, arms extended overhead, hands reaching for the
sky
- Arms then drive forward, legs swing forward, heels hit the sand when knees collapse
- Hips rise as athlete slides through the sand

vii) High Jump

- Jumping contests have been a challenge to mankind since early times
- Can be done from a standing or running approach
- Landing area is 5m x 3m at minimum and can be of sand or commercial foam
- Uprights are placed 4m apart and at least 10cm from pit or mattress
- Cross bar may be circular or triangular bar
- Runway should allow for at least 15m approach
- Check marks may be used
a) Scissors Style
- Athlete clears bar in a sitting position
- Approach from slight angle. Take off leg furthest from bar. Lift lead leg over bar
and loop rear leg quickly. Kick up with front leg. Upward thrust of arms. Knees
straight at highest point of the jump land with lead leg follow with rear leg.

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b) Western Roll
Approach
- Approach bar at 45o
- Take 6 to 9 strides
- Take a deep breath and relax before starting the approach
- Run smoothly but not too fast
- Body forward with slight crouch, height balanced n balls of feet
- Pick up speed with last few strides, lengthen last two strides, relax an knee of take-
off leg bends
Take Off
- Eyes on middle of crossbar
- Spring body forward off the toes of take-off foot
Flight
- Body rolls over take-off foot, free leg swings up, shoulders lift upward
- At the top of the jump, take-off foot and toes are bent and tucked under the free leg
- During spring action, arms vigorously forward and upwards
- Body on its side and as athlete goes over the bar
- Thrust left arm and shoulder as you reach maximum height
- Thrust left arm and head downward towards pit as you keep hip high
- Right arm bent and close to body as you clear the bar
- Turn chest towards the ground, untuck left leg and keep straight

Landing
- Three point landing on left leg and two hands

c) Straddle Style
Approach
- Approach with of 7-9 strides at an angle of 25o – 35o.
- Use check marks for a consistent run
- Be relaxed and straight and control your speed
- Eyes focused on take-off mark until last two strides when you focus on bar
- Lengthen last two steps and lower and bend hips and knwees before take of
- Arms drop behind the body as you swing vigorously for take-off
- Push off foot starts with the heel, pelvis is shifted from vertical to horizontal position
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 - Legs straddle the bar as body assumes face down position
- To clear bar, turn left foot and toes upwards (looking back in the direction of take
off) and roll the head and raise left hip
- Bend left arm against the stomach and chest
- Complete roll and land either on the back or right side

d) Fosbury Flop Style

Approach
- Take 7-9 strides on a curve
- In the last 3-4 strides, athlete is inclined away the bar
- Fast final steps and hips kept high
Take Off
- Take off foot is slightly ahead of athletes body 0.5m – 0.75m from near upright
- Hips forward, inside shoulder high, trunk upright and leaning back slightly
- Vigorous movement of free limbs, rotate with leg and shoulder
- Leg nearest bar is driven up bent and high, lower leg is vertical
- Swing both arms forwards and upwards with free leg

Flight
- Inside leg at bar level, heels pulled back towards the head i.e. back is arched
- Knees bent and wide apart, arms either by the side or in a crucifix position
- Head back and looking back, hops high

Landing
- Land on shoulders

viii) Pole Vault

- Pole is of varying grades of fibre depending on weight of competitor height of the pole and
where the weight will be distributed.
- Heavier poles are used by more experienced athletes while beginners start with lighter poles
- Metal poles may so be used
- The vaulting facility measures 5m x 5m
- Landing material is official foam which does not shrink or incase sandpit is used, sand
should be at least 1m above takeoff level.
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 - Cross bar is between 3.86m and 4.52m long
- Uprights should be firm on the ground and 3.66m apart
- Support pegs extend horizontally toward landing direction

Grip
- Top hand to be high on the vaulting pole
- Vaulter should not go avove grip taken by upper hand after take-off i.e. climbing the pole
- The higher the grip, the more the resistance at take-off and may lead to vaulter land back on
runway
- For proper hand placement, place pole in the box, stand flat footed and reach stretch hand up
and target a spot four or five inches above the hand.
- For right hand grip, thumb is on outside of the pole, fingers wrapped under pole, palm on top
- Place left hand 2 feet below right hand
- Tape pole with insulating tape for good grip and/or apply powder on hands
i) The Carry
- Carry pole by holding such that tip/point is at shoulder eye level so that you run
faster and lower it into box with ease
- Right handed vaulter carries pole with right hand, left handed with left
-
ii) Approach/Run
- Approach should be long enough to allow for maximum controlled speed and
efficient planting and take-off.
- Keep hands motionless and hands steady
- Use controlled run
- A run of at least 40m is enough to give sufficient momentum
- Use check marks and a smooth run to guide point of take-off
- Pole end remains about the head level
- Keep rear hand close to right hip and front arm clear of the body

