Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute, Chennai.

Course Title: Religious Bhakti Traditions in India

Topic: Abinavagupta’s philosophy of Bhakti

Course Facilitator: Rev. Dr. Wilson P.

Presenters: Mousumi De & Sindhuja (RH-II)
Date: 04/10/2024 (Revised Paper)

Introduction
Abhinavagupta, a prominent philosopher and theologian from Kashmir in the 10th and 11th
centuries, is best known for his contributions to the tradition of Kashmir Shaivism, particularly
through the non-dualistic school of “Trika Shaivism”. Though his works are primarily rooted in
Shaivism, he also provided insights into Bhakti (devotional) philosophy. This paper will focus on
the philosophy of Bhakti as taught by Abhinavagupta.
1. Kashmir Shaivaism
Kashmir Shaivism is also known as Pratyabhijna philosophy or Trike philosophy. It emphasizes
three constitutes of reality i.e. Shiva (God), Shakti (world), and Nara (man). It is a philosophy of
argumentation and discussion. The manifestation process is a mechanism of appearance (effect)
from ultimate reality (cause) which is the seed or embryo of the causation. Kashmir Shaivism is
divided into three parts; Agama Shastra, Spanda Shastra, and Pratyabhijna Shastra, and only the
Pratyabhijna Shastra has philosophical significance. It is the nature of ultimate reality
(paramashiva) to manifest or appear in various forms. The creature has the essence of divinity. It
would neither be the highest power nor consciousness but something like a jar. Creation is nothing
but the Lord’s manifestation. In the process of manifestation, the supreme Lord (paramashiva)
creates a limited being by concealing himself (tirobhdva) through kanchuk tattvas, and the males.
He reveals Himself by bestowing to the ultimate Self. The entire process of concealment and
revelation is the result of the autonomy (Svatantary) of the Lord. The ultimate reality of Kashmir
Shaivism is non-rational consciousness where there is no distinction between subject and object ‘I
and this’ i.e. Aham and Idam.1
2. Early Life of Abhinavagupta and Works (950-960 CE)
Abhinavagupta was historically thought to be a Yoginbhu (one comprehends and is capable of
intelligently articulating Shaiva monism), or Yogini-born. Abhinavagupta later rose to the position
of Acarya of the Shaiva sects in Kashmir by the practice of a yogin’s life and the exposition of
Shaiva philosophy known as Pratyabhijna Darana. His parents were devout devotees of Lord
Shaiva. Later writers referred to him as Abhinavaguptapada; the term pada means honor and
guptapada also means serpent or Sesa; as a result, he was also called the embodiment of Sesa.

1
“Concept of Manifestation Process in Kashmir Shaivism,” Researchgate, accessed 20th September 2024,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343945516_Concept_of_Manifestation_Process_in_Kashmir_Shaivism.

