1.

Which of the following statements best captures the commonsense view of science typically
associated with Empiricism and Positivism, as described in the sources?
A) Science progresses through the falsification of bold conjectures.
B) Scientific knowledge is primarily derived from facts established by careful sensory
observation.
C) The goal of science is to save phenomena through empirically adequate theories.
D) Scientific knowledge is built upon subjective interpretations of reality.
E) The meaning of scientific concepts depends on the theoretical framework.

2.
According to the sources, which of the following is not identified as a difficulty with the idea
that facts are directly given via the senses to unbiased observers?
A) What observers see depends on their culture, knowledge, experience, and expectations.
B) Two observers viewing the same object from the same place may not see the same thing.
C) Observation statements do not enter the brain directly via the senses.
D) The dependence of perception on the state of our minds makes communication
impossible.
E) Facts and knowledge are fallible and subject to correction.

3.
What key feature distinguishes active and public observation from passive and private
observation in science, according to the sources?
A) Passive observation is more reliable as it is unbiased.
B) Active observation involves purposefully looking for information.
C) Public observation cannot be discussed or tested by everyone.
D) Passive observation leads to objective facts, while active observation leads to subjective
interpretations.
E) A & C.

4.
How do the sources describe the relationship between experimental results and theory?
A) Experimental results are straightforwardly given via the senses and are independent of
theory.
B) Experimental results, once obtained, are infallible and not subject to revision.
C) Accepting and interpreting experimental results is theory-dependent.
D) The relevance of facts is determined solely by observation, not the current state of
scientific development.
E) A & B.

5.
According to the sources, what is the key difference between deduction and induction?
A) Deduction is ampliative, while induction is non-ampliative.
B) Deduction is truth-preserving, while induction is not necessarily truth-preserving.
C) Deduction proceeds from general conclusions to specific facts, while induction proceeds
from specific facts to general conclusions.
D) A & C.
E) B & C.

6.
What is the core issue identified by Hume’s problem of induction, as discussed in the
sources?
A) The circularity of attempting to justify induction based on past experience.
B) The vagueness of the conditions required for a good induction.
C) The inability of induction to establish knowledge of unobservables.
D) The problem of determining significant variations in conditions for observation.
E) All of the above.

7.
Which of the following, according to the sources, is not one of the three conditions required
to justify a scientific generalization?
A) The number of observations forming the basis of a generalization must be large.
B) The observations must be repeated under a wide variety of conditions.
C) The generalization must be logically deduced from the observations.
D) No accepted observation statement should conflict with the derived law.
E) All observations must be made by unprejudiced observers.

8.
In the context of I-S (Inferential-Statistical) explanations, what does the "problem of
ambiguity" refer to, as outlined in the sources?
A) The difficulty in distinguishing correlation from causation.
B) The possibility of having compatible premises leading to contradicting conclusions.
C) The inability to satisfy the requirement of maximal specificity.
D) The fact that a high probability is not necessary for a sound explanation.
E) None of the above.

9.
According to the sources, what is a key distinction between causal statements and
conformity statements?
A) Causal statements assert that one event is responsible for another, while conformity
statements describe patterns or regularities without asserting direct causation.
B) Causal statements are used in natural science, while conformity statements are used only
in social science.
C) Causal statements can be tested experimentally, while conformity statements cannot.
D) Conformity statements describe likelihood and probability, while causal statements
describe necessity.
E) A & D.

10.
What, according to Karl Popper’s theory of falsification as described in the sources, is the
defining criterion of a scientific hypothesis?
A) It must be verifiable through a large number of observations.
B) It must be capable of being proven true through rigorous testing.
C) It must be falsifiable, meaning it can be tested and potentially proven false.
D) It must be logically derived from empirical facts.
E) It must seek confirmation of its beliefs.
11.
According to the sources, which of the following best explains how Karl Popper distinguishes
pseudoscience from empirical science?
A) Pseudoscience is less popular than empirical science.
B) Pseudoscience lacks epistemic merit and seeks confirmation rather than falsification.
C) Pseudoscience relies on observation, while empirical science relies on experimentation.
D) Pseudoscience is based on subjective beliefs, while empirical science is based on
objective facts.
E) A & C.

12.
According to the sources, how does science progress, according to Karl Popper's view?
A) By accumulating confirming instances of theories.
B) By refining theories based on inductive generalizations.
C) By trial and error, eliminating falsified theories and proposing new speculative ones.
D) By achieving logical consistency and simplicity in theories.
E) By seeking to verify theories through observation and experiment.

13.
According to the sources, what distinguishes sophisticated falsificationism from basic
falsificationism in the context of scientific theory growth?
A) It aims for theories with high probability rather than high falsifiability.
B) It focuses on the absolute falsifiability of individual theories.
C) It focuses on the relative merit and growth potential of competing theories.
D) It rejects the idea that falsified theories must be eliminated.
E) It emphasizes the subjective acceptance of theories by the scientific community.

