ALUMINIUM IN BUILDING

Alurniniurn in Building

John Lane
First published 1992 by Ashgate Publishing

Reissued 2018 by Routledge

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Copyright © John Lane 1992

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Contents

List of tables viii

List of figures ix
Acknowledgements x
Introduction xii

Part I T H E M E T A L
1 Obtaining the metal 3
2 Properties of the metal 8
Alloys 8
Alloy classification 9
Alloy designations 10
Specific properties 12
3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys 16
Rolled products 16
Extruded products 20
Castings 23
Wire and bar 27
Forgings 28
Forming 28
4 Joining 38
Characteristics 38
Alloys 39
Welding 39
Brazing 42

V
Contents

Soldering 44
Joint preparation 44
Adhesive bonding 44
Laser welding 45
Joining to other metals 45
5 Finishing 46
Introduction 46
Anodizing 47
Paint and lacquer coatings 54
Care and maintenance 59
6 Durability 60
The oxide protector 60
Atmospheric pollution 61
Weathering 61
Expected life 62
Interior applications 62
Types of corrosion 64
Alloy choice 65
Compatibility with foods and chemicals 66
7 Aluminium and the environment 67
Part II A B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L
8 Joining the establishment 73
9 General design data 80
Forms and sizes 80
Behaviour in service 81
Contact with water 83
Contact with building materials 84
Finishes on aluminium 85
Handling and storage 85
Cleaning and maintenance 86
Part III A P P L I C A T I O N S IN B U I L D I N G
10 Windows and doors 89
Windows 89
Doors 95
Security 100
11 Curtain walling 103
Historical development 103
Types of curtain wall 104
12 Cladding and roofing 111
Wide range of uses 111
Vapour barriers 120
Sound insulation 120

vi
 Contents

Fire resistance 122

Rainscreen cladding 123
13 Conservatories 128
14 Patent glazing 133
15 Space frames 143
16 Highway furniture 150
Balustrades 150
Lighting columns 152
17 Shopfronts and ground-floor treatment 155
18 Rainwater systems 157
Guttering styles 157
'Seamless' guttering 159
Compatibility 160
Suitability 160
19 Architectural metalwork 161
Sculpture 161
Hardware and fittings 162
20 Interior applications 164
Partitions and ceilings 164
Ducting and trunking systems 164
Grilles 167
Others 167
21 Looking ahead 174
Appendix 1 Relevant standards 176
Appendix 2 Additional reference material 180
Appendix 3 Contact addresses 181
Index 183

vii
List of tables

Table 2.1 Properties of some typical casting alloys used in

building 9
Table 2.2 Properties of some typical wrought alloys used in
building 10
Table 2.3 Typical characteristics and processing suitability of
typical wrought alloys 11
Table 3.1 Temper description 19
Table 3.2 Heat-treatment designations 26
Table 3.3 Approximate bend radii for 90° cold bend in various
aluminium alloys of different thicknesses and tempers 34
Table 4.1 Principal joining processes 40
Table 4.2 Joining suitability 41
Table 4.3 Selection of filler rods and wires for M I G and T I G
welding 43
Table 5.1 Typical coatings and their properties (applied to pre-
painted coil) 56
Table 6.1 Galvanic series 64
Table 6.2 Durability and resistance to atmospheric attack 65
Table 11.1 Function of a curtain wall 105
Table 12.1 Typical alloy compositions for building sheet 120
Table 12.2 Comparison of various vapour barrier materials 122

viii
List of figures

Figure 1.1 From bauxite to aluminium 5

Figure 2.1 Aluminium 'copy' of a steel design for a trench shor-
ing section used in the construction industry and a
redesign to maximize the structural characteristics 14
Figure 5.1 Microstructure of anodic film on aluminium 48
Figure 6.1 Maximum depth of attack by pitting in various
environments 63
Figure 10.1 Window styles available in aluminium 92
Figure 10.2 Window frames 93
Figure 10.3 Composite frames 97
Figure 10.4 Various doors and patio doors 101
Figure 11.1 Curtain-wall design 109
Figure 11.2 Curtain-wall design 110
Figure 12.1 Typical profiles available in aluminium sheet 116
Figure 12.2 A secret-fix roofing system 117
Figure 12.3 Typical composite panels 117
Figure 12.4 Overcladding principle for various situations 126
Figure 12.5 Typical overcladding fixing methods 127
Figure 14.1 Bar profiles 134
Figure 14.2 A high-performance roof glazing system design 137
Figure 15.1 Domes 144
Figure 17.1 Typical details of shop front construction 156

ix
Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the help provided by the manufacturers of

many products referred to in this publication, and by the many com-
panies who have assisted by providing photographs.
To illustrate up-to-date practices the author has drawn upon the publi-
cations and sales literature of many companies, and illustrations from
those publications have been reproduced here.
In particular, thanks are due to:
Alumasc
Aluminium Federation
Aluminium Window Association
Avdon
Baco Contracts
British Alcan Building Products
British Alcan Extrusions
British Alcan Rolled Products
Caradon Everest
Crittall Windows
Finalex
Glostal
Heywood Williams
Hydro Aluminium Century
Kawneer Europe
Kaye Aluminium
Pearce & Cutler

X
 Acknowledgements

Smart Systems
Stoakes Systems
Tru Architectural Products
The author also acknowledges all the information and help received
over many years by members of companies in the aluminium industry,
which has provided the strong technical background without which this
book would not have been possible.