1
There are about forty of his publications, but Tantraloka, his most famous and largest in volume,
covers all the crucial issues of monistic Agamas, including their rituals and philosophical
emphases. And crucial subjects like the objective world’s ultimate existence, the manifestation of
the universe, the idea of moksha, the difference between knowledge and ignorance, and the path
to liberation etc. His other important works include Tantrasara, Dhvanyaloka Locanam, Abhinava
Bharati, Bhagavadgitartha Sangraha, Pararthasara, Isvar Pratyabhijna-Vivṛti Vimarsini, etc.2
Abhinavagupta means by heart. Abhinavagupta’s religious vision is intimately bound up with the
symbol of the heart on three important levels. The first is the reality of the heart as Siva, which
refers to the ultimacy and transcendence of Śiva in the heart. The key term is anuttara-tattva, the
principle of the Ultimate. The second level involves Abhinavagupta’s teaching about the methods
and techniques that must be employed in a living human reality. The most direct and effortless
method of realization is known as Sāmbhavopāya. The third level intimates the nature of the state
of realization of the heart. This process of realization is termed hṛdayañgamībhūta, which means
“become something that moves in the Heart,” and can be more simply translated as “experiential
replication.” The state of realization is often called Bhairavatā the condition of Bhairava.3
3. Key Aspects of Abhinavagupta’s Philosophy
3.1. Integration with non-dualism
Abhinavagupta’s approach to bhakti is unique because he integrates the devotional experience into
his larger framework of non-dualism (Advaita). For him, bhakti is not merely a dualistic
relationship between a devotee and a distant deity but an expression of the realization of the non-
duality between the individual and the divine. In this sense, bhakti is an internal process where the
devotee realizes their oneness with Shiva, the ultimate reality.4
3.2. Individual Self and the Ultimate Shiva
According to Abhinavagupta, the ultimate has two aspects: transcendental or Visvottirna and
immanent or Visvamaya, and each of these phrases reflects an aspect of the particular self.
Pratyabhijna Darsana refers to the individual self as Prakasa or binary of lights and vimarsamaya
or reflected consciousness, which means that the individual self is self-luminous and contains
residual traces that are essentially the same as the universal self, and it is also capable of receiving
reflection of knowing itself and others. However, the self-consciousness, will, and knowledge of
the individual self cannot experience anything without relying on the universal self. Pratyabhijna
claims that the creation of the universe by the universal self-Shiva, is a manifestation of the
independent self and that the manifested universe is only notionally separate from Shiva because
it is only a reflective consciousness of the external objects. Prakasa-vimarsamaya is another name
for the universal self. When referring to the ultimate self, the word “vimarsa” or “consciousness”
refers to a force that empowers everyone to have self-awareness, will, knowledge, and action.5

2
G.T. Deshpande, Abhinavagupta (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1992), 23-28.
3
Paul Eduardo Muller-Ortega, The Triadic Heart of Siva (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publication, 1989), 1-2.
4
“Abhanavagupta’s Philosophy rasa,” accessed on 19th September 2024,
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/35511/1/Unit-4.pdf.
5
Kanti Cahndra Pandey, Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study (Varanasi: The
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1963), 324-326.

2
4. Abhinavagupta’s Teachings on Bhakti
4.1.Bhakti and Jnana
Abhinavagupta defined Bhakti as an essential path toward spiritual realization. He emphasizes that
devotion to Shiva transcends mere ritualistic practice. For him the genuine Bhakti is a deep,
emotional connection with the divine, facilitating a transformative experience that purifies the
heart and mind. This devotion cultivates love and surrender, which are crucial for experiencing
unity with the divine consciousness.6 On the other hand Jnana, represents the intellectual and
experiential understanding of the nature of reality. Abhinavagupta integrates the philosophical
insights of non-dualism, asserting that true knowledge leads to the realization of one’s inherent
divinity. Jnana involves discerning the nature of the self (Atman) and its relationship to the
ultimate reality (Brahman or Shiva). Hence Abhinavagupta does not view Bhakti and Jnana as
mutually exclusive. Rather he advocates for a synthesis of this two. Bhakti serves as a means to
prepare the heart for the insights of Jnana, while Jnana enriches the practice of Bhakti, deepening
the devotee’s experience and understanding. In this way, both paths are interdependent, leading to
an ultimate realization of the divine. This highlight the harmonious interplay between devotion
and knowledge, advocating for a holistic approach to spiritual growth that embraces both the
emotional and intellectual dimensions of the divine experience.7
4.2.Bhakti and Rasa
The term rasa means “essence” or “flavor.” In aesthetics, rasa refers to the distilled essence of an
emotion evoked through artistic expression—whether in drama, poetry, dance, or music.8 The
theory explores how art transforms everyday emotions (bhāvas9) into something transcendent,
creating an experience of pure emotional enjoyment or contemplation. Rasa Theory is a
foundational concept in Indian aesthetics, particularly developed in the fields of dramaturgy,
poetry, and art. Originating from the Nāṭyaśāstra, attributed to the ancient sage Bharata, and later
elaborated upon by thinkers like Abhinavagupta, Rasa Theory explains how art evokes emotional
responses in an audience, creating an aesthetic experience. Rasa is not just the emotion of the
character but a distilled, universalized emotional experience that is relished by the audience. The
audience does not experience the actual emotions of love, fear, or anger but their purified and
idealized form through the artistic medium.10 This transformation of mundane emotions into an
elevated experience is what makes rasa unique and central to Indian aesthetics. The ultimate aim
of art, according to Rasa Theory, is to evoke rasānubhava, the aesthetic experience where the

6 “Abhanavagupta’s Philosophy rasa,”….