14.
According to the sources, what qualifies a theory as "bold" in the framework of sophisticated
falsificationism?
A) It is logically consistent and simple.
B) Its claims are highly probable given the background knowledge.
C) Its claims are unlikely or radical in light of the background knowledge of the time.
D) It has been confirmed by numerous observations.
E) It has undergone severe tests and has not yet been falsified.

15.
According to the sources, what is the central problem raised by the Duhem/Quine thesis for
simple falsificationism?
A) It is impossible to conduct severe tests for complex scientific theories.
B) When a prediction fails, it is not always clear whether the theory, an auxiliary hypothesis,
or an observation statement is false.
C) Scientific theories cannot be separated into falsifiable and unfalsifiable parts.
D) Confirmation of bold theories implies the falsification of cautious theories.
E) A & C.
16.
Which philosophical position, according to the sources, holds that science aims to discover
the truth about both observable and unobservable aspects of the world, and that theoretical
terms refer to real entities?
A) Positivism
B) Constructive Empiricism
C) Instrumentalism
D) Scientific Realism
E) Skepticism

17.
Constructive empiricism, as developed by Bas van Fraassen and discussed in the sources,
takes an anti-realist stance. What is the primary goal of science according to constructive
empiricism?
A) To produce empirically adequate theories that correctly describe observable phenomena.
B) To discover the true nature of unobservable entities.
C) To formulate theories that are maximally falsifiable.
D) To develop theories that are logically consistent and simple.
E) To accumulate a large number of confirming instances for theories.

18.
What is the "observational-theoretical dichotomy" debate, as discussed in the sources,
primarily concerned with?
A) The distinction between logical inference and inductive inference.
B) The separation between scientific theories and pseudoscientific beliefs.
C) The problem of distinguishing between observable and unobservable entities and
whether a clear line can be drawn between them.
D) The difference between explanation and understanding in social science.
E) The problem of how to derive theories from observational facts.

19.
Maxwell's arguments, presented in the sources, challenge the observational-theoretical
dichotomy. What does he suggest about the distinction between observable and
unobservable?
A) The distinction is absolute and based on inherent properties of entities.
B) The distinction is context-dependent and there is a continuum from observable to
unobservable.
C) Observable entities are inherently more real than unobservable entities.
D) Unobservable entities are inherently meaningless as they cannot be verified by the
senses.
E) A & C

20.
What is the "pragmatic dimension of explanation," as mentioned in the sources, concerned
with?
A) The logical structure of explanatory arguments.
B) The truth of the premises used in an explanation.
C) The context in which an explanation is sought, the knowledge and interests of the
audience.
D) The necessity of including general laws in an explanation.
E) A & B

21.
Hempel's Deductive-Nomological (D-N) model of explanation, as described in the sources,
has the structure of a deductive argument. Which of the following is NOT a condition for a D-
N explanation?
A) The explanandum must be a logical consequence of the explanans.
B) The explanans must contain at least one general law.
C) The explanans must have empirical content.
D) The sentences constituting the explanans must be true.
E) The explanans must render the explanandum highly probable.

22.
The sources discuss counterexamples to the D-N model. The flagpole example is used to
illustrate which problem?
A) The problem of ambiguity in statistical explanations.
B) The problem of irrelevance, where premises are true but irrelevant to the explanandum.
C) The problem of asymmetry, where causes explain effects but effects do not explain
causes.
D) The problem of explaining laws rather than particular events.
E) None of the above

23.
According to the sources, what is the core idea behind the Explanation/Prediction Symmetry
Thesis (also called the Structural Identity Thesis)?
A) Explanations must always refer to causal relationships, while predictions do not.
B) Any acceptable explanation of a particular fact is an argument that could have been used
to predict the fact.
C) Predictions are always more reliable than explanations.
D) Explanations and predictions are entirely distinct processes with no structural similarities.
E) A & C

24.
The sources present different perspectives on the nature of social science and how it differs
from natural science. Which statement reflects a common view presented?
A) Social science focuses primarily on objective reality and measurable phenomena, like
natural science.
B) Social science often uses qualitative methods and emphasizes understanding the
meaning behind human actions, unlike natural science which focuses on quantitative
methods and objective laws.
C) Social science aims to uncover universal, exceptionless laws of human behavior.
D) Prediction is impossible in social science, whereas it is always possible in natural
science.
E) A & C

25.
The "ontological problem of structure and action" in social science, as discussed in the
sources, revolves around what fundamental question?
A) How social structures influence individual actions.
B) Whether social phenomena can be understood by analyzing individuals or must be
understood in terms of larger systems.
C) The problem of distinguishing between explanation and understanding.
D) Whether prediction is possible in social science.
E) B & D