iii) Pole Planting and Take-off

- Eyes on the box
- On last few strides, turn pole forward towards the box
- Last three strides are longer
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 - Grip pole firmly, toes of right foot turned outward as foot contacts the ground
- Body under the pole
- Time it such that take-off foot and pole strike the ground at the same time
- Move left hand up close to the right
- Both elbows flex to absorb shock and for balance
- Drive right knee up

iv) Flight/Pole Clearance

- Swing body forward, straighten arms and whip right hip to a cradle-like position on
the pole
- Tilt head back, knees bent towards chest and delay the swing over the pole
- Right leg crosses left leg tow ards left shoulder
- Body in head-stand position ready for push off
- Push off starts when pole is standing straight and under the body
- Elbows are flexed, pole close to chest
- Explosive push off by straightening arms
- Left arm leaves pole first
- Release both arm, thumb pointing down
- Pull arms upwards quickly over cross-bar
v) Release/Landing
- Flick pole backwards
- Body forms arc over bar
- Land on the back, knees bent to absorb shock

FIELD RULES
Athletes take their attempts individually
1. Vertical Jumps
 High jump, pole vault
 Bar is set in a particular height
 Failure to clear bar in three attempts in a leads to the end of competitors participation in the
event
 Competitor may choose to “pass” an attempt to save energy and taking a jump that would not
improve their position in the standings
 Bar goes up after all athletes have either cleared, missed the bar or “passed” their attempt
 Height of bar is determined before the competition

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  If one athlete remains, he/she chooses their height
 Athlete who jumps highest is the winner
 Ties are broken by first considering the number of attempts taken at highest height (fewest wins)
 If the tie still persists, total number of misses in the whole competition is considered
 A bar may be lowered to breaks the tie for the 1st place or qualifying position
 If tie still stands for critical positions, all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the highest
height
 If they still miss, bar goes down one increment and they attempt. Process continues till tie is
broken.

2. Horizontal Jumps and Throws

 Long jump, triple jump, shot putt, discus, javelin, hammer
 All jumps must be initiated behind a line or runway
 Throws are initiated in an arc or circle
 Attempt is invalid/ a foul if line or arc is crossed
 All landings for throws must be in the sectors
 Landings for jumps is in a sand filled pit
 Distance is measured from closest landing point back to the line
 Tape should be perpendicular to take off line I n jumps or is pulled to centre point of arc for
throws
 Officials at landing end of the tape have the zero while those at point of initiation measure and
record length
 If a record or a potential record is made, measurement is retaken with a steel tape and witnessed
by at least 3 officials and the meet referee
 Competitors take 3 attempts
 Top competitors (8 or 9) take three more tries
 At this level, the last competitor to qualify goes first while the first qualifier is at the en
 Meet organizers at local events may decide on the number of attempts

TRACK EVENTS
SPRINTS – 100m, 200m, 100mH, 110mH, 400m, 4 x 100m relay, 4 x 400m relay
Sprinting is moving with high-speed. Sprint races include; 100m, 200m and 400m. hurdling events are
special sprinting races. Sometimes 800m race is referred to as the long sprint.

Sprint Starts
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Sprints are started on the starting blocks by responding appropriately to the following commands.

‘On your Marks’

Upon this command, 9any of the 3 types of sprint start to be adopted; bunch, medium or elongated)
 Take a comfortable position (on the blocks)
 Be relaxed and alert
 The leading leg foot is placed about 1 foot behind the scratch line/starting line
 Place hands on the ground slightly wider than shoulder width just behind the line, fingers turned
outwards and forming a bridge with the thumb.
 The knee of the rear leg is placed on the ground in line with the toes of the leading foot (medium
start) or with the ankle of the leading leg 9elongated). (For bunch start, the toes of the rear foot are
about 1 foot behind those of the leading foot)
 Eyes focus about 2-3m along the track
 Be motionless, alert waiting for the next command

‘Set’
 Raise the hips to just above the shoulder level
 Bring your shoulders forwards to a position not quite over the hands (almost over the hands)
 The rear leg is straightened/extended to about 120o at the knee.
 Weight (body weight) is evenly distributed on the lead leg and the hands
 Be motionless, alert waiting for the next command

‘Go/Gun’
 React like a coiled spring that is triggered off by the gun/explode forwards with powerful drive.
 Be alert and relaxed. Do not anticipate the gun
 Reflex action lifts your hands off the ground causing imbalance which initiate starting action
 Use powerful arm action
Important Factors to the Sprinter
 Rate of striking
 Force of drive
 Flip flexibility
 Trunk and head control
 Knee pick up
 Relaxation at top speed
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 Xxxx leg extension
 Xxx aerobic capacity
 Xxxxx arm action
 400m hurdles, men and women
Height of hurdle; 91.4cm (men) and 76.2 cm (women)
Distance to 1st hurdle; 45m
Interval between hurdles; 35m
Run in (to the finish from last hurdle) distance; 40m