7
Deshpande, Abhinavagupta, 80…
8
“Abhinavaguta’s insights into Aesthetics: Unveiling the Layers of Rasa Theory,” accessed 16th September
2024, https://philosophy.institute/aethetics/?utm_source=perplexity.
9
Bhāva means Emotions. These are the emotional states or feelings that a character expresses in a work of
art or performance. The audience perceives these emotions, which are essential for evoking rasa. Bhāvas are typically
categorized into: Sthāyi Bhāva: The stable, underlying emotional state (e.g., love, anger, joy); Vyabhicāri Bhāva:
Transitory emotions or fleeting states that support the primary emotion; Sāttvika Bhāva: The spontaneous, involuntary
expressions of emotion like trembling, tears, or paleness. C.f. Paul Eduardo Muller-Ortega, The Triadic Heart of Siva
(Delhi: Sri Satguru Publication, 1989).
10
Neeti Singh, “The Poetic of Kashmir Saivism in the Verse of Abhinavgupta and La; Ded,” UGC-Care
Journal 23/4 (December 2019): 169. 168-176

3
spectator enters into a heightened state of joy and contemplation. This experience is considered a
form of emotional and spiritual fulfillment, providing intellectual and inner pleasure.11
Abhinavagupta, expanded and refined the Rasa Theory, especially in his commentary on the
Nāṭyaśāstra, known as Abhinavabhāratī. His most important contributions include:
 Śānta Rasa
Which is the ninth rasa of Abhinavagupta —śānta (tranquility or peace), which he considered the
highest rasa, as it represents spiritual detachment and equanimity, leading to a realization of the
ultimate reality.
 Theory of Universalization (Sādhāraṇīkaraṇa)
In this he proposed that emotions depicted in art undergo a process of universalization, making
them accessible to all. The emotions are no longer tied to a specific individual but are abstracted
into a shared emotional state that the audience can universally relate to and appreciate.
The view of the aesthetic experience is analogous to a spiritual experience. Just as the practitioner
in yoga or meditation transcends individual ego to experience universal consciousness, the
aesthetic experience enables the audience to transcend personal emotions and ego-based desires to
relish the essence of emotions in an impersonal and universalized form. Thus, the ultimate goal of
both aesthetics and spirituality is liberation from individual limitations and realization of the
universal. However, Rasa Theory, especially through Abhinavagupta’s lens, is not just about
emotional engagement but also about the spiritual elevation that art can induce, turning everyday
emotional experiences into profound moments of realization and joy.12
4.3.Bhakti and Shakti
Abhinavagupta emphasized bhakti in a deep, heartfelt devotion to Shiva. It is not merely an
emotional attachment rather a transformative relationship that enables the devotee to experience
divine love and surrender. Through Bhakti an individuals cultivate a sense of oneness with the
divine, allowing for a profound inner transformation. This devotion is seen as a pathway to
achieving a direct experience of the divine consciousness. He defined the term Shakti as a
represented of the dynamic energy and creative power of the divine. He also pointed out that Shakti
is often associated with the feminine aspect of the divine, embodying creation, preservation, and
transformation. She is viewed as the active principle through which the cosmos manifests and
operates. Shakti is not separate from Shiva; instead, she is the inherent energy within the divine
that enables realization and manifestation.13 Therefore Abhinavagupta highlights the
interdependence of Bhakti and Shakti in the term of devotion (Bhakti) can awaken the divine
energy (Shakti) within the practitioner, leading to spiritual empowerment and transformation. As
one engages in sincere Bhakti, Shakti manifests, guiding the devotee toward deeper realizations of
the divine nature. This relationship is seen as essential for attaining spiritual liberation (moksha).14

11
“Delightful importance of Bhavas and Rasa,” (January 24/01/2024), 16th September 2024,
https://oneearthsacredarts.com/delightful-importance-of-bhavas-and-rasa?utm_source=perplexity
12
“Abhanavagupta’s Philosophy rasa….
13
Satya Prakas Singh and Swami Maheshvarananda, Abhinavagupta’s Sri Tantraloka and other works,
vol.1 (New Delhi: Standard Publishers, 2015), xiii.
14
G.T. Abhinavagupta, Abhinavagupta (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1992), 54 and 78.

