MCQ

Q1.What is an operating system?

- > d) all of the mentioned.
Q2.Which one of the f ollowing is not a real time operating system?
- >d) Palm OS
Q3 .What is the ready state of a process?
- >b) when process is unable to run until some task has been completed .
Q4. _ _ _ _ section is dynamically allocated memor y to a process during its run time
- >I V) Heap
Q5. Which process can be af f ected by other processes executing in the system?
- >a) cooperating process
Q6. I f a process is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be
executing in their critical section. What is this condition called?
- > a) mutual exclusion
Q7 .The number of resources requested by a process _ _ _ _ _ ?
- >c) must not exceed the total number of resources available in the system
8) For a deadlock to arise, which of the f ollowing conditions must hold
simultaneously?
- >d) All of the mentioned
9) A memor y buf f er used to accommodate a speed dif f erential is called _ _ _ ?
- >b) cache
10) I nstructions f etched by CPU according to the value of - - f rom memor y?
- >C. program counter
11) Enlist any two f unction of os?
- >manage files, manage memor y.
12)Enlist Dif f erence scheduling algorithm.
- > First Come, First Served (FCFS), Shortest Job Next (SJN) or Shortest Job First (SJF):
Priority Scheduling , Round Robin (RR) , Multilevel Queue Scheduling,
Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:
13) define critical Section Region
- > A critical section ref ers to a par t of a program where shared resources (such as
variables, data structures, or devices) are accessed and modified by multiple
concurrent processes or threads
14)mutual Exclusion is also called …ANSWER mutex.
15) What is use of Resource Allocation Graph
- > A Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) is a graphical representation used in
operating systems to track resource allocation and detect deadlocks in a system.
16) Define Race Condition.
- > A race condition is a phenomenon that occurs in concurrent programming when
the outcome of a program depends on the sequence or timing of execution of
multiple threads or processes
UNI T 1
Q1. What isOperating system? Explain dif f erent typesof operating system.
- > An operating system(OS) isa sof tware programthat actsasan intermediary between
computer hardware and the user. I t providesan environment in which userscan execute
programsor applicationsef ficiently and managescomputer hardware resourcessuch asCPU,
memory, storage, and input/ output devices.
There are several typesof operating systems.
1)Single- user, Single- tasking OS:These operating systemsare designed to support only one
user and allowthe execution of only one task or programat a time.
Examplesinclude early versionsof MS- DOS(Disk Operating System) and early versionsof
Apple'sMacintosh OS.
2)Single- user, Multi- tasking OS:- >These operating systemsallowa single user to run multiple
programsor tasksconcurrently.
Examplesinclude modern desktop operating systemssuch asMicrosof t Windows, macOS, and
variousLinux distributions.
3)Multi- user OS:- >Multi- user operating systemsallowmultiple usersto accessthe system
simultaneously, either locally or over a network.
Examplesinclude Unix- based systemslike Linux and FreeBSD, aswell asserver editionsof
Windows.
4)Real- time OS(RTOS):- >Real- time operating systemsare designed to provide deterministic
response timesf or critical tasksor processes..
Examplesinclude VxWorks, QNX, and FreeRTOS.
5)Distributed OS:- >Distributed operating systemsmanage a group of independent computers
and make themappear to usersasa single coherent system.
Examplesinclude Google'sAndroid, Microsof t'sAzure Sphere, and distributed versionsof Unix.
6)Network OS:- >Network operating systemsare specialized operating systemsdesigned to
manage network resourcesand f acilitate communication between computersin a network.
Examplesinclude Novell NetWare and WindowsServer.
7)Embedded OS:- >Embedded operating systemsare optimized f or use in embedded systems,
which are dedicated computing deviceswith specificf unctionsand limited resources.
Examplesinclude Embedded Linux, WindowsEmbedded Compact, and FreeRTOS.
Q2. Explain systemcall in operating system.
- > A system call is a way f or a user program to inter f ace with the operating system.
The program requests several ser vices, and the OSresponds by invoking a series of
system calls to satisf y the request. A system call can be written in assembly language
or a high- level language like C or Pascal . System calls are predefined f unctions that
the operating system may directly invoke if a high- level language is used.
I n this ar ticle, you will learn about the system calls in the operating system and
discuss their types and many other things.
A system call is a method f or a computer program to request a ser vice f rom the
kernel of the operating system on which it is running. A system call is a method of
interacting with the operating system via programs. A system call is a request f rom
computer sof tware to an operating system's kernel.
The Application Program I nter f ace (API ) connects the operating system's f unctions
to user programs. I t acts as a link between the operating system and a process,
allowing user- level programs to request operating system ser vices. The kernel system
can only be accessed using system calls. System calls are required f or any programs
that use resources.
Q3. Explain dif f erent types of ser vices provided by OS.
Q4.Explain of Functionalitiesof OSor enlist f unction of operating System
- > Operating systems provide a variety of ser vices to manage and control computer
hardware resources ef ficiently and provide a user- f riendly environment f or
executing programs. These ser vices can be broadly categorized into several types:
1. Process Management Ser vices:
o Creation and termination of processes.
o Scheduling and allocation of CPU time to processes.
o Context switching between processes.
2. Memor y Management Ser vices:
o Allocation and deallocation of memor y space to processes.
o Vir tual memor y management, including paging, segmentation, and
memor y protection.
3. File System Ser vices:
o Creation, deletion, and manipulation of files and directories.
o File access control and permissions.
o File organization and storage management on storage devices.
4. Device Management Ser vices:
o Device detection, initialization, and configuration.
o I nput/ output (I / O) operations to interact with devices such as disks,
keyboards, printers, and network inter f aces.
5. Security Ser vices:
o User authentication and access control mechanisms to protect system
resources.
o Encr yption and decr yption of data to ensure confidentiality.
6. Network Ser vices:
o Network protocol stack implementation, including TCP/ I P, UDP, and
I CMP.
o Network configuration and routing.
7. User I nter f ace Ser vices:
o Graphical user inter f aces (GUI ) or command- line inter f aces (CLI ) f or
interacting with the operating system and running applications.
o Windowmanagement, input event handling, and graphical rendering.
8. System Administration Ser vices:
o Configuration and management of system settings, including user
accounts, network settings, and system pref erences.
 o Sof tware installation, updates, and patch management.
UNI T 2
Q.1] Compare between Process and program.
->