xi
Introduction

Aluminium is a relatively young metal. It was in 1807 that Sir H u m p h r y

Davy first suspected the existence of the metal, but was unable to isolate
it. It was first isolated a few years later, in 1825, by H. C. Oersted in
Denmark, and by 1854 a Frenchman, Henri Claire De Ville, had deve-
loped a chemical extraction method using sodium that enabled small
quantities of the pure metal to be obtained from its oxide. At this time
aluminium was both a novelty and a 'precious' metal with its value
rivalling that of silver and gold. Indeed, the metal was so esteemed that
Napoleon III of France had a dinner service made from it.
Then in 1886 came the commercial breakthrough. Quite coinciden-
tally, two scientists working independently, Charles Hall in the USA and
Paul Heroult in France, discovered the electrolysis process for extracting
aluminium from its oxide, alumina. The process required significant
quantities of electricity and with major sources of electricity being estab-
lished in the same era commercialization of the electrolysis process, called
Hall-Heroult in honour of the two inventors, became a practical proposi-
tion. Rapid development followed with the metal's price falling from
£\ 000/tonne down to less than £100/tonne by the turn of the century.
The building industry was one of the first to appreciate the merits of the
lightweight, durable and silvery-looking metal. In 1897, the cupola of San
Gioacchino Church in Rome was covered with aluminium sheeting, and
five years later a Roman synagogue was also clad with the metal. Both are
still giving good service. An even earlier, and more well-known example is
the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus, London. This cast construction,

xii
 Introduction

erected in 1893, has since been renovated and found to be in excellent

condition.
Today the building industry is one of aluminium's major markets, using
alloys and finishes undreamt of in the early days, and utilizing casting,
rolling and extrusion processes to obtain a multitude of forms and shapes
for applications ranging from curtain rails and carpet edging to curtain
walling and space structures.
With about twenty million tonnes now being produced annually, alu-
minium has become the second most widely used metal after steel, and is
used for applications that have helped to revolutionize modern society.
For example, high-speed travel would not be possible without the signifi-
cant usage of aluminium in the construction of all kinds of transport, and
modern, high-speed printing presses would be ineffective without the use
of specially treated aluminium for litho plates.
The first part of this publication is a general discussion of the metal
covering aspects such as properties, alloys, fabrication, joining, finishing
and durability.
Then the characteristics of aluminium that are of particular import-
ance in building are discussed and the final part highlights some of the
major uses of aluminium in the building industry, as a demonstration of
the metal's versatility and range of applications.

xiii
Parti
THE METAL
1 Obtaining the metal

The solid matter of the earth's crust is made up of nearly a hundred

elements, the most abundant of which are oxygen, silicon, and then
aluminium. So aluminium is the third most common element and in the
form of various compounds the metal is very widely distributed. Minute
traces of aluminium salts are found in many foods for example, and the
element is one of those around which evolution on this planet has deve-
loped. Aluminium, unlike some other metals, does not occur naturally in
its pure metallic form. Only certain of the multitude of aluminium-
bearing minerals may be regarded as ores, since extraction from many of
them is currently too uneconomical. Commercial ores are grouped under
the generic term 'bauxite', derived from the medieval village of Les Baux
in Southern France, where high concentrations of hydrated aluminium
oxide are found, and where early mining of the ore took place.
There are widespread sources of bauxite throughout the world, includ-
ing in addition to Les Baux, Greece, Hungary, Jamaica, Africa, the USA,
Australia and South America. It is a metal in plentiful supply.
The reduction of bauxite to metal involves two main operations. First
the bauxite is treated chemically to remove impurities and obtain alu-
minium oxide, alumina (Figure 1.1(a)). Then using the Hall-Heroult
electrolysis process the alumina is reduced to aluminium, that is to say, the
oxygen is removed. The basic process discovered by Hall and Heroult is
still the one used today, although refinements in the techniques used have
resulted in much more power-efficient operations. The process involves a
bath of fused cryolite containing dissolved alumina which is electrolysed

3
Part I The metal

Mining of bauxite takes place in many parts of the world

by the passage of a high amperage, low voltage current between carbon

anodes and the carbon lining of the cell, which forms the cathode. The
alumina is decomposed into oxygen and aluminium. The former is liber-
ated at the anodes and the pure aluminium sinks to the bottom of the cell
from where it is tapped off periodically and cast ready for further treat-
ment (Figure 1.1 (b)). The production process operates with many of these
electrolytic cells being connected in series of lines (known as pot lines) of
up to 150 in number. Continuous operation is maintained as a necessity to
avoid the cooling down and subsequent solidifying of the baths.
Cheap electrical power is the key to the production of low-price, high-
grade aluminium. Hydroelectric power was the obvious first source, and
the aluminium industry has its origins in areas like Switzerland, Scotland,
Canada and Norway where water power was available in abundance to
be harnessed for the production of electricity.
Today, hydropower remains a major source of electricity for alumin-
ium extraction, and one which is completely acceptable environmentally,
while in addition coal, natural gas and nuclear energy are also utilized. In
the U K for example, there are smelters operating using electricity gener-
ated from hydropower, coal, and nuclear energy.

4
 Figure 1.1 From bauxite to aluminium: (a) stage 1 - the chemical process; (b) stage 2 - the electrolytic process
5
Part I The metal

General view inside an aluminium smelter showing the lines of''pots' in which the alumina
(aluminium oxide) is turned into pure aluminium

6
 1 Obtaining the metal

Hydroelectric power has been used in the Scottish highlands by British Alcan since 1894. The
Laggan dam, seen here, is part of a project thatfeeds water to British Alcan's Lochaber power
station at the foot of Ben Nevis. First opened in 1929 the power station supplies the adjacent
Lochaber smelter, which produces around 40 000 tonnes of aluminium annually

The Lochaber smelter of British Alcan at the foot of Ben Nevis. The pipes carrying the water
down the mountainside to the power station are clearly visible

7
2 Properties of the metal

Aluminium's unique properties have set the metal apart as a special

building material exhibiting outstanding properties: strength, lightness,
durability and versatility. There are many other properties of aluminium
that make it particularly suitable for specific applications outside building
- its electrical properties make the metal ideal for busbar and overhead
cables; its heat conductivity makes it ideal for car radiators and hollow-
ware; its malleability and compatibility with foodstuffs provide many uses
in packaging, and its surface treatment characteristics make aluminium
the major material for lithographic printing plates. But in the construc-
tion industry it is the combination of strength and light weight, the high
natural resistance to atmospheric attack, and the ease with which the
metal can be formed that have led to such a wide range of vastly different
uses for aluminium in building.
Additionally the ease with which the metal's surface can be treated in
various ways to provide a range of decorative and protective finishes adds
to aluminium's list of advantages.

Alloys
U p to this point reference has been made only to 'pure aluminium' and
'the metal'. In fact the term 'aluminium' is widely used generically to
encompass a whole family of alloys - each with its own specific properties
and applications.