4
 4.4.Divine Grace (Anugraha)
In Abhinavagupta’s view, bhakti involves a recognition of divine grace (anugraha). The devotee
experiences Shiva’s grace not as an external force but as an inherent part of reality that facilitates
the devotee’s realization of their true, divine nature. Bhakti, then, becomes an acknowledgment
and acceptance of this divine grace. In the philosophy of Abhinavagupta, the term Divine Grace
(Anugraha) holds a crucial place, especially within his framework of ‘Kashmir Shaivism’ and the
‘Trika’ school of thought. His understanding of anugraha aligns with his non-dualistic
metaphysics, where the individual soul and the Divine are seen as inherently one, and grace plays
a transformative role in realizing this unity.15
According to Gupta grace as an inherent aspect of Shiva, the ultimate reality, expresses Himself
through five divine acts: creation (sṛṣṭi), maintenance (sthiti), dissolution (saṃhāra), concealment
(tirodhāna), and grace or revelation (anugraha). Grace is the fifth and final act, representing the
ultimate compassion of Shiva, through which the soul realizes its true nature as non-different from
Shiva. This act of grace is not arbitrary but an inherent expression of Shiva’s nature. He also
affirmed that grace is not something externally given by Shiva; rather, it is the process through
which an individual realizes their true nature, which has always been one with the divine. The
divine grace does not “come” from outside, but awakens the individual to the reality of their
oneness with Shiva. It is the removal of ignorance (avidya) that veils the true self. When Shiva
bestows grace, the individual becomes aware of their inherent divinity, leading to liberation
(moksha). He also compares grace to liberation from māyā in which he explains anugraha is deeply
connected with the notion of māyā, which is the force that creates the illusion of separation
between the individual and the Divine. In the state of ignorance, the individual believes in this
separation, identifying with the limited ego self. Divine grace works by dispelling this illusion of
duality. It lifts the veil of māyā, allowing the devotee to recognize their true, boundless nature as
one with Shiva. He also teaches that the guru (spiritual teacher) often serves as an embodiment of
Shiva’s grace. The guru, through their guidance, awakens the disciples to their own divine nature.
The process of initiation (dīkṣā) and the transmission of spiritual knowledge are considered acts
of divine grace. Abhinavagupta believed that the guru, as a manifestation of Shiva, acts as a conduit
for anugraha, guiding the aspirant toward self-realization.16
In a non-dualistic framework, divine grace is not experienced as an act of condescension from a
separate God to an individual devotee. Rather, it is the realization that grace has always been
present. The duality between the giver (Shiva) and the recipient (the individual) is dissolved. The
individual recognizes that their true essence is already divine, and grace is the realization of this
inherent divinity. Abhinavagupta emphasizes the ‘spontaneous’ nature of divine grace. Since grace
is an expression of the absolute freedom (svatantrya) of Shiva, it can manifest in various ways and
at any moment, independent of the individual’s efforts. While spiritual practices (sādhanā) are
important, the ultimate realization comes through the spontaneous descent of divine grace, which

15
“Abhanavagupta’s Philosophy rasa….
16
Muller-Ortega, The Triadic Heart of Siva…, 138-139.