Program Process
1.I t isa set of instructionsthat has 1I t isan instance of a program that is
been designed to complete a cer tain being currently executed.
task.
2.I t isa passive entity. 2.I t isan active entity.
3.I t residesin the secondary 3.I t iscreated when a program isin
memory of the system. execution and isbeing loaded into the
main memory.
4.I t existsin a single place and 4.I t existsf or a limited amount of time
continuesto exist until it hasbeen and it getsterminated once the task
explicitly deleted. hasbeen completed.
5.I t isconsidered asa static entity. 5.I t isconsidered asa dynamic entity.
6.I t doesn' t have a resource 6.I t hasa high resource requirement.
requirement.
7.I t requiresmemory space to store 7.I t requiresresourcessuch asCPU,
instructions. memory address, I / Oduring itsworking.
8.I t doesn' t have a control block. 8.I t hasitsown control block, which is
known asProcessControl Block.

Q2. Explain process control block with Diagram in detail.

Process Control Block is a data structure that contains inf ormation of the process
related to it. The process control block is also known as a task control block, entr y of
the process table, etc.
I t is ver y impor tant f or process management as the data structuring f or processes is
done in terms of the PCB. I t also defines the current state of the operating system.
1.Pr ocess StateThis specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or
terminated.
2.Pr ocess Number This shows the number of the par ticular process.
3.Pr ogram Counter This contains the address of the next instruction that needs
to be executed in the process.
4.Register sThis specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may
include accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.
5.Memor y limits Memory limitsref er to the maximumamount of memory that an operating
systemcan addressand manage ef f ectively.
6.List of open files- > To list open filesin an operating system, you typically use systemutilities
or commandsspecificto the operating systemyou are using.
Q3] Drawand Explain ProcessState Diagram?

Q3] Drawand Explain ProcessState Diagram?