8
 2 Properties of the metal

Table 2.1 Properties of some typical casting alloys used in building

Mechanical properties

Minimum tensile Elongation

strength (MPa) (min) %
Alloy Casting process
BS 1490 Condition Sand Chill Sand Chill and applications

LM2 M - 150 - Pressure diecastings

(AI-Si10Cu2-Fe) General purpose

LM4 M 140 160 2 2 Sand, permanent

(Al-Si 5-Cu3) T6 230 280 mould and pressure
diecasting
General purpose

LM5 M 140 170 3 5 Sand and permanent

(Al-Mg 5) mould. Takes good
anodic finish

LM6 M 160 190 5 7 All processes

(Al-Si 12) Good castability
and corrosion
resistance

LM24 M - 180 1.5 Pressure diecastings

(Al-Si 8-Cu3-Fe) General purpose
similar to LM2

LM25 M 130 160 2 3 Sand and permanent

(Al-Si 7-Mg) T6 230 280 2 mould castings
Offers good mechanical
properties

LM27 M 140 160 1 2 All processes

(Al-Si 7-Cu2) Similar to LM4

Pure aluminium easily alloys with many other elements. Among these,
magnesium, silicon, manganese, copper and iron are regularly used. More
recently lithium has been added to the range providing alloys of much
higher strength and lower density than any of the traditional alloys. These
Al-lithium alloys are of particular value for the aircraft industry but are
not expected to be used for general engineering applications owing to
their high cost of production.

Alloy classification

Aluminium and its alloys are divided into two broad classes, cast and
wrought. The latter class is subdivided into non heat-treatable and heat-
treatable alloys. In the non heat-treatable group, properties are altered by

9
Part I The metal

Table 2.2 Properties of some typical wrought alloys used in building

Mechanical properties''*

Tensile strength Elongation

0.2% proof minimum maximum on 50 mm Form and
Alloy Condition* stress MPa MPa minimum % applications

1080 A 0 - - 90 29 Sheet. Very malleable

(99.8% Al) Flashings

1200 0 70 105 30 Sheet and extrusions

(99.0% Al) H8 - 140 4 Standard commercial
purity
General purpose
—
3103 0 90 130 24 Sheet. Good all purpose
(Al-Mn1) H8 175 4 roofing sheet,
particularly profiled

5251 0 60 160 200 18 Sheet and extrusions

(Al-Mg2) H6 175 225 275 5 Improved strength and
good durability

5083 0 125 275 350 16 Sheet and extrusions

(Al-Mg4.&-Mn) H4 270 345 405 8 Structural alloy. Good in
marine environments

6063 T4 70 130 14 Extrusions

(Al-Mg-Si) T6 160 185 - 7 Most common
general purpose
extrusion alloy

6082 T4 120 190 - 14 Sheet and extrusions

(Al-Mg-Si-Mn) T6 270 310 8 Good structural alloy

* See Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for description. Other tempers and conditions may also be available for some
alloys.
** Properties depend on thickness and may vary from figure shown.

the degree of cold-working that is performed, such as rolling. In the heat-

treatable group, strength is affected by the application of various heat-
treatments.
Some casting alloys are also strengthened by heat-treatment.

Alloy d e s i g n a t i o n s

Castings

Casting alloys for general engineering applications are specified in

BS1490, aluminium alloy ingots and castings. They are numbered from 0

10
 2 Properties of the metal

Table 2.3 Typical characteristics and processing suitability of typical

wrought alloys

Material Resistance Suitability

designation to atmospheric forTIG/MIG Suitability
and temper attack Formability welding for anodizing

1080 A 0 E E E E
1200 0 V E V V
3103 O V E V G
5251 0 V V V V
5083 O V G E V
6063 T4 V V V V
6082 T4 V V V V

E = Excellent V = Very good G = Good

to 30 and prefixed with the letters L M (originally meaning light metal).

Not all of the numbers in the sequence are now in use. Various suffixes are
also employed to indicate the condition or heat-treatment condition of the
alloy.

Wrought

Wrought alloys are specified by a series of British Standard specifications.

They are classified by chemical composition in an internationally agreed
four-digit coding system. The first of the four digits indicates the alloy
group as decided by the major alloying elements included, and are as
follows:

lxxx Aluminium of 99.00% minimum purity or higher

2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Lithium and others
9xxx Unused series

The remaining three digits are available to indicate alloy modifications.

Wrought alloys are further subdivided into non heat-treatable (that is
work-hardening) and heat-treatable alloys.

11
Part I The metal

This light-weight access platform utilizes Close-up of the two main telescopic hollow
two specially designed telescopic sections. sections used in the Skywinder access plat-
The system is easily transported, assembled form
and dismantled (courtesy Skywinder)

Specific p r o p e r t i e s

Weight

Pure aluminium is one of the lighter elements with a density of 2.7 g/cm 3
(0.098 lb/in 3 ). The densities of its alloys vary, most of them fall within the
relatively narrow band of 2.63-2.80 g/cm 3 , while the lithium-based alloys
have a density of around 2.55 g/cm 3 .
Those alloys with densities lower than that of pure aluminium, apart
from the lithium ones, are those in the A l - M g series, due to magnesium
being lighter than aluminium.

Strength and ductility

As a very rough guide, strength and ductility are inversely proportional.

When one is high the other is low. Where severe forming is to be carried
out, for example on a roof flashing, then the material being used (for

12
 2 Properties of the metal

Testing a metal sample for its tensile properties

example commercial-purity sheet) should be specified in the soft, ductile

condition designated by the alloy suffix ' O ' .
Tensile strength is not significantly affected by temperature fluctua-
tions in atmospheric conditions, but if very high temperature service
conditions are anticipated then it should be noted that aluminium alloys
begin to lose strength slightly above 100°C. Above 200°C there is a more
significant drop, so advice should be sought if these relatively high operat-
ing temperatures are likely to be encountered.
Unlike mild steel, aluminium does not have a sharply defined yield
point, and so a proof stress figure is normally used for design calculations.
The 0.2 per cent proof stress is defined as that stress which produces, while
a load is still applied, a non-proportional extension equal to 0.2 per cent of
the gauge length.

