Physics Lab Manual CO3

Name of the Experiment: To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton's ring
experiment

Virtual Lab Link: http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=189&sim=335&cnt=1

Apparatus Required:
A plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical arrangement for Newton’s rings, plane
glass plate, sodium lamp and traveling microscope

Formula Used:
The wavelength λ of light is given by the formula:
𝑫𝟐𝒏+𝒑 − 𝑫𝟐𝒏
𝝀=
𝟒𝒑𝑹
th
Where,𝐷𝑛+𝑝 is the diameter of (n + p) ring,
𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of nth ring,
𝑝 is an integer number (of the rings),
R is the radius of curvature of the curved face of the plano-convex lens.

Theory:
Newton's rings is a phenomenon in which an interference pattern is created by the reflection of
light between two surfaces, typically a spherical surface and an adjacent touching flat surface.
Figure 1 shows an experimental arrangement for producing and observing Newton’s rings.

Fig. 1 Newtons ring experiment

The light from a monochromatic source (sodium lamp) is allowed to pass through a broad slit
and we obtain nearly parallel beam. Now it falls on a glass plate inclined at an angle 45˚ to the
vertical, thus the parallel beam is reflected from the lower surface. Due to the thin air film
formed by a glass plate(G2) and a plano-convex lens(L) of large radius of curvature, the two
sources are produced due to division by amplitude method( light reflected from upper and lower
surface of thin film) and leads to interference phenomena . The interference fringes are formed
which are observed directly through a traveling microscope. The rings are concentric circles in
nature.

Procedure:
i. Before starting the experiment, the glass plate G1 and G2 and the plano convex lens
should be thoroughly cleaned.
ii. The centre of the lens L is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G1
at 45˚.
iii. Focus the eyepiece on the cross-wire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by
means of rack and pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct.
iv. According to the theory, the centre of the interference fringes should be dark but
sometimes the centre appears white. This is due to the presence of dust particles between
glass plate G2 and plano-convex lens L. In this case, the lens should be again cleaned.
v. Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes/rings. Set the
cross-wire on the 15th ring (say) on the left from the central ring, and note down the
reading. Again, the microscope is moved in the horizontal plane and the cross-wire is
fixed tangentially to the 12thring(say) on the left from central ring and the readings are
noted down.
vi. Likewise, the readings are taken after every 3 rings like 12th, 9th, 6th, 3rd and so on. Once
the central dark is reached, we repeat the same procedure for taking down the readings on
the right side like 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th and so on.

Observations:
• Value of one division of the main scale = 0.05 cm
• No of divisions on the vernier scale = 50
• Least Count of the microscope = 0.001 cm
• Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens, R = 20 cm

Table for the determination of (D2n + p - D2n)

Micrometer Reading
No of Diameter D2 (D2n + p - D2n) Mean
Left End Right End
the D=(a-b) mm2 mm2 mm2 p
a (mm) b (mm)
rings M.S.R C.S.R TOT M.S.R C.S.R TOT
mm

3
6
3
9
12
15
Calculations:
The wavelength of sodium light is given by:
2 −𝐷2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 𝑛
𝜆= = …….….. Å
4𝑝𝑅

The value of (D2n + p - D2n) can also be obtained using a graph as shown in fig below. The graph
is plotted in Fig.2 between the square of diameter of the ring along Y-axis and corresponding
number of rings along X-axis.

Figure 2. The Plot between the diameter of ring and number of rings

𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
From graph, the wavelength of sodium light will be 𝜆 =
4𝑅

Result:
The mean wavelength λ of sodium light = …….….. Å

s tan dard − calculated

Percentage error =  100
s tan dard
= ………%

Precautions & Sources of Error:

i. Glass plate and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.
ii. The source of light used should be an extended one.
iii. The cross-wire should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
iv. Before measuring the diameter of rings, the range of the microscope should be properly
adjusted.
 Physics Lab Manual CO3
Name of the Experiment: To determine the wavelength of different spectral lines of mercury
light using plane transmission grating.
Virtual Lab Link: http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=281&sim=334&cnt=1
Apparatus:
A diffraction grating, spectrometer, white light source, grating holder, reading lens

Diagram:

Fig: Diffraction Grating Apparatus

Formula Used:
The wavelength , of any spectral line can be calculated by the formula:

(a+b) sin  = n ………. (1)

(a + b) sin 
=
n
.……... (2)

Where, (a+b) : grating element

 : angle of diffraction
n : order of the spectrum
n = 1 for 1st order spectrum
= 2 for 2nd order spectrum
(Here we are observing only first order spectrum)
Procedure:

a) Adjustments
Before using the spectrometer, the following adjustments should be made
1. Focus the telescope on a distant object.
2. Without disturbing the telescope, adjust the slit of collimator to get a sharp and bright
light.
3. Focusing of the collimator should be done without disturbing the focusing of the
telescope.
4. Level the prism table with the help of spirit level and using the three screws which
support the prism table.
5. The Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the slit is focused on
the vertical cross-wire of the spectrometer. Make the slit as narrow as possible.