26.
According to the sources, which perspective argues that social phenomena can be best
understood by analyzing the actions and motivations of individuals?
A) Holism
B) Structuralism (in the social science context)
C) Individualism
D) Interpretivism
E) B & D

27.
The sources discuss the debate between 'explaining' and 'understanding' in social science.
What is often associated with 'understanding'?
A) Uncovering causal laws from an objective perspective.
B) Interpreting social phenomena from within, focusing on meaning.
C) Predicting human behavior based on empirical regularities.
D) Analyzing social structures as systems of laws and forces.
E) B & C

28.
What is the "methodological problem" in social science, according to the sources?
A) The problem of determining what constitutes a scientific explanation.
B) The debate about how to analyze cause and effect in social phenomena and whether
explanations should be based on necessity or regularity.
C) The difficulty in obtaining empirical data for social phenomena.
D) The challenge of applying universal laws to human behavior.
E) A & C

29.
The sources present arguments for why social science IS and IS NOT a science. Which of
the following is listed as an argument FOR social science being a science?
A) It involves behavior and cultural rules rather than prediction and causation.
B) It relies on systematic research methods, empirical data, and testing.
C) It is an open system with too many variables for set laws.
D) Prediction can be calculated, unlike prophecy.
E) B & D

30.
What distinguishes predictions from prophecies according to the sources?
A) Predictions are based on set laws and mechanisms, while prophecies are not.
B) Predictions are testable and can be proven wrong, while prophecies are not.
C) Predictions are conditional, while prophecies are deterministic.
D) A & B
E) All of the above
31. Karl Popper's view on predictions in social science, as discussed in the sources, is
linked to his philosophy. What is a key aspect of his view?
A) He believes that history is governed by laws as a matter of necessity, allowing for
predictions.
B) He argues that predictions in social sciences are difficult or impossible because
the social world is an open system influenced by many factors, and history is shaped
by human knowledge which changes unpredictably.
C) He advocates for organized complexity models to predict human behavior
accurately.
D) He believes that predictions in social science are essential for establishing causal
relationships.
E) He agrees with historicism, that the future can be predicted based on historical
patterns.
32. F.A. Hayek's view on predictions in social science, as presented in the sources,
emphasizes limitations. What is a key point in Hayek's argument?
A) Measurable data is sufficient to make predictions in social sciences.
B) Social sciences cannot make predictions because they only deal with unorganized
complexity.
C) The limitations in obtaining quantitative data about complex phenomena in social
sciences lead to ignorance regarding specific facts expected in physical sciences,
making prediction difficult.
D) Human values and decentralized knowledge make comprehensive prediction
impossible.
E) C & D.
33. The sources discuss different views on scientific change. What is a key characteristic
of the "Received View" (Empiricism/Positivism) regarding scientific change?
A) Science progresses through revolutionary paradigm shifts.
B) Science changes constantly and grows cumulatively towards truth.
C) Science is an anarchistic process where "anything goes."
 D) Scientific change is primarily a social and historical phenomenon.
E) Theories are merely tools for organizing experience, not descriptions of reality.
34. Thomas Kuhn's perspective on scientific change, as described in the sources,
introduces concepts like paradigms and anomalies. What characterizes "normal
science" according to Kuhn?
A) A period of fundamental disagreement and debate about the basics of a field.
B) The activity of articulating and developing a paradigm by solving puzzles.
C) A time when a paradigm is in crisis due to persistent anomalies.
D) The replacement of one theoretical structure by another incompatible one.
E) The accumulation of verifying observations for established theories.
35. According to Kuhn, what is an "anomaly"?
A) A piece of evidence that confirms a theoretical prediction.
B) A problem or difficulty that arises within a paradigm.
C) A bold conjecture that needs to be tested.
D) A logical contradiction within a scientific theory.
E) None of the above.
36. How do paradigms and anomalies relate to each other in Kuhn's view?
A) Anomalies are immediately seen as falsifications of the paradigm.
B) The mere existence of anomalies causes a crisis in the paradigm.
C) Persistent and serious anomalies can lead to a crisis, potentially resulting in a
paradigm shift.
D) Anomalies are ignored in normal science as they are seen as failures of the
scientist, not the paradigm.
E) C & D.
37. What does the concept of "incommensurability" mean in Kuhn's philosophy?
A) That different paradigms cannot be compared or translated into one another due
to differing concepts, problems, and standards.
B) That scientific progress is cumulative across different paradigms.
C) That objective criteria can be used to compare competing paradigms.
D) That the meaning of concepts is independent of the theoretical framework.
E) A & B.
38. The sources mention several criteria for a good scientific theory according to Kuhn
(accuracy, consistency, broad scope, simplicity, fruitfulness). What does Kuhn argue
about these criteria?
A) They are sufficient rules for choosing between competing theories.
B) They are objective, universal norms that guarantee rational theory choice.
C) They are values that may conflict and require subjective judgment in their
application, contributing to different conclusions among scientists.
D) They are only applicable during periods of normal science, not revolution.
E) A & D.
39. How does Kuhn's view of scientific progress differ from the cumulative model often