Elasticity

Young's modulus of elasticity for aluminium is about one-third that of

steel. This means that an aluminium structural member under load, and
having the same section properties as a steel member will deflect to a
greater extent than the steel one. The impact absorption properties of the
aluminium are greater than those of an equivalent steel member.
To obtain equivalent or better rigidity than with steel it is common

13
Part I The metal

Figure 2.1 Aluminium 'copy' of a steel design for a trench shoring section
used in the construction industry (A); redesign to maximize the
structural characteristics (B)

practice with aluminium sections to make them thinner and deeper than
their steel counterparts. By designing to take advantage of the different
characteristics of aluminium compared with steel the best results can be
obtained (Figure 2.1).
As a general approximation it can be said that if an aluminium section
is designed to have the same stiffness as the steel section it replaces, its
weight will be one-half that of the steel section, rather than one-third if an
exact copy were made.

Corrosion resistance

The aluminium oxide 'skin' that is always present on the surface of

aluminium exposed to oxygen provides both excellent atmospheric dura-
bility and resistance to a large number of chemicals. It is this excellent
durability that is one of the main reasons why aluminium is so widely used
throughout the building and construction industry. This ever-present
oxide skin may be thickened electrolytically to give enhanced protective
properties; the electrolytic process, known as anodizing, is extensively
used commercially to improve the durability of aluminium building com-
ponents and products. It is also used to provide distinctive decorative
colour finishes.

Thermal expansion

Pure aluminium has a coefficient of linear expansion of 24 x 10~ 6 /°Cover

the range 20-100°C. Alloying elements have only a very small effect upon

14
 2 Properties of the metal

the value of this coefficient. This means that the dimensional increase with
a given rise in temperature is about twice that of steel but only one-third
that of polyvinyl chloride (pvc), for example. Such differences in expan-
sion and contraction need to be considered where aluminium is used in bi-
metallic or composite constructions, and the relative expansions of alter-
native materials may well be a deciding factor in the selection of material
for a given application - for example the choice of aluminium versus pvc
for window frames or guttering in hot climates.

Conductivity

Pure aluminium has a heat conductivity value of 230 W/m/°C which gives
the metal a conductivity 60 per cent that of copper and 450 per cent that
of mild steel. This good heat conductivity is exploited in many appli-
cations, ranging from the long-standing traditional example of hollow-
ware to industrial heat-exchangers and automotive radiators.
Thermal conductivity reduces with increased alloying of aluminium.

Reflectivity

A bright aluminium surface reflects about 75 per cent of the light and 90
per cent of the heat radiation that falls upon it. These radiation properties
are not significantly lowered by the natural surface dulling and oxidizing
that can occur over the passage of time.
These reflectivity properties, along with the metal's impermeability are
being put to good use as thermal insulation barriers in domestic, office
and industrial buildings.

15
Part I The metal

3 Fabrication of a l u m i n i u m
alloys

Virgin aluminium produced in the smelting process may be converted

into a number of semi-fabricated forms. These are rolled products, includ-
ing plate, sheet and foil; other rolled products such as bar, rod and wire;
extruded products, including solid and hollow sections and tubes; cast-
ings, either sand, gravity die or pressure die; forgings; impact extrusions;
and paste.
The major product groups of interest to the building industry are
briefly described in the following sections.

Rolled products
The definitions of rolled products are as follows:

Plate: Flat material, either hot or cold rolled, over 6 mm in thickness.

Sheet: Cold rolled material, either flat in thicknesses over 0.2 mm but not
exceeding 6 mm, or coiled in thicknesses over 0.2 mm but up to
3 mm only.
Foil: Cold rolled material in thicknesses of less than 0.2 mm.

Rolling aluminium and its alloys is one of the major ways of converting
cast primary aluminium from the smelters into a usable industrial form.

16
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

By rolling, it is possible to reduce an ingot of primary metal down to plate

material having a maximum thickness of around 250 mm, right down to
the thinnest of foil thicknesses, sometimes as little as 0.006 mm, approxi-
mately one-third the thickness of a human hair.
The rolling of cast aluminium changes its metallic structure and the
metal takes on new characteristics and properties. The brittleness of the
coarse cast structure is replaced by a stronger and more ductile material,
with the degrees of strength and ductility being variable factors that are
functions of the amount of rolling given to the metal, the rolling tempera-
ture and the alloy composition.
Rolling of aluminium consists of two basic stages. First a slab, or ingot,
of aluminium weighing up to 12 tonnes is hot rolled by repeated passes
through a 'breaking-down' mill followed by a pass through a series of mills
operating in tandem in order to obtain a coil of metal having a thickness
of approximately 5 mm. The second stage consists of a series of cold rolling
operations taking the metal to its final thickness.
Hot rolling takes place using ingot that has been scalped on each side to
remove oxide and surface roughness and then heated in special furnaces to
a temperature of around 500°C. At this temperature, which varies slightly
according to the alloy being rolled, the metal is malleable enough to
withstand severe thickness reduction per pass through the mill without
undergoing any work-hardening. By hot rolling, an ingot having a thick-

Handling an aluminium ingot prior to hot rolling

17
Part I The metal

//o£ rolling an aluminium ingot at the Rogers tone Works of British Alcan Rolled Products

Twelve-tonne aluminium coils on the hot-mill tandem at British Alcan Rolled Products

18
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

ness of, say, 380 mm can be reduced down to a coiled length having a
thickness of 5 mm without any recourse to intermediate annealing (soften-
ing). Plate material, defined as over 6 mm thick, and often many times
this thickness is almost entirely produced by hot rolling only. It is only the
thinnest of plate material, approaching the upper thickness limits of sheet,
that is sometimes given a final cold rolling pass.
All sheet and coil material undergoes a series of passes through cold
mills in which the metal thickness is progressively reduced. During these
passes cold-working of the metal takes place resulting in metal hardening.
This phenomenon is exploited in those alloys known as 'work-hardening'
alloys to obtain sheet and coil having differing hardness and ductility.
Thus not only do mechanical properties vary from alloy to alloy but also
within a single alloy specification by altering the work-hardening content.
A further group of alloys, those known as heat-treatable, gain their
strength from a heat-treatment process after final rolling. Table 3.1 shows
the effect of increased hardness on strength of the alloy.