b) Determination of angles of diffraction

1. Note the least count of the two vernier scales.
2. Set the grating on the prism table at 900 to the direction of incident rays and obtain the
direct image of the slit. The image of the slit should be seen from telescope through
collimator.
3. Rotate the telescope to the left side of the direct image and adjust the different spectral
lines (violet, green and red) turn-by-turn on the vertical cross-wire for 1st order. Note
down the readings of both the verniers in each setting.
4. Rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the above procedure for 1 st
order.
5. For observations and calculations see the tables given below and find the difference
between V1 (left) and V1 (right); V2 (left) and V2 (right) for each spectral colour. This
difference gives the value ‘2’. The half of it will be the angle of diffraction for a
particular colour
V1 (left) – V1 (right) = 2
V2 (left) – V2 (right) = 2

Observations:

a) No. of rulings per inch on the grating,

N = 15,000 lines per inch
b) Grating element
(a+b) = (1/N) inch
2.54
or (a + b) = = -------/cm
N
Value of one div. on Main Scale
c) Least count of the spectrometer =
No. of divisions on Vernier Scale
1 main scale division = (½)̊
No. of divisions on Vernier scale = 60
Least Count of spectrometer = (½) ̊/60 = 30
 Determination of angles of diffraction

Mean
Spectrum of light 
Color Kind of When the telescope is left When the telescope is Right 2 Mean (degree)
of light Vernier side from direct image side from the direct image = |(c-d)| 2
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total (degree) (degree)
Reading Reading (c) reading reading (d)
V1
Violet 2v v
V2
V1
Green 2g g
V2
V1
Yellow 2y y
V2

Calculations:
Grating element (a + b) = ………………cm

 = (a + b) Sin for n=1 (1st order spectrum)

violet = (a + b) sin v= …………………… Å

green = (a + b) sing = …………………… Å
yellow = (a + b) sin y=.…………………. Å

Standard values
violet = 4358 Å
green = 5461 Å
yellow = 5798 Å

Result:
The observed valves of of various colour of white light is
yellow = (……………..) Å
violet = (……………..) Å
green = (……………..) Å
s tan dard − calculated
Percentage error =  100
s tan dard
= ……..%
Source of error and precautions:
i) Before performing the experiment, the spectrometer should be properly adjusted.
ii) Grating surface should not be touched by fingers
iii) While taking observations, telescope and prism table should be kept fixed
 Physics Lab Manual CO3
Name of the Experiment: To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution using
polarimeter.

Virtual Lab Link: https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/cane-sugar-rotation/

Apparatus:-

1. Polarimeter
2. A physical balance and Weighing Box
3. Measuring cylinder, and 100 cc measuring flask
4. Beaker
5. Source of light (Sodium lamp)
6. Cane Sugar

Diagram: -

Theory & Formula used: -

The optical activity of a substance is measured by its specific rotation. The specific rotation at a
given temperature ‘T’ and for a given wave length of light ‘  ’ is defined as, ‘rotation (in degree)
produced by a path of one decimeter length of the solution when its concentration is 1 gm /cc’.

If  is the rotation produced by l decimeter length of a solution of concentration ‘c’ gm /cc, then
the specific rotation ‘S’ at a given temperature ‘T’ and for a given wavelength of light ‘  ’is
given by

  V
S= =
C  m

Where
 = rotation produced in degree
l = length of the tube in decimeters
m = mass of sugar in grams dissolved in water
V = volume of sugar solution in cc.
Procedure: -
(i) To prepare a sugar solution of concentration 20%, take 20 gm of sugar and dissolve it in a
measuring flask with 60-70 ml (or less than 100 ml) of water. When sugar is completely
dissolved in water then add more water into the flask up to 100 ml mark of the flask.
(ii) Filter the sugar solution to remove the unwanted dust particles.
(iii) The solution prepared by the above method is called sugar solution of 20% concentration.
(iv) With the help of the above procedure one can prepare sugar solutions of different
concentrations like 10%, 5% etc. by adding more water.
(v) Measure the least count of Vernier scale attached with the analyzer of the polarimeter.
(vi) Clean the polarimeter tube and its ends.
(vii) Fill the distilled water in the polarimeter tube such that no air bubble is enclosed within it.
(viii) Place the polarimeter tube in the polarimeter horizontally as shown in figure.
(ix) Place the polarimeter in front of the light source and focus it well on both the halves of the
half shade device. Both halves may look of different intensity.
(x) Rotate the analyzer slowly clockwise till the two halves appear equally dark. Record this
position of analyzer with the help of attached scale.
(xi) Now rotate the analyzer in the same direction till the two halves once again appear equally
dark and record this position again.
(xii) Remove the water from polarimeter tube and rinse it with the sugar solution. Then, fill the
tube with this solution and repeat the procedures from vii to xi.
(xiii) Obtain the angle of rotations according to the observation table.
(xiv) Measure the length of the tube in centimeters and convert it into decimeters.