associated with the Received View?
A) Kuhn sees progress as occurring through revolutionary paradigm shifts rather than
continuous accumulation of knowledge.
B) Kuhn emphasizes quantitative growth in science, while the Received View
emphasizes qualitative growth.
C) Kuhn argues that scientific progress leads to getting closer to the truth, while the
 Received View rejects this notion.
D) Kuhn sees progress as primarily problem-solving within paradigms, not
necessarily moving towards growth or truth in an absolute sense.
E) A & D.
40. What is the "Kuhn-loss" that can occur during a paradigm shift?
A) The loss of empirical data accumulated during the previous paradigm.
B) The loss of explanatory power in the new paradigm.
C) The loss of some knowledge or problem-solving abilities from the old paradigm
that are not transferred to the new one due to incommensurability.
D) The loss of objectivity in scientific inquiry.
E) The loss of funding for research that doesn't fit the new paradigm.
41. According to the sources, what is a key characteristic of Scientific Anarchism,
associated with Paul Feyerabend?
A) It asserts that there is a single, universal scientific method that guarantees
objectivity.
B) It challenges the idea of a single scientific method and argues that science has no
special features making it intrinsically superior to other forms of knowledge,
suggesting "anything goes."
C) It argues for strict methodological constraints to ensure scientific rigor.
D) It believes that choices between scientific theories are guided solely by objective
criteria.
E) A & C.
42. Feyerabend's "anything goes" principle is presented as a response to perceived
problems in other philosophies of science. What is one reason cited in the sources
for this principle?
A) The success of induction as the sole scientific method.
B) The inability of other methodologies (like falsificationism) to provide a definitive
account of scientific method without significant problems.
C) The necessity of adhering to a specific statistical approach in research.
D) The belief that subjective values should play no role in scientific inquiry.
E) All of the above.
43. What is the "Strong Program" in the Sociology of Knowledge (SSK), as described in
the sources?
A) A program that seeks to provide philosophical justification for scientific knowledge.
B) A program that studies science as a social phenomenon and aims to provide a
causal account of the creation of scientific knowledge, treating true and false beliefs
symmetrically.
C) A program that focuses on the internal reasons for holding scientific theories, such
as experimental success.
D) A program that asserts the objectivity of reality is independent of human beliefs.
E) A & C.
44. Which of the following is a requirement for the Strong Program in SSK?
A) Causality: examining the conditions that bring about knowledge claims.
B) Impartiality: studying true and false knowledge claims in the same manner.
C) Reflexivity: applying the program's principles to sociology itself.
D) Symmetry: treating success and failure, truth and falsity, with the same causal
framework.
E) All of the above.
45. According to the sources, what is a key criticism of the Strong Program in SSK?
A) It relies too heavily on experimental data.
B) It ignores the social component of knowledge.
C) It treats logic as a custom or convention and ignores the justification of beliefs,
focusing only on their causes.
D) It fails to provide a causal account of knowledge.
E) It makes reality dependent on epistemology, which clashes with relativism.
46. The sources discuss the debate between realism and anti-realism. What is a central
tenet of Scientific Realism?
A) Science does not necessarily aim to uncover truth about unobservable reality.
B) Scientific theories are tools for organizing experience, not mirrors of nature.
C) Science aims to discover the truth about both observable and unobservable
aspects of the world, and successful theories are likely true or approximately true
descriptions of a mind-independent reality.
D) Only observable entities are considered real.
E) The success of a theory does not prove its truth.
47. What is "Structural Realism," as presented in the sources?
A) A form of anti-realism that denies the existence of unobservable entities.
B) A position that emphasizes the mathematical structures or patterns in scientific
theories as being true, even if the theories are wrong about the nature of specific
unobservables.
C) The view that scientific theories are merely useful instruments for prediction.
D) The belief that reality is dependent on the conceptual framework of the observer.
E) A & C.
48. What is a common argument made by anti-realists against scientific realism,
according to the sources?
A) Scientific theories are too simple to accurately describe reality.
B) The success of a scientific theory does not prove its truth; it might just be
empirically adequate or adaptive.
C) Idealized models in science show that theories are accurate descriptions of reality.
D) Believing in unobservable entities involves low metaphysical risk.
E) B & D.
49. The D-N model (Deductive-Nomological) and the I-S model (Inductive-Statistical) are
two types of scientific explanations discussed in the sources. What is a key
difference between their structures?
A) The D-N model uses statistical laws, while the I-S model uses universal laws.
B) The D-N model is deductive, while the I-S model is inductive.
C) The D-N model aims for high probability, while the I-S model requires certainty.
D) The D-N model applies to social sciences only, and the I-S model to natural
sciences only.
E) Both are inductive.
50. According to the sources, what is the "common cause problem" often associated with
the I-S model or statistical relevance models (S-R)?
A) The difficulty in satisfying the requirement of maximal specificity.
B) The confusion of correlation and causation.
C) The problem of ambiguity stemming from statistical laws.
 D) The challenge of explaining events that are not highly probable.
E) All of the above.