Table 3.1 Temper description

Minimum tensile strength

Description UK designation MPa 1200 alloy*

Annealed, fully soft 0 70

As manufactured M -
Quarter-hard H2 95
Half-hard H4 110
Three-quarters hard H6 125
Fully-hard H8 140

'Shown as an illustration of the effect of increasing temper on strength.

Aluminium foil is produced in a similar manner to sheet using specia-

lized mills that enable the metal thickness to be reduced to the finest of
webs. A particular characteristic of foil rolling is that of 'double rolling'
where two layers of metal are rolled together with touching surfaces. This
technique enables fast, accurate rolling of very thin foil to take place with
a minimum risk of web breakage under the tensions applied during
rolling. The process results in the characteristic appearance of foil having
one surface bright and the other matt.
During the rolling operation it is possible to introduce patterns and
surface texture into the metal, by using special embossed rolls. By this
means heavily embossed plate, known as tread-plate, which is popular in
many building and construction applications, patterned sheet for a var-
iety of decorative uses from tea trays to kick plates, and textured foil for

19
Part I The metal

High-speed cold rolling of aluminium foil

many decorative and functional uses in applications from packaging to

insulation can be produced.

Extruded p r o d u c t s

The versatility of aluminium as a metal is complemented by the design

scope offered by the extrusion process. Other metals can be extruded but
none with the ease of aluminium and its alloys. Plastics materials can be
extruded into shapes just as complicated, but the tooling involved is
considerably more complex and expensive. Relatively speaking the costs
for producing aluminium extrusion dies are inexpensive and so the pro-
duction of special shapes for specific individual applications is common-
place. This is evidenced by the many thousands of extrusion dies held by
U K extruders.
The ductility of aluminium in a hot state enables an unlimited variety
of shapes to be produced. Not all shapes imaginable can be extruded as
there are certain production parameters that must be observed, but
within these limitations the range of shape complexity that can be
achieved is considerable. The availability of the extrusion process has,
over the past few decades, revolutionized the design approach to many
products and problems. Today's aluminium window frames and commer-

20
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

An aluminium extrusion leaving the mouth of the press during the extrusion operation (courtesy
Kaye Aluminium)

cial curtain walling sections are typical examples. Designing with alu-
minium extrusions is different from designing with other metals or with
wood. Because so many features can be built into a single extruded shape,
fabrication and assembly of components is simplified and design scope is
greatly increased.
Put in its most simplistic form, extrusion may be compared to the
domestic operation of squeezing icing through a syringe, where the shape
of the squeezed-out icing is determined by the shape of the nozzle orifice.
Aluminium extrusions are made by forcing hot metal through a specially
shaped opening in a steel die. Blocks of cylindrically-shaped aluminium
are heated to a temperature of around 500°C and then inserted in a

21
Part I The metal

Putting the finishing touches to an extrusion die (courtesy Finalex)

These two extrusions demonstrate the way in which multiple features can be incorporated into
an extrusion design. Here we have a hinge fit, clip fit, decorative grooving and channels

container in a hydraulic press. The ductility of the hot metal enables it to

be forced through very complex shapes both solid and hollow, producing
sections of incredible complexity with relative ease.
Most extrusion alloys fall in the heat-treatable category, which means
that the strength of an extruded section is determined by its alloy specifi-
cation and by the heat-treatment processing it receives after extrusion.
Significantly, for some alloys the temperature and time required for
solution heat-treatment corresponds with the temperature of extrusion

22
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

Cylindrical billets of aluminium alloy are the General view of an extrusion bay showing
starting stock for hot extrusion aluminium extrusions on the run-out table
(courtesy Finalex)

and duration of extrusion time. This means that in effect, these particular
alloys may be considered to be in the first stage of heat-treatment as the
metal leaves the extrusion die. The second stage of heat-treatment, that of
rapid quenching can be, and is, accomplished by forced-air cooling or
water immersion at the press exit. Thus the most commonly used
medium-strength architectural alloys, such as 6063 (Al-Mg-Si), are heat-
treated as part of the extrusion operation, providing an extremely effec-
tive process both from metallurgical and cost considerations.
Some other alloys, such as 6082, need to be 'aged' to provide a full heat-
treatment. This final operation is carried out at relatively low tempera-
tures (around 170°C) in special ageing ovens, or in some cases is allowed
to take place at ambient temperature over an extended period of time.
Annealing, of course, is a type of heat treatment. It is a process used to
soften the aluminium to obtain maximum ductility. By contrast the other
heat-treatment processes are used to strengthen the metal and the ter-
minology of 'heat-treatment' is accepted as applying to the process of
strengthening rather than softening (Table 3.2).

Castings

Casting is one of the oldest processes for producing articles in metal. There
are many excellent aluminium alloys that have been specially designed for
casting using processes from sand casting to gravity die- and pressure die-

23
 Part I The metal

24
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

Standard shapes as well as complex specials are available

25
Part I The metal

Table 3.2 Heat-treatment designations

The following symbols are used in the UK as suffixes to the alloy designation
to denote the condition of the metal specified:

Description Designation

Annealed, soft 0
As manufactured
(direct from the press with no special treatment) F
Solution heat treated and naturally aged T4
Cooled and artificially aged T5
Solution heat treated and artificially aged T6

casting. The alloys are quite different in composition from wrought alloys,
and have been formulated to give the specific qualities of metal flow and
cooling required to make high-quality castings.
There are three main groups of casting alloy:

Aluminium-silicon
Aluminium-copper
Aluminium-magnesium

The aluminium-silicon alloys are very popular. They combine good

castability, pressure tightness and resistance to corrosion with a good
range of mechanical and physical properties. The range of silicon content
is from around 2 per cent to 13 per cent depending upon the specification.
Automotive and industrial components, and various household appliance
parts are typical end uses. Anodizing can be carried out but the finish
obtained darkens as the silicon content increases and it is not possible to
obtain a good colour match with anodized wrought components.
The aluminium-copper alloys are more susceptible to a defect known
as hot-shortness, which is overcome by correct foundry technique, but
have the advantage of offering excellent machining characteristics. Many
stressed parts are made of these alloys.
The third group is that of the aluminium-magnesium alloys. These
require more careful foundry techniques particularly to minimize the
tendency to oxidation. However, the group provides alloys of high
strength, excellent corrosion resistance and finishing characteristics. Such
alloys therefore are well suited for architectural components where dura-
bility and good appearance are required.
There are three processes of casting in common practice. These are
sand, permanent mould and die-casting.
Moulds made from sand are used where the number of pieces to be
made does not justify the expense of making metal moulds or where the

26
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

size of casting involved is very large. Sand moulds are fed with molten
metal through carefully placed 'runners' with the avoidance of air pockets
being a prime consideration. 'Risers' are included in the mould to allow
molten metal to 'escape' and to provide reservoirs of hot metal to offset
shrinkage.
Permanent cast-iron moulds give a more economical process both
because of the higher production rate that is possible and because of the
closer dimensional accuracy and smoother surfaces that are obtained,
which reduce after-casting finishing. Metal moulds are generally fed by
gravity but forced flow of the molten aluminium is sometimes achieved by
low-pressure injection.
Die-casting involves the injection of molten metal under pressure or
vacuum into a steel die. It is a high-speed process well suited to the
economic production of small castings in high volume.
The alloys used for die-casting are not suitable for subsequent heat-
treatment, and because of the tendency to porosity the method is not used
for castings requiring to be highly stressed. The close dimensional accur-
acy that is achieved means that castings require very little subsequent
machining before use.

Wire and bar

Bar is defined as round, rectangular or polygonal solid section supplied in

straight lengths. Such material is not less than 6 mm diameter or width
across flats.
Wire is material of similar shape, but no more than 10 mm diameter or
width across flats. It is usually supplied in coil form.
Wire and bar are produced by first hot and then cold working. In the
hot rolling stage heated rod is passed between a series of grooved rolls,
taking the metal diameter down to around 10 mm, after which further
reductions are made by cold drawing. Hot rolling of bar is a high-speed,
low-cost method of producing large quantities of bar in a selected alloy
and size. Bar may also be produced by extrusion in a similar manner to
the production of other extruded shapes.
Wire is produced from hot rolled bar by high-speed cold drawing,
followed by coiling.
Various alloys are used for wire and bar. These include electrical
conductor alloy, high-strength, heat-treatable alloys for rivets and small
stressed parts (particularly in aircraft), machining stock, various welding
and brazing filler alloys, and general-purpose mechanical engineering
materials.

27
Part I The metal

Forgings

Developed to highly sophisticated modern production from the elemen-

tary craft of the blacksmith, forging is a process that can produce alu-
minium alloy components of high metallurgical properties. The basic
production practice is that of die-forging where the aluminium is ham-
mered or squeezed between a set of steel dies machined to the exact shape
required and highly polished.
Forging reached its zenith when propeller-driven aircraft were at their
peak and forged propeller blades were made in large quantities.
Coining is a supplementary process to die-forging, carried out when
high dimensional accuracy is required on small forgings. The production
of aluminium alloy coins having the virtues of lightness, durability and
cheapness compared with other coinage metals, is a typical 'coining'
operation.

Forming

Aluminium and its alloys are among the most readily formable of the
commonly fabricated construction metals.
Aluminium alloys vary widely in their formability characteristics
depending upon the alloy composition and its temper. The choice of an
alloy for a particular application therefore depends upon the severity of
the forming operation involved and on other considerations such as
required strength, corrosion-resistance and surface finish.
Most of the equipment used in the forming of steel and other metals is
suitable for use with aluminium alloys. However, the press force required
is usually lower than for comparable operations on steel and higher press
operating speeds are obtainable. Similarly equipment for roll forming,
spinning, stretching and other operations need not be as massive as for
comparable steel forming.
Although tool wear generated when forming aluminium is less than
that with steel so that in principle tools can be made from less expensive
materials, it is usual for many forming operations to use hardened steel
tools. This is because these tools withstand aluminium's highly abrasive
oxide surface. Surface finish of the tooling is important too, and a highly
polished surface is essential to avoid marking the aluminium.
The most important point for a designer and specifier is that aluminium
responds well to forming and machining operations, offering considerable
design freedom whether that be expressed in flowing curves of polished
extrusions for handrailing or the profiling of sheet cladding for a commer-
cial building.

28
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

Multiple punching of a glass-house member

All of the standard metal-working practices such as sawing, cutting,

punching, mitring, drilling and shearing are performed on aluminium
materials, although the ground rules for dealing with a softer metal than
steel are rather different - clearances, bend radii, lubrication, cutting and
rake angles and saw-teeth density, for example, all require to be modified
to suit the particular aluminium alloy being fabricated. Standard refer-
ence books are available that give detailed information. (The Aluminium
Federation library is a good source.)

Blanking

Blanking of aluminium sheet is generally carried out on punch presses;

these give a high production rate and enable the maintenance of close
tolerances. Press brakes may also be used, generally for short-run produc-
tion or experimental work.

Roll forming

Aluminium alloys are readily shaped by roll-forming. High operating

speeds and efficient production are attainable.
The process is one well known to the architectural profession. Many
thousands of tonnes of aluminium sheet have been processed into profiled

29
Part I The metal

Forming profiled sheet from pre-painted aluminium coil

forms ranging from the simple sinusoidal corrugated sheeting to special

designs of ridged and troughed panels.
By employing a series of cylindrical dies in 'male' and 'female' sets,
sheet and plate can be progressively formed to final shape in a continuous
high-speed operation.

Stretch forming

Almost all of the aluminium sheet alloys can be shaped by stretch forming.
In this process the workpiece is stretched over a shaped form and stressed
beyond its yield point to produce the desired contour. Compound curves,
dimensional accuracy, wrinkle-free shapes and highly cost-effective com-
ponents can be produced with this method. The use of super plastic
aluminium alloy has extended the scope of this technique considerably
enabling severely but attractively formed panels to be produced. Extru-
sions, too, can be shaped with stretch forming equipment.