Observations: -

A) Preparation of sugar solution

Mass of sugar taken (m) = ……. gm
Volume of the Sol. (V) = ………… cc
Concentration of the solution (c) = ………. gm/cc

B) Length of polarimeter tube ‘l’ = ……. decimeter

Room temperature = …………… 0 C

C) Table for the specific rotation

Value of one division of main scale = …………
No. of division of Vernier scale = …………
Least count of Vernier scale = …………..
 Observation Table: -

Analyzer reading with distilled Mean Concent- Analyzer reading with sugar sol. Mean =
1 = ration (C) of 2 =
water x+y solution x'+y' 1 -2
Clockwise Anti-clockwise 2 gm/cc Clockwise Anti-clockwise 2 (deg.)
M.S V.S Total M.S. V.S. Total (degree) M.S V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total (degree)
. x y x' y'
(deg.) (deg.) (deg.) (deg.)

Calculations: -
For a particular concentration (C)


S= = ……….. 0
/dm/gm/cc
C l
Result: -
The specific rotation ‘S’ for cane sugar at a temperature …. 0C is

= ………….. 0/dm/gm/cc

Standard value of ‘S’ = …………... 0/dm/gm/cc

𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆− 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

Percentage error =
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

= --------------%

Sources of error and precautions: -

1. The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.

2. Water used should be dust free.
3. Whenever a solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under examination.
4. There should be no air bubble inside the tube.
5. The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
6. Reading should be taken when the two halves of the field of view become equally dark.
 Physics Lab Manual CO3
Name of the Experiment: To determine the focal length of the combination of two lenses
separated by a distance and verify the formula for the focal length of combination of lenses.
Virtual Lab Link: https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/focal-length-measurement/
Apparatus Required: Two convex lenses of different focal length and an optical bench
with four uprights; a lamp of narrow opening, a cross‐slit screen, nodal slide assembly and
a plane mirror.
Formula Used:
The focal length of a combination of two convex lenses is given by,
1 1 1 d
'
= + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

Where, f1 and f2 are the focal lengths of two convex lenses separately and d is the distance
between them, when they form combination of lenses.
Procedure:
•Mount a plane mirror, the nodal slide, the cross‐slit screen holder and the lamp on the
optical bench in such a way that their axis lies along the same horizontal line as
illustrated in Figure 1.
• Clamp one convex lens on the lens carriage at the centre of the nodal slide assembly.
Adjust the position of the nodal slide until the distance between the lens and screen is
approximately the focal length of the lens. Orient the mirror until the light from the
object O on the screen, rendered parallel by the lens, is reflected back normally and
forms an image I of the object O on the same screen. Move the nodal slide along the
bench until the image I is sharply focused.
• The lens carriage is now rotated through a small angle and it will be found that the
image shifts sideward to the right or the left. The lens carriage and the nodal slide
upright are then adjusted such that the image remains stationary for a slight rotation of
the lens carriage.
• The distance between the screen and the axis of the rotation of nodal slide for no shift
in the image measures the focal length of one face of the lens. The focal length of other
 face can be determined by the turning the nodal slide through 180° and repeating the
experiment. The mean of focal length of both the faces is the focal length f1 of one lens.
• Repeat the above procedure with the other lens and determine the focal length f2.
• Now clamp both the lenses on the lens carriage at a known separation (d) in such a
way that both the lenses are at equidistant from the centre of the nodal slide assembly,
shown in Figure 2.
• Repeat the procedure with the combination of two lenses and determine the focal
length F.
• The procedure is repeated at least three times with changing the distance between
the lenses.

Figure 1: Experimental arrangement to observe focal length f1 or f2 of any one convex lens.