51. The sources mention that the D-N model is useful for physics, biology, and chemistry.
Which field is the I-S model suggested as being more fitting for, and why?
A) Psychology, because it involves behavior and cultural rules.
B) History, because it focuses on storytelling and context, and the I-S model is more
flexible than applying universal laws.
C) Physics, because it is based on explanations and causes behind events.
D) Biology, because it deals with statistical laws.
E) None of the above.

52. What is a "scientific explanation" according to the definition provided in the sources?
A) A statement that describes a relationship between events where one event is
responsible for another.
B) A method of explaining a phenomenon using a general law or principle that can be
tested by experiment or observation, providing a systemic and coherent account of
why an event occurred.
C) A description of patterns or regularities in the world under certain conditions.
D) A deductive argument where the explanandum is the conclusion and the
explanans are the premises.
E) B & D.

53. The sources discuss different ways to interpret social science. What is "Holism"?
A) The view that social phenomena can be best understood by analyzing individual
actions.
B) The perspective that emphasizes the interconnectedness of elements within a
larger system, where individual components cannot be understood in isolation.
C) The idea that social practices are like games with their own rules.
D) The belief that society arises from the actions and choices of individuals.
E) None of the above.

54. What does the term "determinism" mean in the context of philosophy of science, as
defined in the sources?
A) The view that human actions are entirely free and uncaused.
B) The doctrine that everything that happens in the universe is completely
determined by prior conditions.
C) The belief that scientific laws are merely statistical regularities.
D) The idea that social structures determine individual actions.
E) B & D.

55. According to the sources, what is the core criticism raised by "Critical Theory"
regarding the application of natural scientific methodology to social science?
A) It ignores the objective reality of social structures.
B) It is impossible to find universal laws of human behavior.
C) The attempt to model social sciences on natural sciences is seen as dangerous
and immoral because it can lead to the prediction and control of human behavior,
threatening autonomy and potentially maintaining the status quo of unjust institutions.
D) It relies too heavily on qualitative methods.
 E) A & B.

56. What is Popper's view on the justification of induction, as presented in the sources?
A) Induction can be rationally justified by appealing to a large number of successful
past experiences.
B) Induction is a logical inference that proceeds from singular statements to universal
statements.
C) Induction cannot be logically or rationally justified, and all laws and theories must
be regarded as hypothetical or conjectural.
D) The problem of induction is merely psychological, not logical.
E) A probabilistic version of induction solves Hume's problem.

57. Popper introduces the concept of "corroboration." What does corroboration

measure? A) The probability that a theory is true based on confirming instances.
B) The degree to which a theory has been verified by observation and experiment.
C) An evaluation report of a theory's past performance in standing up to severe tests,
which does not imply anything about its future performance or truth.
D) The number of confirming instances a theory has accumulated.
E) The subjective belief of scientists in the truth of a theory.

58. According to Popper's "Epistemology without a Knowing Subject," what constitutes

"objective knowledge" and belongs to the "third world"?
A) States of consciousness and mental processes.
B) Physical objects and states.
C) Objective contents of thought, such as scientific problems, theories, arguments,
books, and journals.
D) Subjective beliefs and experiences.
E) The process of thinking itself.

59. What is a key argument for the autonomy of Popper's "third world"?
A) It exists only in the minds of individuals.
B) Its entities, like mathematical sequences or problems, can exist and generate
consequences independently of whether any individual is thinking about them or has
grasped them.
C) It is entirely determined by the physical world.
D) It is reducible to subjective states of consciousness.
E) A & C.

60. The sources present criticisms of basic falsificationism. One criticism mentioned is
related to "major theory changes" (like the Copernican revolution). What is this
criticism?
A) Falsificationism would have prevented the development of theories that are now
accepted as the best, because these theories were falsified in their infancy.
B) Basic falsificationism encourages scientists to be too dogmatic.
C) Basic falsificationism cannot distinguish between scientific and non-scientific
falsifications.
D) A & C.
E) B & C.

61. What is the "hard core" in Lakatos's concept of a "research program"?

A) The set of auxiliary hypotheses that are constantly tested and modified.
 B) The fundamental principles that are unfalsifiable by the methodology of its
supporters.
C) The observational data that confirms the research program.
D) The set of anomalies that challenge the program.
E) The subjective beliefs of the scientists involved in the program.