A processstate diagramvisually representsthe dif f erent statesthat a processcan transition
through during itslif etime in an operating system. Here'sa simplified processstate diagram
along with explanationsf or each state and the transitionsbetween them:
plaintext
Copy code
+- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
+- - - - >| Ready | | Ter minated|
| +- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
| | ^
| | |
| v |
| +- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
| | Running | - - - - - - - - - - - - >| Suspended |
| +- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
| | ^
| | |
| v |
| +- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
+- - - - - | Blocked | <- - - - - - - - - - - - | Suspend |
 +- - - - - - - - - + +- - - - - - - - - - - +
Explanation of the process states and transitions:
1. Ready:
o The process is loaded into main memor y and is ready to execute.
o I t waits in a ready queue f or CPU time.
2. Running:
o The CPU is actively executing instructions of the process.
o Only one process can be in the running state on a single CPU core at a
time.
3. Blocked:
o The process is waiting f or an event, such as I / Ocompletion or user input.
o I t cannot proceed until the event occurs.
4. Suspended:
o The process is temporarily removed f rom main memor y by the operating
system to f ree up memor y space.
o I t can be moved back to the ready state when needed.
5. Suspend Ready:
o A suspended process that was previously ready to execute.
o I t can be brought back into main memor y and placed in the ready
queue.
6. Terminated:
o The process has completed its execution or has been terminated by the
operating system.
o I ts resources are released, and its Process Control Block (PCB) is
removed.
Q4.Explain FCFSscheduling algorithm With Example.
The First- Come, First- Ser ved (FCFS) scheduling algorithm is one of the simplest CPU
scheduling algorithms used in operating systems. I n FCFSscheduling, the process
that arrives first is scheduled first f or execution, and it continues to run until it
completes or is preempted by a higher- priority process. Here's howthe FCFS
scheduling algorithm works with an example:
Q.5] Burst Arrival
Process Time Time
P1 6 2
P2 2 5
P3 8 1
P4 3 0
Step 1: Arrival of Processes
 ● At time 0: P4 arrives.
● At time 1: P3 arrives.
● At time 2: P1 arrives.
● At time 5: P2 arrives.
Step 2: Execution Order Based on FCFS
● P4 is the first process in the ready queue, so it star ts execution at time 0 and
runs f or 3 units of time (until time 3).
● Once P4 completes, P3, which arrived next, star ts execution immediately and
runs f or 8 units of time (until time 11).
● Af ter P3 completes, P1 star ts execution at time 11 and runs f or 6 units of
time (until time 17).
● Finally, P2 star ts execution at time 17 and runs f or 2 units of time (until
time 19).
Step 3: Completion Time and Turnaround Time Calculation
● Completion Time: The time at which each process completes its execution.
o P4: 3 units (arrived at 0, completed at 3)
o P3: 11 units (arrived at 1, completed at 11)
o P1: 17 units (arrived at 2, completed at 17)
o P2: 19 units (arrived at 5, completed at 19)
● Turnaround Time: The total time taken by a process f rom arrival to
completion.
o P4: 3 units (3 - 0 = 3)
o P3: 10 units (11 - 1 = 10)
o P1: 15 units (17 - 2 = 15)
o P2: 14 units (19 - 5 = 14)
Step 4: Waiting Time Calculation
● Waiting Time: The time a process spends waiting in the ready queue bef ore
getting executed.
o P4: 0 units (star t at arrival time)
o P3: 9 units (11 - 1 = 9)
o P1: 9 units (17 - 8 = 9)
o P2: 12 units (19 - 7 = 12)
Step 5: Average Waiting Time and Average Turnaround Time Calculation
● Average Waiting Time = (0 + 9 + 9 + 12) / 4 = 30 / 4 = 7.5 units
● Average Turnaround Time = (3 + 10 + 15 + 14) / 4 = 42 / 4 = 10.5 units
● So, using the FCFSalgorithm, the average waiting time is7.5 units, and the average
turnaround time is10.5 units.
Q6] Burst Arrival
 Process Time Time
C 8 2
D 4 3
E 5 4
Let's walk through the Round Robin scheduling algorithm with a time quantum of 2
milliseconds:
Step 1: Arrival of Processes
● At time 0: Process A arrives.
● At time 1: Process B arrives.
● At time 2: Process Carrives.
● At time 3: Process D arrives.
● At time 4: Process E arrives.
Step 2: Execution Order Based on Round Robin (Time Quantum = 2 ms)
● Each process is allocated the CPU f or a time quantum of 2 milliseconds in a
circular manner until all processes have completed execution or until no
processes are lef t in the ready queue.
Round 1:
● A executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 1 ms)
● B executes f or 1 ms (remaining burst time: 0 ms) and completes
Round 2:
● C executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 6 ms)
● D executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 2 ms)
Round 3:
● E executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 3 ms)
● A executes f or 1 ms (remaining burst time: 0 ms) and completes
Round 4:
● C executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 4 ms)
Round 5:
● D executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 0 ms) and completes
Round 6:
● E executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 1 ms)
Round 7:
● C executes f or 2 ms (remaining burst time: 2 ms)
Round 8:
● E executes f or 1 ms (remaining burst time: 0 ms) and completes
Round 9:
● C executes f or 1 ms (remaining burst time: 1 ms)
Round 10:
● C executes f or 1 ms (remaining burst time: 0 ms) and completes
Step 3: Completion Time and Turnaround Time Calculation
● Completion Time: The time at which each process completes its execution.
o A: 3 ms
o B: 2 ms
o C: 10 ms
o D: 8 ms
o E: 11 ms
● Turnaround Time: The total time taken by a process f rom arrival to
completion.
o A: 3 ms
o B: 1 ms
o C: 8 ms
o D: 5 ms
o E: 7 ms
Step 4: Waiting Time Calculation
● Waiting Time: The time a process spends waiting in the ready queue bef ore
getting executed.
o A: 0 ms
o B: 0 ms
o C: 2 ms
o D: 1 ms
o E: 1 ms
Step 5: Average Waiting Time and Average Turnaround Time Calculation
● Average Waiting Time = (0 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 1) / 5 = 4 / 5 = 0.8 ms
● Average Turnaround Time = (3 + 1 + 8 + 5 + 7) / 5 = 24 / 5 = 4.8 ms
So, using the Round Robin scheduling algorithm with a time quantum of 2
milliseconds, the average waiting time is 0.8 milliseconds, and the average
turnaround time is 4.8 milliseconds
Q7.What is Scheduler? What are Dif f erent Type of Scheduler?
- > A scheduler is a crucial component of an operating system responsible f or
managing the execution of processes and determining which process gets to use the
CPU and f or howlong. I t plays a vital role in coordinating the allocation of CPU
resources among competing processes, ensuring f airness, ef ficiency, and
responsiveness in system operation.
Dif f erent types of schedulers can be categorized based on their scope, scheduling
policies, and the level of operation they f ocus on. Here are the main types of
schedulers:
 1. Long- Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):
o Manages the admission of newprocesses into the system.
o Decides which processes f rom the pool of newprocesses are to be loaded
into memor y f or execution.
o I t's responsible f or selecting processes f rom the j ob queue and loading
them into memor y, thereby controlling the degree of
multiprogramming.
o Typically, it runs inf requently since loading processes into memor y is a
comparatively expensive operation.
2. Medium- Term Scheduler:
o Par t of some operating systems that suppor t swapping or vir tual memor y.
o Responsible f or swapping processes between main memor y and
secondar y storage (disk).
o Helps in maintaining the degree of multiprogramming by swapping out
less f requently used or blocked processes to f ree up memor y space.
o I t improves system responsiveness and overall per f ormance by
managing memor y resources ef ficiently.
3. Shor t- Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler) :
o Manages the selection of processes f or execution on the CPU f rom the
pool of ready processes.
o I t's responsible f or determining which process should execute next and
allocating CPU time to it.
o Runs f requently, of ten in milliseconds or microseconds, to make rapid
scheduling decisions and ensure ef ficient CPU utilization.
o Scheduling algorithms like FCFS(First- Come, First- Ser ved), Round
Robin, Shor test Job Next (SJN), and Priority Scheduling are commonly
used by the shor t- term scheduler.