5
is beyond human control. This spontaneity reflects Shiva’s unrestricted freedom in bestowing
grace, which can arise without predictable cause. He was a major proponent of the Pratyabhijñā
school, which emphasizes ‘recognition’ of one’s true nature as the key to liberation. In this context,
divine grace is closely associated with pratyabhijñā, where the individual recognizes that they are
none other than Shiva.17 Grace is thus the moment of self-recognition, where one awakens to their
true identity as the divine, free from all limitation.18 However, for Abhinavagupta, anugraha
(divine grace) is a transformative force that leads to the recognition of one’s true, divine nature. It
is not a favor granted by an external deity, but an inherent process of self-realization, through
which the illusion of duality is dispelled. Grace plays a central role in lifting the veil of māyā, and
though it often requires the guidance of a guru, its ultimate manifestation is spontaneous and
beyond individual effort. Through grace, the devotee realizes their unity with Shiva, leading to
liberation and the dissolution of all perceived separation.19
4.5.Sahaja Samādhi (Natural Absorption)
Abhinavagupta also speaks of a state called sahaja samādhi, which is a natural and spontaneous
absorption into the divine. Bhakti, in this context, is not something that requires rigorous external
discipline or asceticism, but a spontaneous, effortless union with the divine that arises from the
heart. This kind of bhakti transcends ritualistic worship and becomes an inner, continuous state of
being.
In the context of Abhinavagupta’s philosophy, Sahaja Samādhi (Natural Absorption) represents a
profound spiritual state where one experiences the direct, effortless realization of the non-dual
nature of reality. Abhinavagupta delves deeply into the concept of samādhi, particularly in his
seminal works like the Tantrāloka and Parātrīśikā Vivaraṇa. He interprets Sahaja Samādhi not
merely as a meditative state, but as an ongoing experience of spontaneous union with the divine
consciousness (Shiva). In Sahaja Samādhi, the practitioner reaches a state of natural absorption
where effort or will is no longer required to maintain awareness of the ultimate reality. It is a state
of continuous, effortless meditation where the practitioner’s mind remains in harmony with the
universal consciousness. For Abhinavagupta, this state reflects the fundamental non-dual principle
of Kashmir Shaivism: Shiva (pure consciousness) and Śakti (creative energy) are not separate but
one. In Sahaja Samādhi, the practitioner realizes that there is no distinction between subject and
object, self and the universe. Everything is a manifestation of the same divine consciousness.
Unlike other forms of samādhi that might require withdrawal from worldly activities, Sahaja
Samādhi can be maintained during everyday life. The person in Sahaja Samādhi can engage in
normal activities while remaining in a state of deep, unwavering awareness of the underlying
reality of consciousness. The term sahaja itself means “natural” or “inborn,” indicating that this
state is not something artificially imposed through rigorous practices. Instead, it unfolds naturally
as the practitioner recognizes their inherent divinity, transcending dualities and resting in the

17
David Smith, The dance of Siva (New Delhi: Foundation Books, 1998), 236.
18
Niharika Sharma, “The Trika School - A Religio- Philosophical Emergence,” Tattva Journal of Philosophy
13/2 (2021): 42. 41-58.
19
Muller-Ortega, The Triadic Heart of Siva…, 138-139.