62. According to the sources, what is one difference between Kuhn's and Lakatos's
views on scientific progress?
A) Kuhn sees progress as linear and cumulative, while Lakatos sees it as
revolutionary. B) Kuhn sees progress primarily as problem-solving within paradigms,
while Lakatos focuses on the progress of research programs as being either
progressive or degenerating.
C) Kuhn emphasizes the role of objective criteria in theory choice, while Lakatos
emphasizes subjective values.
D) Lakatos accepts the notion of incommensurability, while Kuhn rejects it.
E) None of the above; their views are largely identical.

63. What is the core idea behind the Statistical Relevance (S-R) Model of Explanation,
as described in the sources?
A) It explains particular occurrences by deducing them from statistical laws.
B) It constructs explanations as arguments that render the explanandum highly
probable.
C) It focuses on statistical relevance between explanans and explanandum, rather
than high probability, and does not necessarily construct explanations as arguments.
D) It aims to identify necessary causal connections between events.
E) A & D.

64. The S-R model is criticized in the sources for a fundamental inadequacy. What is it?
A) It requires a high probability for the explanandum.
B) It fails to satisfy the requirement of maximal specificity.
C) It focuses on statistical relevance rather than causal relevance, potentially
confusing cause and correlation.
D) It cannot explain events that are highly improbable.
E) All of the above.

65. The sources discuss different types of scientific explanation. Which type is built as a
deductive argument where the explanandum is a logical consequence of the
explanans, which must contain at least one general law and have empirical content?
A) Inductive-Statistical (I-S)
B) Deductive-Statistical (D-S)
C) Deductive-Nomological (D-N) D) Statistical Relevance (S-R)
E) Causal Explanation (when not understood as D-N)

66. What is an "ideal explanatory text" according to Peter Railton's distinction mentioned
in the sources? A) A concise summary of a scientific explanation. B) The knowledge
provided to fill in some aspect of a complete explanation for an audience. C) A text
containing all the facts, laws, causal connections, and hidden mechanisms relevant
to an explanandum fact. D) An explanation that is both deductive and inductive. E) C
& D.
67. According to the sources, the idea that scientific knowledge is derived from facts and
built by accepting those facts and fitting theory to them is associated with which
philosophies? A) Falsificationism and Structural Realism. B) Empiricism and
Positivism. C) Constructive Empiricism and Instrumentalism. D) Social
Constructivism and Relativism. E) Kuhn's paradigm theory and Lakatos's research
programs.

68. What is a key difficulty mentioned regarding the claim that facts are prior to and
independent of theory? A) Theories are logically deduced from facts. B) Observation
statements (facts) are knowledge-dependent in their formulation. C) Experimental
results are straightforwardly given via the senses. D) Facts are infallible and not
subject to correction. E) B & D.

69. The sources discuss the active nature of observation. Which of the following is an
example of activity involved in observation? A) Simply letting information flow in
without conscious activity. B) Moving one's head or touching an object to better
perceive it. C) Accepting observation statements without question. D) Relying solely
on subjective aspects of perception. E) A & C.

70. What contributes to "objectifying" observations in science, according to the sources?

A) Minimizing the reliance on perceptual judgments by arranging the observable
situation. B) Ensuring consistency and repeatability of measurements. C) Ensuring
compatibility with certain assumptions. D) Making observations public so they can be
checked by others. E) All of the above.

71. According to the sources, why are experimental results not easy to obtain? A) They
are straightforwardly given via the senses. B) They are always infallible and
universally accepted. C) They are interrelated with theory and fallible, requiring
judgments of adequacy, appropriateness, and significance based on the theoretical
situation. D) They are independent of any prior knowledge. E) They can never be
replicated.

72. What is a key problem with appealing to experience to justify the principle of
induction, as pointed out by Hume and discussed in the sources? A) Experience
shows that induction often fails. B) The argument that induction has worked in the
past is itself an inductive argument, leading to a circular justification. C) Experience is
subjective and cannot provide an objective basis for induction. D) Experience can
only justify singular statements, not universal laws. E) None of the above.

73. What is the "fallacy of affirming the consequent"? A) P implies Q; Q is true; therefore
P is true. B) P implies Q; P is true; therefore Q is true. C) P implies Q; Q is false;
therefore P is false. D) P implies Q; P is false; therefore Q is false. E) P implies Q; Q
is true; therefore P is false.

74. According to Hempel, what is the purpose of explanatory facts in a nomological

explanation? A) To provide subjective understanding of a phenomenon. B) To
describe the phenomenon to be explained. C) To account for the phenomenon by
referring to general laws or theoretical principles. D) To justify belief in the occurrence
of the phenomenon. E) C & D.
75. What is the main problem with the Syphilis/Paresis example as a potential counter-
argument to Hempel's explanation/prediction symmetry thesis? A) Syphilis is not a
cause of paresis. B) The explanation fails because the condition cited (syphilis) is a
necessary condition but does not make the outcome (paresis) highly probable, and
Hempel argues such accounts are not proper explanations either. C) The example
involves a prediction, not an explanation. D) The example is not based on a general
law. E) None of the above.