UNI T 3
Q1. Explain critical section problem in detail. Give necessar y condition f or
critical section problem.
- > The critical section problemisa classicsynchronization problemin computer science,
particularly in the context of concurrent or parallel programming. I t ariseswhen multiple
processesor threadsshare a common resource (such asmemory, data, or hardware device) and
must accessit in a mutually exclusive manner to avoid conf lictsand ensure data consistency.
Mutual Exclusion:
● Only one process may be executing in its critical section at a given time.
 ● I f process PiP_ iPi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes
can execute in their critical sections simultaneously.
Progress:
● I f no process is executing in its critical section and some processes wish to
enter their critical sections, then only those processes that are not in their
remainder sections can par ticipate in deciding which will enter next, and this
decision cannot be postponed indefinitely.
Bounded Waiting:
● There exists a bound on the number of times other processes are allowed to
enter their critical sections af ter a process has made a request to enter its
critical section and bef ore that request is granted.
● This ensures that no process can be indefinitely postponed f rom entering its
critical section
Q.2 Explain Dining philosopher problem ChatGPT
The Dining Philosophers problem is a classic synchronization problem that illustrates
the challenges of resource allocation and deadlock avoidance in concurrent
programming. I t was f ormulated by Edsger Dij kstra in 1965 to illustrate the
dif ficulty of managing resources that are shared between multiple processes.
The problem is f ramed around a group of philosophers who sit around a circular
dining table, each with a bowl of spaghetti and a f ork between each pair of
adj acent philosophers. The philosophers spend their time thinking and eating. To
eat, a philosopher needs to pick up both the f ork on their lef t and the f ork on their
right.
The challenge arises f rom the f act that the philosophers must compete f or the f orks,
which are shared resources. I f all philosophers simultaneously pick up the f ork on
their lef t, they will create a deadlock situation, as each philosopher is waiting f or
the f ork held by their neighbor.
The key obj ectives in solving the Dining Philosophers problem are:
1. Mutual Exclusion : Only one philosopher can hold a f ork at a time to avoid
conf licts and ensure that two neighboring philosophers do not attempt to pick
up the same f ork simultaneously.
2. No Deadlock: The system must avoid situations where all philosophers are
holding one f ork and waiting indefinitely f or the other, resulting in a
deadlock.
3. Starvation Avoidance: All philosophers must have an oppor tunity to eat
eventually, ensuring f airness and preventing any philosopher f rom being
stuck in a state where they cannot acquire both f orks due to the actions of
others