6
effortless flow of pure consciousness. In Sahaja Samādhi, the mind no longer operates through
limited concepts, thoughts, or dualistic reasoning. The practitioner transcends the intellect and
mental processes to abide in a direct, intuitive, and experiential awareness of the self as Shiva. In
this concept, Abhinavagupta emphasizes that this state is the culmination of spiritual practice,
where the yogi’s awareness merges fully with the divine, and the boundaries of individuality
dissolve. It’s a dynamic, living realization, marking the highest state of liberation (mokṣa), where
one experiences śivavyāpti—the pervasion of Śiva consciousness in every aspect of existence.20
4.6.Moksha
Pratyabhijna Darana’s principal goal is to assist each soul in experiencing self-realization and to
outline the strategies for doing so by overcoming ignorance-based perspectives. According to
Shaiva philosophy, bondage, or Bandha, is caused by three types of impureness, or Mala. The first
is Anavamala, or innate ignorance, which denotes the loss of universality and, consequently, the
forgetfulness of one’s true nature. It is also the primary cause of impureness. The second is
karmala, or the nature of indefinite desire, which arises from the impure state of innate ignorance
and results in indefinite and limited desire. And is in charge of innumerable linkages between the
self and Maya works. Finally, due to the impurities, Mayiyamala is seen as a psychophysical
limitation. Ignorance, on the other hand, merely refers to having limited information rather than
no knowledge at all. This results in false beliefs about oneself and the cosmos. Therefore, for
Shaiva philosophers, self-realization is just recognizing the supreme identity of Shiva as one with
a unique soul. Self-realization is self-recognition. Even if the self and the Shiva are identical, one
cannot truly enjoy the delight of identity until they are fully aware of it.21
According to Pratyabhijna Darsana, the individual self must go through each of the states
represented to fully link up with the universal self. The first manifestation of “being,” or the unity
of the powers of knowledge and action in their totality, is called Shiva tattvas. The second
manifestation of “being,” or consciousness of what is manifested, is called Sakti tattvas. Without
consciousness, how can the manifested be recognized? Thus, consciousness experiences the being
in a second. Sadashiva is the third category and the power of will predominates in it, and it makes
a transition from the unaffected state of Shiva and Shakti into the affected state of Isvara tattva, in
this stage, the soul says ‘I am this’, Isvara tattva the power of knowledge predominates in it and
begins affecting the self, and this stage is represented by the expression “This is I am” and not “I
am this” suggesting.22
5. Comparing Abhinavagupta’s Advaitic concept with Shankaracharya and Ramanuja
5.1.Abhinavagupta and Shankaracharya
Although the main principle of both Kashmir Saivism and Vedanta is monism (Advaita), which is
pure monism, many important differences exist in their thinking. For example, Vedanta masters
teach that karma yoga means yoga in action. They believe that you must practice niḥṣkama
karmayoga, which means that you are to perform all the actions of the world without asking for

20
R.F. Cefalu, Shakti in Abhinavaguta’s concept of moksha (New York: Fordham University, 1887), 5.
21
G.T. Deshpande, Abhinavagupta…, 35-37.
22
Kanti Cahndra Pandey, Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study…, 362-369.

7
any reward. They say that by acting in this way you are carried toward the existence of the Real
Being, the Real Nature of Self. Kashmir Saivism teaches that yoga in action means doing all
actions while maintaining a break-less contemplation of God. The existence of individual and
universal beings is another distinction between Kashmir Saivism and advaita vedanta. Individual
being, according to the Vedantin’s, manifests only when a Universal Being is reflected in the
mirror of the human mind. They assert that the intellect (Buddhi) reflects the Universal Being and
that this reflection gives rise to the creation of the specific being (jiva). Kashmir Saivism, on the
other hand, rejects this argument as without any foundation. Because Universal Being is
completely pure and perfect, whereas individual Being is afflicted with defects (malas) and hidden
by veils, Universal Being will reflect Buddhi, not Buddhi will reflect Universal Being Buddhi. The
purer and refined reality will mirror the less pure and refined reality, not vice versa. Universal
Being cannot be contained by Buddhi. Furthermore, Vedantin philosophy fails to explain how, if
the world did not exist, Buddhi, which is to be mirrored in Lord Siva, could exist at all. How did
the intellect (Buddhi) exist before the world’s creation? As a result, in His svatantrya sakti, every
individual being reflects Lord Shiva. The universe exists. The essence, substance, and foundation
of this cosmos are the third point of distinction between Kashmir Saivism and Vedanta. This
cosmos, according to Vedanta, is false and unreal. In actuality, it does not exist. It is simply the
creation of illusion (maya). Kashmir Saivism maintains that if Lord Siva is genuine, how could an
unreal substance come from something real? If Lord Siva exists, then so does His creation. Why
should Lord Siva be considered real when His creation is an illusion (maya)? According to
Kashmir Saivism, the presence of this cosmos is as genuine as Lord Siva's existence. As such, it
is true, genuine, pure, and unique. There is absolutely nothing about which is unreal. The fourth
important difference between Kashmir Saivism and Vedanta is that Vedanta does not recognize
kuṇḍalini yoga. The Vedantins say that kuṇḍalini yoga is meant for those who are treading on the
inferior path of yoga. From our Kashmir Saivite point of view, however, kuṇḍalini yoga is the most
important yoga in this system. Kashmir Saivism explains that there are three paths of kuṇḍalini
yoga: para kuṇḍalini yoga, cit kuṇḍalini yoga, and praṇa kuṇḍalini yoga. Para kuṇḍalini yoga is
supreme kuṇḍalini yoga. It is functioned by Lord Siva with the universal body, not the individual
body. Cit kuṇḍalini yoga is kuṇḍalini in consciousness. Praṇa kuṇḍalini yoga is kuṇḍalini in
breath. The question of who is qualified to practice this monistic doctrine is the subject of the fifth
fundamental distinction between Kashmir Saivism and Vedanta. According to Vedanta, only
“worthy persons,” such as Brahmins with ‘excellent attributes,” can pursue this instruction. In fact,
according to Sankaracharya, only samyasins should practice Vedanta, not anyone else. According
to the Vedantic perspective, women and people of other castes are not permitted to follow the
Vedantic system. Kashmir Saivism, however, rejects this point of view. According to Kashmir
Saivism, everyone, male or female, can practice this monistic philosophy regardless of caste,