Figure 2: Experimental arrangement to observe focal length F of combination of two

lenses.
 Observations:
(i) Table for determination of focal length f1 and f2 of two convex lenses:
Position of Lamp = ……... cm
Table 1
Light Position of Upright of
incident on (in cm) Focal Length of
Lens Mean focal
Cross-slit(a) Nodal lens=(b-a)
length in cm
slide(b)
First One face
f1 =
Other face

One face
Second f2 =
Other face

(ii) Table for determination of focal length F of combination of two convex lenses:
Position of Lamp = ……... cm
Table 2
Sr. Distance Light Position of Upright of
No. between two incident on (in cm) Focal Length of
Mean focal
lenses d, in lens=(b-a)
Cross-slit(a) Nodal slide length in cm
cm (b)
1 One face
d1 = F1 =
Other face

2 One face
d2 = F2 =
Other face

One face
3 d3= F3 =
Other face
Calculation:
Theoretically, the focal length of a combination of two convex lenses is given by,
1 1 1 d
'
= + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

Where, f1 and f 2 are the focal lengths of two convex lenses and d is the distance between
them. Hence, calculate the value of focal length for different distances using above formula.
Distance Observed focal Length Calculated focal
between two From Table 2 length error
lenses d, in cm
d1 = F1 = F1' =
d2 = F2 = F2' =

d3= F3 = F3' =

Result: The values of calculated and observed focal lengths of combination of two lenses
for each separation are matching nearly. Hence the expression for the focal length of a
combination of two convex lenses is verified.

Precautions and Sources of Errors:

(1) The parallax should be removed very carefully and the stationary point is obtained.
(2) All the uprights should be exactly at same height and at same horizontal axis.
(3) The cross‐slit must be properly illuminated by the intense light coming from the lamp.
(4) The rotation of the nodal slide carriage about the vertical axis while testing stationary
point of the image should not exceed by 5° or so.
(5) Lenses should be of small aperture to get well defined and sharp image on the screen.
(6) The mirror employed must be truly plane mirror
 Physics Lab Manual CO3
Name of the Experiment: To determine the wavelength of a given Laser source using single
slit and diffraction grating.

Virtual Lab Link: http://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php/index.php?sub=1&brch=189&sim=334&cnt=1

Apparatus:
Laser Source, single slit of known width, grating of known grating element, optical
bench, laser holder, screen and meter scale.
Diagram:


O 2Xm

LASER
Grating
or
Single Slit
D

Screen
Formula Used:
(i) Single Slit: The condition for minima for single slit diffraction is

𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀 (1)
Here, ‘a’ is the width of the slit, ‘θ’ is angle of diffraction, λ is the wavelength of the light
used and n=1 for first minima on both side of principal maxima.

(ii) Diffraction Grating: The condition for getting principal maxima for Grating spectra is

(𝐚 + 𝐛) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐧 (2)
Here, ‘(a+b)’ is the grating element, ‘θ’ is angle of diffraction and n = 1 for the order of
diffraction.

The angle of diffraction ‘θ’ in both the cases can be calculated by using the formula
 Xm
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = (3)
X m2 + D 2
𝑋𝑚 and D are as shown in the above figure.
If N is the number of lines/inch, then (a + b) of the grating is given by
(a + b) = 2.54/N cm.
Procedure:
1. Place the optical bench on a table at approximately 1 to 2 meters away from the screen
and mount the single slit/grating of known width/grating element and laser tube on
their respective uprights so that the face of the slit/grating is perpendicular to the
length of the optical bench and the laser beam falls normally on the slit/grating when
the laser power supply is switched on. Adjust the heights of laser tube and slit/grating so
that the laser beam passes through the center of the slit/grating. The diffraction maxima
and minima will be observed on the screen.
2. Measure the center-to-center distance between 1storder diffraction spots with meter
scale, let it be 2Xm. For single slit measure distance between first minima on both side of
central maxima and for grating measure the distance between first order maxima.
3. Measure the distance D from the slit/grating face to screen and calculate the value of ‘λ’
for the laser source using the equation (1) and (2).
4. Repeat experiment for three different values of D and calculate the mean value of λ.

Observations
(i) For finding  of laser using single slit
Width of the slit ‘a’ = 0.006 cm

Table - 1

Distance Distance
between between the Xm
Xm sin =
S.No. single slit& first minima = a sin
(cm) X m2 + D 2
screen (2Xm in cm) (Å)
(D in cm)
1.

2.

3.

Mean  =………………Å

The wavelength of the given laser source measured using single slit is = ………… Å
(ii) For finding  of laser using grating
N = 15000 lines per inch

Table - 2

Distance Distance
between between the Xm
Xm sin =
S.No. grating & first order = (a+b). sin
(cm) X m2 + D 2
screen maxima (2Xm (Å)
(D in cm) in cm)
1.

2.

3.

Mean  =………………Å

The wavelength of the given laser source measured using grating is = ………… Å

Percentage error:

The wavelength of the given laser source measured using single slit is = ………… Å
The wavelength of the given laser source measured using grating is = ………… Å
Standard wavelengthof the given laser source = 6328Å

Calculate the percentage error in measuring  for both the cases using the formula
s tan dard − calculated
Percentage error =  100
s tan dard
= ……….%

Precautions & Sources of Error

1. Never point the laser light towards the eyes.

2. Uprights should be at the same heights.
3. Laser light should be incident on the slit/grating normally at the center.
4. Position of the laser source should be fixed.