Q3. Explain inter process communication (I PC) problem in detail

- > I n general, I nter Process Communication is a type of mechanism usually
provided by the operating system (or OS). The main aim or goal of this mechanism is
to provide communications in between several processes. I n shor t, the
intercommunication allows a process letting another process knowthat some event
has occurred.
Let us nowlook at the general definition of inter- process communication, which will
explain the same thing that we have discussed above
Mutual Exclusion:-
I t is generally required that only one process thread can enter the critical section at
a time. This also helps in synchronization and creates a stable state to avoid the race
condition.
Semaphore:-
Semaphore is a type of variable that usually controls the access to the shared
resources by several processes. Semaphore is f ur ther divided into two types which are
as f ollows:
1. Binar y Semaphore
2. Counting Semaphore
Barrier:-
A barrier typically not allows an individual process to proceed unless all the
processes does not reach it. I t is used by many parallel languages, and collective
routines impose barriers.
Spinlock:-
Spinlock is a type of lock as its name implies. The processes are tr ying to acquire the
spinlock waits or stays in a loop while checking that the lock is available or not. I t is
known as busy waiting because even though the process active, the process does not
per f orm any f unctional operation (or task).
Q4. Dif f erentiate between semaphores and monitors.
-->
S. Semaphore Monitor
No.
1. I t isan integer variable. I t isan abstract data type.
The value of thisinteger variable tells I t containsshared variables.
2. about the number of shared resources
that are available in the system.
When any processhasaccessto the I t also containsa set of
shared resources, it perf ormsthe proceduresthat operate upon
3. ‘wait’ operation (using wait method) the shared variable.
on the semaphore.
When a processreleasesthe shared When a processwishesto access
resources, it perf ormsthe ‘signal’ the shared variablesin the
4. operation (using signal method) on monitor, it hasto do so using
the semaphore. procedures.
5. I t doesn’t have condition variables. I t hascondition variables.
Q5. Explain dif f erent types of classical problems of synchronization.
- > Classical problems of synchronization ref er to a set of well- known concurrency
problems that illustrate various challenges in coordinating the activities of multiple
concurrent processes or threads to achieve correct and ef ficient execution. These
problems highlight common synchronization issues and are of ten used to
demonstrate the need f or synchronization mechanisms and techniques in operating
systems and concurrent programming. Some of the classical problems of
synchronization include:
1. Producer- Consumer Problem:
o I n this problem, there are two types of processes: producers and
consumers. Producers generate data items and put them into a shared
buf f er, while consumers remove and process data items f rom the
buf f er.
2. Readers- Writers Problem:
o This problem involves multiple processes accessing a shared resource,
such as a file or database. Readers can simultaneously read the
resource without inter f ering with each other, but writers must have
exclusive access to the resource to modif y it..
3. Dining Philosophers Problem:
o I n this problem, a group of philosophers sits around a dining table, with
a f ork placed between each pair of adj acent philosophers. To eat, a
philosopher must pick up both the f ork on their lef t and the f ork on
their right.
o I n this problem, there is a barber shop with a barber chair and a waiting
room with a finite number of chairs. Customers arrive at the barber
shop and either wait in the waiting room if there are empty chairs or
leave if the waiting room is f ull. customers and ensure that the barber
ser ves customers in a f air and orderly manner while avoiding race
conditions and deadlock.
4. Bridge Crossing Problem:
o I n this problem, there is a bridge with limited capacity that connects two
islands. Vehicles traveling in both directions share the bridge, but only
a limited number of vehicles can cross the bridge simultaneously to
prevent congestion and accidents. The challenge is to coordinate the
movement of vehicles across the bridge, ensuring that vehicles travel in
the correct direction and that no accidents occur due to collisions or
deadlocks.
Q6. What are solution to the Critical Section Problem?
Critical Section is the par t of a program which tries to access shared resources. That
resource may be any resource in a computer like a memor y location, Data structure,
CPU or any I Odevice.
The critical section cannot be executed by more than one process at the same time;
operating system f aces the dif ficulties in allowing and disallowing the processes
f rom entering the critical section.
The critical section problem is used to design a set of protocols which can ensure that
the Race condition among the processes will never arise.
I n order to synchronize the cooperative processes, our main task is to solve the
critical section problem. We need to provide a solution in such a way that the
f ollowing conditions can be satisfied.
1. Mutual Exclusion
Our solution must provide mutual exclusion. By Mutual Exclusion, we mean
that if one process is executing inside critical section then the other process
must not enter in the critical section.
1. Progress
Progress means that if one process doesn' t need to execute into critical
section then it should not stop other processes to get into the critical section.
Secondary
1. Bounded Waiting
We should be able to predict the waiting time f or ever y process to get into the
critical section. The process must not be endlessly waiting f or getting into the
critical section.
2. Architectural Neutrality- >Our mechanism must be architectural natural. I t
means that if our solution is working fine on one architecture then it should
also run on the other ones as well.
Q8. Explain Monitor with Diagram.
- >A monitor is a higher- level synchronization construct that provides a structured
and saf e approach to concurrent programming by encapsulating shared data and
the procedures (also known as methods or f unctions) that operate on it. Monitors
ensure mutual exclusion and coordinate access to shared resources by allowing only
one process or thread to execute a procedure within the monitor at a time. Here's an
explanation of a monitor with a diagram:
+- ------------------ -----------------+
| |
| Monitor |
| |
+- ------------------ -----------------+
| Shar ed Data/ State |
| |
+- ------------------ -----------------+
| Pr ocedur e 1 |
| |
+- ------------------ -----------------+
| Pr ocedur e 2 |
| |
+- ------------------ -----------------+
| ... |
| |
+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
| Pr ocedur e N |
| |
+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
I n this diagram:
● The monitor is represented as a container that encapsulates shared data/
state and a set of procedures (also ref erred to as methods or f unctions).
● Shared data/ state ref ers to the variables and data structures that are
accessed and modified by multiple processes or threads.
● Procedures represent the operations or actions that can be per f ormed on
the shared data within the monitor. Each procedure operates on the shared
data in a coordinated and mutually exclusive manner.
● When a process or thread wants to access the shared data or invoke a
procedure within the monitor, it must first acquire exclusive access to the
monitor. This is typically done by entering a monitor entr y queue and
obtaining a monitor lock.
● Once a process or thread has acquired the monitor lock, it can execute the
desired procedure within the monitor. While a procedure is executing, the
monitor ensures that no other process or thread can access the shared data
or invoke procedures within the monitor.

Q9] Explain Bounded Buf f er Problem.