Pressing

High-speed presses are used to make aluminium products from foil con-
tainers for takeaway meals to saucepans and T V reception dishes. The
metal, normally in the soft, or annealed condition, unless only shallow

30
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

An attractive quadrant design of shop shelving made using super-forming aluminium sheet
finished in a silver metallic paint and clear lacquer. The shelves were installed in the 'Way-In'
department at Harrods, London

forming is involved, is formed between male and female dies with toler-
ances such that controlled metal movement is allowed during the forming
operation.

Drawing

Seamless, smooth-sided, cup-like shapes can be produced on either single-

or double-action presses depending upon the depth of draw. Electric lamp
caps, fish boxes, bottle tops and drinks cans are all examples of drawn
aluminium. The process for making drinks cans, now highly automated
and operating with multiple-strike tooling at very high speeds, is a sophis-
ticated multi-stage one involving blanking, drawing and then wall-iron-
ing to elongate and thin down the cylindrical sides of the cans.

Spinning

Aluminium is an ideal material to be worked by spinning, one of the

oldest metalworking crafts known. In its simplest form, a hardwood
mandrel, having the required contours of the bowl-shaped product to be
made, is fixed in the chuck of a spinning lathe. A flat, circular aluminium
blank (known as a circle) is held firmly against the mandrel and rotated
with it. By exerting pressure on the blank with a hardwood or metal
former, the blank is slowly forced to take up the shape of the mandrel,
while the metal thickness is reduced by up to 30 per cent.
The process has been widely used for years to produce hollow-ware but
it is also used to produce much larger items such as domed ends for
transport tankers and chemical plant vessels.

31
Part I The metal

Lighting reflectors made from spun and anodized aluminium alloy sheet

Forming a heavy-duty architectural flashing using a computer-controlled press brake

Bending

Aluminium in sheet and some plate thicknesses may be bent on standard

press brakes. Techniques are similar to those for steel, differing only in
some details of tool design. In particular, bend radii for 90° cold bends are

32
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

generally greater than for steel (Table 3.3). Not only sheet but tube and
variously-shaped extrusions can be bent and curved.
The stresses and the metal flow in a section, particularly a hollow one,
being bent are complex. The material on the outside of a bend must be
permanently stretched, while that on the inside must be compressed. For
tubes and pipes the tension in the metal on the outside of the bend will
tend to cause flattening. Such flattening will decrease structural strength
and reduce the internal diameter, causing a constriction of flow if the tube
is to carry a liquid.
Thus bending conditions must provide for even stretching on the out-
side of the bend, control of wrinkling and buckling on the inside and
internal support to prevent flattening of the diameter.
The preferred type of tube bender is the 'draw-bender', in which the
point of bending remains fixed and the tube is clamped to a rotating form
and drawn through the point of bending. This type of bender enables a
smooth contour to be maintained during the bending operation, while a
mandrel inserted in the bore minimizes any flattening.
The minimum bend radius for a particular tube size will depend on the
alloy and temper of the metal and on the bending equipment. Certain
basic facts influence the acceptable severity of a bend. The heavier the
wall thickness the less the tendency to flatten and wrinkle. The smaller the
tube diameter the easier the bending becomes because there is reduced
metal flow.
The bending of solid sections follows similar principles, but it is some-
times possible to facilitate section bending by notching or cutting out
metal in an area of bend compression. This removes completely the metal
that would otherwise be wrinkled and buckled in the bending operation.
Depending upon the particular application of the section it may or may
not be desirable to weld the cut section after bending.
Furniture and window frame sections are examples of successful bend-
ing on a regular production basis, and many industries are successfully
taking advantage of the scope offered by modern sophisticated bending
and stretch-forming machinery.

Machining

Aluminium alloys are readily machinable and may be cut at high speeds.
The metal, however, differs in its characteristics from steel, and in parti-
cular two important considerations have to be allowed for in all machin-
ing operations. Aluminium has a high coefficient of friction with steel and
hence polished tools and good lubrication are essential to maintain the
cutting edges and prevent tearing. Also aluminium has a higher thermal
coefficient of expansion than steel and a coolant in the form of a cutting

33
34

Table 3.3 Approximate bend radii* for 90° cold bend in various aluminium alloys of different thicknesses and
tempers

Alloy Temper Radii for various thicknesses (in mm) expressed in terms of thickness 't'
0.40 0.80 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 9.5 12.7

0 0 0 0 0 Vat 1t 1t r/at
H2 0 0 0 Vat 1t 1t 1Vat 2t
1200 H4 0 0 0 1t 1t 11/at 2t 2Vat
H6 0 y2t 1t 1Vat 11/at 2 Vat 3t 4t
H8 1t it 1
1 /2t 21/2t 3t 31/2t 4t 41/at

0 0 0 0 1
/at 1t 1t 21/at 4t
2014A T4 11/2t 21/2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 6t 7t
T6 3t 4t 4t 5t 6t 8t 81/2t 91/2t

0 0 0 0 0 Vat 1t 1t 1Vat
H2 0 0 0 Vat 1t 1t 11/at 2t
3103 H4 0 0 0 1t 1t 11/2t 2t 21/2t
H6 Vat 1t 1t 11/2t 2 Vat 3t 31/2t 4t
H8 1t 1Vat 2t 21/2t 31/2t 41/at 51/at 61/2t

0 0 Vat 1t 1t 1t 11/at 11/at 2t

5454 H2 y2t Vat 1t 2t 2t 21/at 3t 4t
H4 y2t 1t 1
1 /2t 2t 21/2t 3t 31/2t 4t

0 0 0 0 1t 1t 1t 11/2t 2t
6082 T4 0 0 1t 11/2t 2 Vat 3t 3Yat 4t
T6 it 1t 11/at 21/2t 3t 31/2t 41/at 5t

0 0 0 1t 1t 1
1 /at 21/2t 31/at 4t
7075
T6 3t 4t 5t 6t 6t 8t 9t 91/2t

* The radii listed are the minimum recommended for bending sheets and plates without fracturing in a standard press brake with air bend dies. Other types of bending
operations may require larger radii or permit smaller radii. The minimum permissible radii will also vary with the design and condition of the tooling.
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

Curving a length of specially profiled fascia trim for a Ford Motor Company forecourt
showroom

liquid is generally necessary to prevent excessive stresses in the work or the

machine.
Chip-forming characteristics also vary from alloy to alloy. Lower-
strength wrought alloys produce long, ribbon-like chips whereas the high-
strength heat-treatable alloys produce relatively short chips. For the
large-scale production of repetition machined-parts a special machining
alloy containing small percentages of lead and bismuth offers the machin-
ist characteristics similar to those of free-machining brass. Aluminium
casting alloys have good machining characteristics particularly those
containing copper or magnesium.
In general it may be concluded that, given the correct choice of tooling
material, angles, lubrication and cutting speed, aluminium alloys in all
forms from thick aircraft alloy plate to small parts machined from bar,
and from automotive castings to milled, drilled and tapped furniture
fittings may be machined with ease.