Stride Pattern
Athletes
Athletes should establish a regular stride pattern to the 1 st hurdle and between the hurdles. Most athletes
take 8 strides to the 1st hurdle but tall people takes 7 in 110 and 100m hurdles. Most athletes take 3
strides between hurdles in 110m (e.g. Colin Jackson GBR and Gail Devers USA). In 400m hurdles they
take 21-27 strides to the 1st hurdle, and 15 to 17 strides between the hurdles. Consideration should be
made on the ability to hurdle well from the ‘wrong’ leg.

Leg Action in Barrier Clearance

 Take off is from a fair distance from the barrier – approximately your own height plus 10-20cm
from the base of the barrier, depending on your speed.
 The lead leg is picked up with a flexed knee. Its heel approaches the barrier at right
angle/perpendicular, keeping the toe up. The leg straightens as it passes over the barrier making a
stride over it (not jumping) and maintaining speed.
 As the lead leg rises, the trailing leg provides support and drive. Then it leaves the ground and is
pulled/swung through laterally with the knwee bent. It passes over the barrier with the toe turned
outwards. It is important to bring the knee of this/trailing leg right under your chest and into the line
of running before reaching for the ground.

Arm Action
 The arms synchronize with the legs throughout
 As the lead leg rises, make a simultaneous extension of the opposite arm.
 It is important to use the arms vigorously on landing, to propel the body forward.

Body position
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 The centre of gravity is kept low above the barriers by bending the trunk and head (dip forward at
the waist as you pick the leading leg). Eyes should be focused ahead.
 Maintain forward body lean through landing (until after landing)
NB:
- Flight over the hurdles is a continuous action with least time lost.
- “Run in” speed is very important i.e. speeding after the final barrier

RELAY RACES (4 X 400M & 100M)

Re lay races are team eevents that involve progressive exchange of baton between the teammates. It is
the baton rather than the athletes, which is considered to be in the race. The exchange should be done
using the right techniques to avoid loss of speed. The baton is a smooth hollow tube, 28-30cm long
and 12cm in circumference, and weighs not less than 50gms.

In 4 x 100m there are 3 change-Over/takeover zones (which are 20m long) the midlines of which are
100m apart. The outgoing runner may run and accelerate within the acceleration zone (10m distance
behind change over zone), but the baton must be exchanged within the 20m take over zone. The
runners maintain their lanes throughout.

In 4 x 400m there is only 1 changeover zone. Competitors do not maintain their lanes except for the
first runner.

LONG DISTANCE - (5000M and above)

Starting is like in middle distance races – 2 commands i.e. ‘on your marks’ & ‘gun’.
Training for middle and long should aim at enhancing the following elements/components;
- Endurance/Stamina
- Suppleness/Flexibility
- Agility
- Efficiency of movement
- Good judgment of pacing
- Tactical sense
- Sound knowledge of one’s own abilities
- Determination to win/strong will power

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The technique in long races requires a finely co-coordinated rhythm so that the maximum comfortable
length of stride is obtained with minimum effort (Economy of movement)
Action is less vigorous i.e. less drive, less forward knee lift, less vigorous arm action.
Contact with the ground is full foot – with heel touching the ground first followed by a rolling action
over the ball of the foot to the toe.
Arm action is more relaxed, elbows can be slightly more than 90o, more of forward and backward than
across the center line of the body, and not carried so high in the front.
Body posture is erect/erect body carriage.

STEEPLE CHASE
This event covers a distance of 3000m by men (mainly) and of late 2000m or 3000m by women. It
requires combination of strength and endurance of a lon distance runner, with speed of a middle
distance runner and skills of a hurdler. There are 4 barriers and one water jump, a total of 28 hurdles
and 7 water jumps to go over in the race. The water jump shall be the 4 th barrier to go over. All the
barriers are 78m apart in the 390m track.
The hurdles are made of heavy timber so that they are not overtuned easily. They are 91.4 cm in
height, 3.66m wide and have a top bar of 12.7 cm thick. At the water jump the hurdle is irmly fixed on
the ground. The water obstacle I s 3.66m square in plan, and has an elevation which slopes from 70cm
deep to the ground level at the far end. Athletes are allowed to jump over, vault or step on the barrier
as they pass. It is important for the athlete to find space for a clear view of the barriers so as to make
stride adjustment in advance, since he/she often approaches the hurdle in a pack of runners.
At the water jump, place the ball of the foot firmly on top of the railtop bar. Give in at the knee so that
your hips stay low as you pass over the rail, and keep pushing against it to secure a low drive to the far
edge of the water barrier. Place the landing foot just into the shallow part of the water and resume
running, with only one wet foot and minimum disturbance, and hence minimal loss of speed.