->

The Bounded Buf f er Problem, also known as the Producer- Consumer Problem, involves
a producer that generates data and a consumer that processes the data. The data is
stored in a shared buf f er with a limited capacity. The buf f er is responsible f or handling
the synchronization and communication between the producer and the consumer
processes:
The problem’s primar y challenges are to ensure that:
● The producer doesn’t over write existing data in the buf f er bef ore it’s
consumed
● The consumer doesn’t read data that has already been processed
● The buf f er manages its limited capacity ef ficiently
The problem exemplifies common synchronization and concurrency issues in real-
world applications, such as task scheduling and inter- process communication. Also,
the problem can include multiple consumers and producers, which creates
additional challenges:

UNI T 4
Q1. What is deadlock? Explain all the necessar y conditions f or deadlock.

A deadlock is a situation in concurrent programming where two or more processes

are unable to proceed because each is waiting f or the other to release a resource or
take an action, resulting in a circular dependency and a standstill in execution.
Deadlocks typically occur in systems where processes compete f or shared resources
and can lead to system- wide stalls and unresponsiveness.
1.Mutual Exclusion : One of the necessar y conditions f or deadlock is that at least one
resource must be held in a non- shareable mode. This means that only one process
can use the resource at a time, and other processes must wait until it is released.
2.Hold and Wait:The second necessar y condition f or deadlock is that processes must
hold resources while waiting f or additional resources. I n other words, a process must
hold at least one resource and be waiting to acquire additional resources that are
currently held by other processes.
3.No Preemption:The third necessar y condition f or deadlock is that resources
cannot be f orcibly taken away f rom a process. Once a process acquires a resource, it
cannot be preempted or taken away f rom the process until the process voluntarily
releases it.
4.Circular Wait:The f our th necessar y condition f or deadlock is that there must exist
a circular chain of processes, with each process in the chain holding a resource that
is requested by the next process in the chain.
Q2. Explain deadlock Prevention technique in Details.
- > Deadlock prevention techniques aim to prevent the occurrence of deadlock by
breaking one or more of the necessar y conditions f or deadlock. By addressing the
conditions that lead to deadlock, these techniques ensure system stability and avoid
situations where processes are unable to proceed due to resource conf licts. Here are
some commonly used deadlock prevention techniques, along with explanations of
howthey work:
1. Mutual Exclusion Avoidance:
 o This technique involves relaxing the mutual exclusion condition by
allowing resources to be shared among multiple processes. By allowing
resources to be used concurrently by multiple processes, mutual
exclusion is avoided, and deadlock can be prevented.
2. Hold and Wait Avoidance:
o Hold and wait avoidance f ocuses on preventing processes f rom holding
resources while waiting f or additional resources. One way to achieve
this is by requiring processes to request and acquire all necessar y
resources simultaneously bef ore executing.
3. No Preemption:
o Preemption involves f orcibly taking away resources f rom processes to
prevent deadlock. While preemptive techniques are not commonly
used in practice due to their complexity and potential f or data
corruption, they can be employed in cer tain critical systems where
deadlock avoidance is crucial.
4. Circular Wait Avoidance:
o Circular wait avoidance aims to eliminate circular dependencies among
processes by imposing a total ordering on resources and requiring
processes to request resources in a predefined order. By ensuring that
processes always request resources in the same order, circular wait
conditions are eliminated, and deadlock can be prevented.
5. Resource Allocation Graph (RAG):
o Resource Allocation Graphs (RAGs) can be used to detect and prevent
deadlocks by analyzing resource allocation and resource request
patterns among processes. By examining the graph f or cycles, which
indicate potential circular waits, deadlock conditions can be identified
and avoided. Techniques such as Banker 's Algorithm use RAGs to
determine saf e resource allocation sequences that prevent deadlock.
Q3 .Explain deadlock avoidance technique (Banker’sAlgorithm) in detail.
Deadlock avoidance techniques, such as the Banker 's Algorithm, aim to prevent the
occurrence of deadlock by dynamically allocating resources to processes in a way
that ensures saf e execution and avoids deadlock- prone scenarios. The Banker 's
Algorithm is a resource allocation algorithm used to manage resources in a system
with multiple processes and resources, ensuring that requests f or resources do not
lead to deadlock.
Here's a detailed explanation of the Banker 's Algorithm:
1. System Model:
o The Banker 's Algorithm operates in a system with a fixed number of
resource types and a finite number of processes.
2. Available Resources:
o The system maintains a vector, called the " available" vector, which
represents the currently available resources of each type.
3. Allocation Matrix:
 o The system also maintains a matrix, called the " allocation" matrix,
which represents the current allocation of resources to each process.
4. Maximum Requirement Matrix:
o Additionally, the system maintains a matrix, called the " maximum"
matrix, which represents the maximum resource requirements of each
process.
5. Need Matrix:
o The system computes a matrix, called the " need" matrix, which
represents the remaining resource needs of each process.
6. Saf ety Algorithm:
o The Banker 's Algorithm uses a saf ety algorithm to determine whether a
system state is saf e or unsaf e bef ore allocating resources to a process.
7. Resource Allocation:
o When a process requests additional resources, the Banker 's Algorithm
checks whether the requested resources can be saf ely allocated without
leading to deadlock.
8. Resource Release:
o When a process releases resources, the resources are returned to the
available pool, and the allocation and need matrices are updated
accordingly.
UNI T 5
1. Explain contiguousand non- contiguousmemory allocation with diagram?
1. Contiguous Memor y Allocation : Contiguous memor y allocation is basically a
method in which a single contiguous section/ par t of memor y is allocated to a process
or file needing it. Because of this all the available memor y space resides at the same
place together, which means that the f reely/ unused available memor y par titions
are not distributed in a random f ashion here and there across the whole memor y
space.