8
creed, or color. Saivism teaches us that women can exercise this idea more successfully than
males.23
5.2.Abhinavagupta and Ramanuja
The distinctions between Vishishtadvaita and Advaita lie in their conception of ultimate reality.
Ramanuja presents a vision of Brahman as personal and with attributes (saguna), often identifying
it with Vishnu. In his perspective, Brahman is not an abstract, formless reality but a consciousness
that possesses qualities, is capable of relationships, and engages in a dynamic interplay with the
world. In this light, the created universe and individual souls are real, serving as expressions of the
divine. Each jiva (individual soul) is a distinct entity, albeit one that can achieve union with
Brahman. In contrast, Abhinavagupta’s Kashmir Shaivism adopts a radical non-dualist approach.
For Abhinavagupta, the ultimate reality is non-dual and transcends any qualities or distinctions;
Shiva represents this absolute reality, which is all-encompassing and identical to the self. In this
framework, the apparent separateness of individual souls and the world is seen as an illusion
(maya). The essence of all existence is one, and the dualistic perception is viewed as a
misunderstanding that can be overcome through realization. The differing understandings of
divinity further characterize these philosophies. In Vishishtadvaita, God is seen as a personal entity
with whom devotees engage in a loving relationship. The emphasis on bhakti (devotion) highlights
the importance of personal connection in the pursuit of liberation. Ramanuja emphasizes attitudes
of surrender and devotion, viewing the relationship between the individual soul and Brahman as
one marked by both unity and distinctiveness. Conversely, Abhinavagupta’s conception of the
divine is fundamentally different. In his non-dualism, divine realization necessitates transcending
the personal attributes of God to experience the oneness of reality. The ultimate path involves
recognizing that the distinctions between the self and the divine, as well as between the self and
the external world, are illusory. The individual self (Atman) is to understand itself as identical to
Shiva, the ultimate reality. The paths outlined by these two thinkers for achieving liberation
(moksha) also reflect their differing philosophies. In Vishishtadvaita, liberation is attained through
bhakti, the devotional surrender to God. While maintaining individuality, the soul realizes its
oneness with the divine in a relational context. Ramanuja’s philosophy suggests that one can
simultaneously engage in devotion and recognize the ultimate unity of existence, but individuality
remains intact, allowing for a loving relationship with God. Abhinavagupta’s framework presents
a more integrative approach where liberation involves realizing one’s identity with the divine. He
emphasizes experience over intellectual understanding, advocating for practices that lead to
awakening to the non-dual nature of reality. The realization of the non-difference between Atman
and Brahman is at the top of his philosophy; it indicates a shift from a dualistic perception to an
awareness of unity. Maya plays a crucial role in both philosophies, but its interpretation varies
significantly. In Vishishtadvaita, the world is not illusory in a fundamental sense; rather, it is real
and a manifestation of Brahman’s qualities. Ramanuja acknowledges the complexity of existence

23 “Vedantic non-dual vs. Abhinavagupta’s non-dual,” (8 September 2018), accessed on 4th

October 2024,
http://www.lakshmanjooacademy.org/podcast/difference-kashmir-saivism-advaita-vedanta/.