76. According to the sources, what is a key difference between natural science and
social science in terms of their focus? A) Natural science focuses on human behavior
and social organizations, while social science focuses on the physical world and its
laws. B) Natural science focuses on measurable and observable phenomena in the
physical world, while social science focuses on human behavior, social organizations,
cultural norms, and understanding the meaning behind actions (including non-
observable mental states). C) Natural science relies solely on quantitative methods,
while social science relies solely on qualitative methods. D) Natural science aims to
interpret mental states, while social science aims to uncover laws of nature. E) A & C.

77. Why is psychology suggested as a field for which neither the D-N nor the I-S model is
particularly good, according to the sources? A) It is more involved in behavior and
cultural rules than prediction and causation. B) It is more based on observations and
patterns that don't fit universal or simple statistical laws. C) It deals with subjective
mental states that cannot be explained nomologically. D) A & B. E) All of the above.

78. The sources discuss different interpretations of social science. What is the "Games"
approach? A) It sees society as a system explained by causal laws. B) It focuses on
understanding the meanings behind actions, looking at social practices as games
with rules that guide and are interpreted by people. C) It views social phenomena as
reducible to individual actions and motivations. D) It emphasizes the prediction of
human behavior based on observed regularities. E) A & C.

79. According to Karl Popper's view, as discussed in the sources, what is the relationship
between history and prediction? A) History follows set laws, allowing for precise
predictions of the future course of human society (Historicism). B) History is shaped
by human knowledge, which changes unpredictably, making long-term predictions in
social science impossible (Popper's paradox). C) Organized complexity allows for
prediction in social science based on historical patterns. D) Predictions in social
science are only possible for closed systems, and history is a closed system. E) A &
C.

80. What is "Organized complexity" as mentioned in the sources in the context of social
science predictions? A) Complexity arising from random, unrelated factors. B)
Properties of structures depending not only on individual elements but also on how
they are interconnected, making measurement and prediction difficult. C) Complexity
that can be easily reduced to universal laws. D) Complexity found only in natural
science, not social science. E) A & C.

81. According to the sources, what is one reason why people might not trust science?
(Note: This is from the Tutorial 10 learning goals, the details for this are not fully
elaborated in the provided text but the question itself is a learning goal). A) Science is
based on opinions rather than facts. B) Science is objective and discredits personal
 beliefs. C) The sources do not provide reasons why people might not trust science,
only that it is a learning goal. D) Science is irrational and based on emotions. E)
Science is not derived from facts of experience.

82. According to the sources, what is the definition of philosophy? A) The pursuit of
objective facts through empirical methods. B) A systematic and empirical approach to
acquiring knowledge about the natural world. C) The study of fundamental questions
about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language through critical and
systematic inquiry. D) The academic discipline that studies human societies and
social relationships. E) C & D.

83. What is the relationship between philosophy and science, as described in the
sources? A) Philosophy is an outdated discipline with no relevance to modern
science. B) Philosophy seeks to provide conceptual clarifications and contributes to
the critique of scientific assumptions, sharing tools and methods like logic and
conceptual analysis with science. C) Science provides the empirical facts upon which
philosophy is based. D) Philosophy and science are entirely distinct and incompatible
forms of inquiry. E) B & C.

84. The sources mention several forms of anti-realism. Which one argues that the goal of
science is to produce empirically adequate theories, meaning theories that correctly
describe observable phenomena, without claiming truth about unobservable entities?
A) Instrumentalism B) Positivism (in the sense of rejecting metaphysical claims) C)
Structural Realism D) Conjectural Realism E) Constructive Empiricism

85. What is a key criticism of the I-S pattern of scientific explanation, as discussed in the
sources? A) It requires explanations to be deductive arguments. B) A high probability
for the explanandum is not sufficient, and sometimes not necessary, for a correct
explanation. C) It fails to satisfy the requirement of maximal specificity. D) It cannot
explain events with low probability. E) A & C.

86. According to the sources, what is the core disagreement between realists and anti-
realists regarding scientific theories? A) Whether scientific theories are consistent. B)
Whether scientific theories should be simple. C) Whether successful scientific
theories should be interpreted as true or approximately true descriptions of a mind-
independent reality, or merely as useful tools for organizing observations. D) Whether
scientific theories are falsifiable. E) C & D.

87. What is the primary reason, mentioned in the sources, why Galileo's case for the
veracity of his telescopic observations was strengthened? A) Because they were
consistent with established theories. B) Because they were accepted by all other
observers. C) Because his claims could survive a range of practical, objective tests.
D) Because they were logically deduced from known principles. E) None of the
above.