The main memory isa combination of two main por tions- one f or the
operating system and other f or the user program. We can implement/
achieve contiguousmemory allocation by dividing the memory par titions
into fixed size par titions.
2. Non- ContiguousMemory Allocation : Non- Contiguousmemory allocation
isbasically a method on the contrary to contiguousallocation method,
allocatesthe memory space present in dif f erent locationsto the processas
per it’srequirements. Asall the available memory space isin a distributed
pattern so the f reely available memory space isalso scattered here and
there. Thistechnique of memory allocation helpsto reduce the wastage of
memory, which eventually givesrise to I nternal and external
f ragmentation.

2.Explain virtual memory in detail.

Vir tual memor y is a memor y management technique where secondar y memor y can
be used as if it were a par t of the main memor y. Vir tual memor y is a common
technique used in a computer 's operating system (OS).
Vir tual memor y uses both hardware and sof tware to enable a computer to
compensate f or physical memor y shor tages, temporarily transf erring data f rom
random access memor y (RAM) to disk storage. Mapping chunks of memor y to disk
files enables a computer to treat secondar y memor y as though it were main memor y.
Today, most personal computers (PCs) come with at least 8 GB (gigabytes) of RAM.
But, sometimes, this is not enough to run several programs at one time. This is where
vir tual memor y comes in. Vir tual memor y f rees up RAM by swapping data that has
not been used recently over to a storage device, such as a hard drive or solid- state
drive (SSD).
Vir tual memor y is impor tant f or improving system per f omance multitasking and
using large programs. However, users should not overly rely on vir tual memor y, since
it is considerably slower than RAM. I f the OShas to swap data between vir tual
memor y and RAM too of ten, the computer will begin to slowdown - - this is called
thrashing.
Vir tual memor y was developed at a time when physical memor y - - also ref erenced
as RAM - - was expensive. Computers have a finite amount of RAM, so memor y will
eventually run out when multiple programs run at the same time. A system using
vir tual memor y uses a section of the hard drive to emulate RAM. With vir tual
memor y, a system can load larger or multiple programs running at the same time,
enabling each one to operate as if it has more space, without having to purchase
more RAM.
3.Explain paging technique in detail
Paging isa memory management technique used by modern operating systemsto manage
memory allocation f or processesin virtual memory systems. I n paging, the logical address
space of a processisdivided into fixed- size blockscalled pages, while the physical memory
(RAM) isdivided into corresponding fixed- size blockscalled f rames. Paging allowsprocessesto
be allocated memory in smaller, unif orm- sized units, providing f lexibility in memory
management. Here'sa detailed explanation of paging:
I n Operating Systems, Paging isa storage mechanismused to retrieve processesf romthe
secondary storage into the main memory in the f ormof pages.
The main idea behind the paging isto divide each processin the f ormof pages. The main
memory will also be divided in the f ormof f rames.
One page of the processisto be stored in one of the f ramesof the memory. The pagescan be
stored at the dif f erent locationsof the memory but the priority isalwaysto find the contiguous
f ramesor holes.
Pagesof the processare brought into the main memory only when they are required otherwise
they reside in the secondary storage.
Dif f erent operating system defines dif f erent f rame sizes. The sizes of each f rame
must be equal. Considering the f act that the pages are mapped to the f rames in
Paging, page size needs to be as same as f rame size.
3.Explain static memor y par titioning with advantages and drawbacks.
- > Staticmemory partitioning isa memory management technique used in early computer
systemsto allocate memory to processes. I n thistechnique, memory isdivided into fixed- size
partitionsat systemstartup, and each partition isassigned to a specificprocess. Here'show
staticmemory partitioning works, along with itsadvantagesand drawbacks:
Advantagesof Static Memory Par titioning:
1. Simplicity:
o Static memor y par titioning is simple to implement and manage, making
it suitable f or early computer systems with limited hardware
capabilities and resources.
o The fixed- size par titions simplif y memor y allocation and deallocation
operations.
2. Memor y Protection:
o Each process is allocated its own par tition, ensuring memor y protection
and preventing processes f rom accessing memor y outside their
allocated par titions.
o This helps enhance system security and stability by isolating processes
f rom each other.
3. Predictability:
o The fixed- size par titions provide predictability in memor y allocation, as
each process knows the exact size and location of its allocated memor y.
o This predictability can be beneficial f or real- time systems and
 applications with strict per f ormance requirements.
Drawbacksof Static Memory Par titioning:
1. Wastage of Memor y:
o Fixed- size par titions may lead to memor y wastage, as par titions must be
large enough to accommodate the largest process, even if smaller
processes are allocated to them.
o This can result in inef ficient use of memor y and reduced overall system
per f ormance.
2. Limited Flexibility:
o Static memor y par titioning does not allowf or dynamic allocation of
memor y or ef ficient utilization of available memor y resources.
o The fixed- size par titions limit the number of processes that can be
accommodated in memor y simultaneously and may lead to resource
contention and inef ficient memor y management.
3. Fragmentation:
o Over time, static memor y par titioning may lead to f ragmentation, where
memor y becomes f ragmented into small, unusable chunks.
o External f ragmentation occurs when f ree memor y is f ragmented into
smaller blocks, making it challenging to allocate large contiguous
memor y blocks to processes.
4. Explain segmentation in detail?
Segmentation is a memor y management technique used in computer systems to
organize and manage a process's logical address space into variable- sized
segments. Each segment represents a distinct por tion of the process's address space,
such as code, data, stack, or heap. Segmentation provides f lexibility in memor y
allocation, f acilitates memor y protection and sharing, and enhances system
security. Here's a concise explanation of segmentation:
● Segmentation Definition : Segmentation divides a process's logical address
space into multiple segments, each representing a logically related por tion of
the process's address space.
● Segmentation Table: The operating system maintains a segmentation table f or
each process, which contains inf ormation about the segments of the process's
address space, including the base address and length of each segment.
● Logical AddressTranslation : When a process generates a logical address,
segmentation hardware translates it into a linear address using the
segmentation table. The linear address is calculated by adding the base
address of the corresponding segment to the of f set within the segment.
● Memory Protection : Segmentation provides memor y protection by associating
access rights or permissions with each segment, preventing unauthorized
access and enhancing system security.
● Segmentation Fault : I f a process attempts to access a memor y location outside
the bounds of a segment or with insuf ficient permissions, a segmentation
 f ault occurs, and the operating system handles it by terminating the of f ending
process or invoking a signal handler.
● Advantages: Flexibility in memor y allocation, memor y protection, and
memor y sharing capabilities between processes.
● Drawbacks: Potential f or f ragmentation, complexity in managing variable-
sized segments, and additional hardware and sof tware overhead.
6 Compare the paging and segmentation memor y management techniques.