HEPTATHLON AND DECATHLON

These are combined events in which one competitor takes a number of events. The competitors are all
rounder, good in sprints, middle distance and field events.

Organization
Take place in two consecutive days, in the following order
Heptathlon (for women) has 7 events:-
Day 1; 100mH, High Jump, Shot Put and 200m
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Day II: Long Jump, Javelin and 800m
Decathlon (for men) has 10 events:-
Day I: 100m, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump and 400m
Day II: 110mH, Discus, Pole Vault, Javelin and 1500m

Teams
Senior Men Maximum of 12 competitors and minimum of 6
competitors.
only 9 are ranked 6 score for the team
Women & Juniors Maximum 8 and minimum of 4.
Only 6 are ranked in the race, 1st 4 scoring for team.

The team with the lowest team aggregate shall be declared the winner. In case of tie, the team who’s
last scoring member is nearer position one is the winner. There is funnel finish (finishing administered
in a funnel set up).
Officials in cross country race include:-
1. Referee
2. Judge
3. Judges stewards
4. Starter
5. Competitors stewards
6. Technical manager
7. Umpire and Points men
8. Prize stewards
9. Time keeper
10. Timekeepers’ recorders
11. Funnel controller
12. Funnel judge recorders
13. Funnel stewards
14. Disc distributors
15. Disc area stewards
16. Results recorders

ROAD RACES (MEN & WOMEN)

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Standard distances include; 10km, 20km Half Marathon (22km)
25km, 30km and the Marathon (42.195km – 26 miles)
The course is made up of roads. When traffic or similar circumstances make it unsuitable, the course,
duly marked, may be on bicycle or footpaths alongside the road, but no soft ground shall be used.
Starting is from an open area and finish can be within the track (athletic arena). A competitor should
retire once ordered to do so by an official appointed or the medical team. Distances to be covered shall
be displayed to all competitors at regular intervals. The organizers, for distances more than 20km, shall
provide refreshments after approximately intervals of 5km. in addition, the organizers shall provide
sponging point where only water shall be supplied at mid way point between every 2 9two) refreshing
stations.

Refreshments by officials or competitor’s appointed agent shall be provided at points nominated by the
competitor. Refreshments are p laced in such a way that they shall be easily accessible to the
competition or they may be put on the competitors hands. A competitor who takes refreshment outside
the stations is liable to disqualification. The safety of the athlete is paramount/of prime importance. It
should be ensured.

WALK RACE
It is a series of steps taken while maintaining unbroken contact with the ground

Double Support
 A moment when the two feet are in contact with the ground.
 Both feet contact the ground with a heel-toe action.
 The heel of the fore foot strikes the ground before the toe of the rear leg leave the ground
 Hands synchronize at the body side with the elbow bent at 90o.
 The body should be straight and relaxed.
TRACK RULES
1. STARTING
 Starting line is a line 5cm wide.
 Races not run in lanes are started in a curve-waterfall start
 Starting leg of 4 x 400m relay
 All races must be started by the report of the un or approved starting apparatus.
 Runners must be steady and in the correct starting position.

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  Athlete may not touch either the start line or ground infront of it by his/her hands or feet when
on his/her mark.
 If the starter is not ready, runners may be called out of the blocks and process starts all over.
 Waterfall start is used to start middle and long distance events.
 In 800m, each athlete starts on own lane and later moves to the inside lane.
 In sprints, runner stays in own lane for the entire race.

2. FALSE START
 Once on the “set” position athlete may not commence motion until after receiving report of the
gun or approved starting apparatus.
 If, in the judgement of the starter and recaller, the athlete fail to comply to the commands he/she
is disqualified.

3. RUNNING THE RACE

 In all lane events, athlete stays in own lane from start to finish.
 Leaving the track or stepping on the demarcating line calls for disqualification.
 Jostling or obstruction leads to disqualification.
 In 800m, 4 x 400m relay and 400m indoors, athletes start in own lane then merge.

4. THE FINISH
 The finishing line is a line 5cm wide.
 Finishing positions are determined by order in which the torso reaches the vertical plane of the
nearer edge of the finishing line.
 Photo finishing becoming more common and accurate compared to eagle eyed officials.
 Ties are broken by photo finish judge who considers the time recorded by athletes up to one
thousandieth of a second.
 Tying athletes are then placed in the next round
 Lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round
 If athletes tie in the, referee decides if its practicable to arrange for tying athletes to compete
again
 If not, the results stand and ties in other placing remain

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