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while maintaining that the material world serves a purpose in understanding and developing a
relationship with the divine. In contrast, Abhinavagupta views maya as a veil that obscures the
understanding of reality. The phenomenal world and its multiplicities are perceived as illusions
that distract from the recognition of non-duality. The goal then is to penetrate this illusion through
self-realization and to understand that all is Shiva.24
6. Reflection
Abhinavagupta, the esteemed Indian philosopher and theologian, played a pivotal role in the
development of Kashmir Shaivism through his comprehensive exploration of Tantric and Shaivite
texts. One of the notable aspects of his philosophy is his interpretation of bhakti, or devotional
worship, which continues to influence contemporary bhakti traditions in significant ways.
Abhinavagupta’s insights offer a unique bridge between the transcendent and the immanent, the
philosophical and the devotional, aspects that are increasingly relevant in today’s spiritual
practices. In Abhinavagupta’s framework, bhakti is not merely a sentimental attachment or
ritualistic worship but a profound, transformative experience leading to self-realization and unity
with the divine consciousness. This perspective transcends the common dichotomy between the
devotee and the deity, proposing that true devotion arises from recognizing the inherent divinity
within oneself and all of creation. His teachings suggest that through sincere devotion, individuals
can perceive the ultimate reality, which he terms ‘Parama Shiva’ - the supreme consciousness. In
contemporary times, this interpretation resonates strongly with those seeking a more inclusive and
transformative spiritual path. Abhinavagupta’s teachings encourage devotees to look beyond
superficial rituals, nurturing a deeper internalization of their spiritual experiences. Modern
practitioners can find in his philosophy a space where devotion is not just an external activity but
an internal, unitive process that cultivates a personal connection with the divine. Furthermore,
Abhinavagupta’s inclusive approach to spirituality, recognizing the validity of multiple paths to
divine understanding, helps contemporary bhakti practitioners embrace a more extensive spiritual
journey. This openness is reflected in the worldwide spread of bhakti movements today, which
often incorporate diverse rituals, chanting, meditation, and even incorporate insights from various
religious traditions. Another significant contribution of Abhinavagupta’s philosophy is the
emphasis on aesthetic experience and the role of art in spiritual practice. He believed that art,
music, and poetry could evoke a state of rasa, or aesthetic rapture, akin to spiritual enlightenment.
This concept is particularly influential in contemporary bhakti traditions, where music and dance
are integral to worship and help create communal experiences of the divine. Moreover, his
teachings encourage a direct, personal relationship with the divine, which aligns well with the
emphasis on personal spirituality seen in today’s practices. In an age where institutional religion
often faces scrutiny, Abhinavagupta’s approach offers an accessible form of spirituality that
stresses personal growth and inner transformation over external dogma.
Conclusion

24Abhilash Rajendran, “Abhinavagupta vs Ramanujacharya Differences and Similarities in the

Teachings,” Skyscanner, accessed 7th October 2024, https://www.hindu-
blog.com/2011/07/abhinavagupta-vs-ramanujacharya.html#google_vignette.

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Abhinavagupta’s interpretation of bhakti transcends the conventional view of devotion as a
dualistic relationship. Instead, it becomes a means for realizing non-dualistic consciousness, where
the individual recognizes their inherent unity with the divine reality, Shiva. Through love, grace,
and aesthetic experience, bhakti becomes a path toward spiritual enlightenment.

Bibliography
Cefalu, R.F. Shakti in Abhinavaguta’s concept of moksha. New York: Fordham University, 1887.
Deshpande, G.T. Abhinavagupta. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1992.
Muller-Ortega, Paul Eduardo. The Triadic Heart of Siva. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publication, 1989.
Pandey, Kanti Cahndra. Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study. Varanasi: The
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1963.
Smith, David. The dance of Siva. New Delhi: Foundation Books, 1998.

Articles
Sharma, Niharika. “The Trika School - A Religio- Philosophical Emergence.” Tattva Journal of
Philosophy 13/2 (2021): 41-58.
Singh, Neeti. “The Poetic of Kashmir Saivism in the Verse of Abhinavgupta and La; Ded.” UGC-
Care Journal 23/4 (December 2019): 168-176.

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