Sr.
No. Paging Segmentation

The address space of aprocess

is brokeninto blocks of fixed 1.The address space of a process
1 size called pages. is broken into blocks of dif f erent sizes.

The memor y is divided

into pages by the 2.The segment size, vir tual address,
2 Operating System. and actual address are calculated by
the compiler.

Page size depends on

the memor y available. 3.Segment size is determined
3
by the programmer.

Memor y access is
f aster in Paging. 4.Memor y access is slower
4
in Segmentation.

I nternal f ragmentation
can be caused by Paging
because some pages 5.External f ragmentation can be
5 may be underutilized. caused by Segmentation because
some memor y blocks may not be used.

The logical address

gets split into page
of f set and page number. 6.The logical address gets split
6
into section of f set and section number.

Page data is stored

in page table. 7.Segmentation data is stored
7
in segmentation table.

Data structures can

8 not be handled ef ficiently. 8.Data structures are handled ef ficiently.
 Paging is not visible
to the user.
9 9.Segmentation is visible to the user.

7. Explain LRU (Least Recently Used) Page replacement Policy with Example.
The Least Recently Used (LRU) page replacement policy is a popular algorithm used
in vir tual memor y management to decide which page to evict f rom physical memor y
when a page f ault occurs and there is no f ree space available. The idea behind LRU
is to replace the page that has not been accessed f or the longest period of time,
assuming that pages that have not been used recently are less likely to be used in
the near f uture. Here's howLRU works, along with an example:
HowLRU Works:
1. Maintaining Page Access Histor y:
o LRU keeps track of the order in which pages are accessed by maintaining
a data structure, such as a linked list or a queue, known as the page
access histor y.
o Each time a page is accessed (read or written), it is moved to the f ront
of the page access histor y, indicating that it has been accessed most
recently.
2. Page Replacement:
o When a page f ault occurs and there is no f ree space available in
physical memor y, the operating system selects the page that is at the
end of the page access histor y (i.e., the page that has not been
accessed f or the longest period of time) f or replacement.
o The selected page is then evicted f rom physical memor y, making space
f or the newpage to be loaded f rom secondar y storage (e.g., disk) into
physical memor y.
3. Updating Page Access Histor y:
o Af ter selecting the page f or replacement, the operating system updates
the page access histor y by removing the evicted page f rom the data
structure and adding the newpage to the f ront of the page access
histor y.
o This ensures that the page that was j ust accessed is nowat the f ront of
the page access histor y, indicating that it is the most recently accessed
page.
Example
Let us say there are 3 empty memor y locations (or slots) available. I nitially, since all
slots are empty, pages 1, 2 will be allocated to the empty memor y slots and we will
get two page f aults (because neither page 1 nor page 2 was present in the memor y).
Now, page 1 is ref erenced again .