88. According to the sources, what happens when difficulties (anomalies) within a
paradigm "get out of hand" in Kuhn's view? A) Normal science continues unaffected.
B) The paradigm is immediately rejected. C) A crisis state develops, characterized by
professional insecurity. D) Scientists stop doing research. E) A new paradigm is
automatically adopted.
89. What does Kuhn mean when he says normal scientists must be "uncritical of the
paradigm"? A) They should never question the fundamental assumptions of the
paradigm. B) They should presuppose that the paradigm provides the means for
solving the puzzles they work on. C) They should avoid trying to falsify the paradigm.
D) A & B. E) All of the above

90. The sources mention that, for falsificationists, the value of a confirmation depends on
its quality. What constitutes a "severe test" or a "radical confirmation"? A) Confirming
an expected outcome from a cautious theory. B) Confirming an outcome that is highly
probable given the background knowledge. C) Confirming a bold conjecture whose
claims are unlikely in light of the background knowledge. D) Confirming an outcome
that was predicted using inductive reasoning. E) B & D.

91. What is the significance of "argumentative language" in Popper's view of the growth
of knowledge (World 3)? A) It allows for the accumulation of confirming instances. B)
It is the main instrument of further growth through systematic rational criticism and
error elimination. C) It allows for induction from observed facts. D) It provides a
secure foundation for scientific knowledge. E) A & C.

92. According to the sources, what is a fundamental difference between universal laws
and statistical laws, particularly highlighted by the problem of ambiguity in I-S
explanations? A) Universal laws are always true, while statistical laws are not. B)
Universal laws can be logically deduced from finite evidence, while statistical laws
cannot. C) Mutually compatible premises based on universal laws cannot lead to
contradictory conclusions, unlike premises based on statistical laws. D) Universal
laws support counterfactuals, while statistical laws do not. E) A & D.

93. The sources briefly mention different perspectives on the "point of philosophy of
science." Which of the following is suggested as a purpose of philosophy of science?
A) Providing definitive answers to all scientific questions. B) Telling scientists exactly
which methods to use. C) Providing conceptual clarity, examining foundational
assumptions, guiding scientific methodology, and offering a way of critically thinking
about what qualifies as science, how it works, and its reliability. D) Replacing
scientific inquiry with philosophical speculation. E) C & D

94. What is a core idea of Interpretivism in the philosophy of social science? A) Social
phenomena should be explained by causal laws like in natural science. B) The social
world must be understood from within, focusing on the meanings and intentions of
actors, which are logically inseparable from their actions. C) Social structures
determine human behavior. D) Prediction is the primary goal of social science. E) A &
C

95. According to the sources, what does Wittgenstein's idea of "forms of life" imply
regarding understanding other societies? A) All societies operate based on universal,
innate rules. B) Understanding other societies is impossible due to
incommensurability. C) Understanding is made possible by recognizing common
behaviors of mankind as a point of reference, even though specific institutions and
expressions of basic needs vary considerably between societies. D) Rules and
meaning are entirely private and subjective. E) A & B.
 96. The sources discuss Wittgenstein's view on rules and meaning. What is a key point?
A) Meaning is derived from private mental events. B) What is unverifiable is
meaningless, and public criteria are the basis of meaningfulness and rule-governed
activities. C) Rules are entirely independent of social practices. D) Language exists
independently of social agreement. E) A & C.

97. The sources mention the distinction between "constitutive rules" and "regulative
rules" using the analogy of a game. What is the difference? A) Constitutive rules
govern choice among legitimate moves, while regulative rules create the game by
defining its purposes and legitimate moves. B) Breaking constitutive rules means one
is not playing the game at all, while breaking regulative rules means one is not
playing it well. C) Constitutive rules are subjective, while regulative rules are
objective. D) A & C. E) B & C.

98. According to the sources, which view of scientific change suggests that the
prescription of one method could hamper science and that the spectrum of methods
is much broader, even suggesting "anything goes"? A) The Received View
(Empiricism/Positivism) B) Falsificationism (Popper) C) Kuhnian Paradigm Theory D)
Feyerabend's Scientific Anarchism E) Lakatos's Research Programs

99. According to the sources, what is the "Requirement of Maximal Specificity"

introduced by Hempel for I-S explanations? A) The explanation must be a deductive
argument. B) All information provided by background knowledge that is of potential
explanatory relevance to the explanandum should be taken into account. C) The
explanandum must have a high probability. D) Only causal factors should be included
in the explanans. E) A & D.

100. The sources discuss the role of theory in observation. Which statement
accurately reflects the relationship described? A) Observation is entirely independent
of theory. B) What we see depends on the state of our minds and brains, and
competent observation in science requires learning, implying observation is guided
by theory and knowledge. C) Theory is logically deduced from unbiased observation
statements. D) Subjective aspects of perception make objective observation
impossible in science. E) A & C.

Follow up
Can you explain Popper's falsification further?
How do Kuhn's paradigms affect scientific progress?
What are the Strong Program's main critiques?