35
Part I The metal

The reception area at Laporte Industries offices, Luton, gets a bright, clean appearance with
this use of aluminium fenestration involving both rectangular and curved windows

36
 3 Fabrication of aluminium alloys

Computer-programmed machining of an aluminium extrusion forming part of a high-tech

computer station furniture unit (courtesy Shape Engineering)

37
4 Joining

For many applications it is necessary to use a joining process, and there is

a wide range of methods available for aluminium, including soldering,
brazing, welding and adhesive bonding. These processes are all widely
used commercially to join products ranging from aircraft skins and chemi-
cal tankers to pan handles and transformer windings.
It is not all that long ago since aluminium was regarded as difficult to
join other than by mechanical methods. This was because the processes
applied were those already in use for steel, a much older and more
established metal, and they were not fully suited to aluminium, with its
different metallurgical characteristics.
Today, processes are available that enable wrought aluminium to be
joined whatever its thickness or alloy from the thinnest of electrical foils to
the thickest piece of armoured plating.

Characteristics

There are a number of particular characteristics of aluminium to bear in

mind when considering joining - particularly soldering, brazing and
welding.

1 All aluminium alloys have a tenacious, hard, oxide film that forms
instantly when an aluminium surface is exposed to air. This oxide has
a very high melting point (around 2000°C), and is virtually insoluble

38
 4 Joining

in the metal; thus inhibiting wetting by molten filler metals. This

oxide skin therefore needs to be removed or broken up during the
welding process to ensure good wetting and fusion.
2 Aluminium has thermal and electrical conductivities approximately
four times greater than steel. Higher heat inputs are therefore necess-
ary for fusion welding with aluminium, and also increased current for
resistance welding.
3 The metal is highly reflective to radiant energy including visible light
and heat. Unlike steel it does not assume a colour change as the fusion
temperature is approached and so judgement criteria as to whether
the metal is becoming molten are changed.
4 Aluminium is non-magnetic and so 'arc blow' is not encountered with
aluminium as it can be with steel.
5 The linear coefficient of thermal expansion is about twice that of steel.
However, the temperature melting range is only about half. Thus
during welding, the expansion for identical aluminium and steel com-
ponents is about equal as the effects of the expansion coefficient and
melting range tend to balance each other out.
6 The heating applied during soldering, brazing or welding has a soften-
ing effect on the metal in the region of the join. This means, for
example, that work-hardened alloy material will be locally annealed.
This needs to be allowed for in the component design, the selection of
the joining process (Table 4.1) and the manufacturing procedures.

Alloys
The alloying of aluminium by the addition of quantities of other elements
such as silicon, copper, magnesium, zinc and lithium produces alloys with
a wide range of differing properties. These changes in properties deter-
mined by the metallurgical composition selected are accompanied by
changes in joining characteristics. Some alloys respond much better than
others to different joining processes (Table 4.2). However adhesive bond-
ing, subject to the choice of correct metal surface pre-treatment, and also
ultrasonic and solid-state welding methods, are effective on all alloys. The
latter two welding methods have only specialized applications and are not
in general usage.

Welding
The two most important and widely used methods for the fusion welding
of aluminium are the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) and Metal Inert Gas

39
Part I The metal

Table 4.1 Principal joining processes

The most commonly used processes

Fusion welding TIG
MIG
electron beam
laser beam
oxyacetylene
(possible but not
recommended for
good quality work)
electrogas
electroslag
submerged arc

Soldering

Brazing torch
flux-dip
vacuum/inert gas

Adhesive bonding

Resistance welding spot

seam

Stud

Flash-butt

Other less commonly used processes include:

Solid state friction
explosive
ultrasonic
cold pressure
hot pressure

(MIG) processes.
With these two processes, fluxes are not required because the use of an
inert gas shield prevents re-oxidation of the metal surface after the cleans-
ing action of the electric arc has removed the oxide.
Both these processes give high-quality welds in stressed structures and
are suitable for welding in all positions. It is possible, depending upon the
application and chosen process, to weld thicknesses from 0.5 mm up to 75
mm or more. This thickness range is extended by the use of automatic
procedures. Development work within the industry is seeking to extend
the maximum thickness for welding. This is of particular importance for
off-shore oil rig applications where increased use of aluminium is antici-
pated for above sea-level structures, including accommodation and hous-
ing units.

40
 4 Joining

Table 4.2 Joining suitability

Alloy TIG/MIG Resistance Brazing Soldering

1080A V G V V
1050A V V V V
1200 V V V V
2014A N E N N
3103 V E V V
3105 V V G G
5005 E E G G
5083 E E N N
5154A E E N N
5251 V E N N
5454 E E N N
6061 V V V G
6063 V V V G
6082 V V G G
7010 V V N N
7020 V V N N
7075 N V N N

E = Excellent V = Very good G == Good N = Not recommended

TIG

In this process an alternating current arc is struck between a tungsten

electrode and the aluminium workpiece. A shroud of inert gas covers the
electrode and the weld area. A filler rod, if required, is fed in indepen-
dently.
The method allows close control by the operator of both the heat input
and the amount of filler material fed into the weld and it is particularly
applicable for the intricate torch manipulation required for pipework and
complex structures.

MIG

In the M I G process a direct current arc of reverse polarity (with the

electrode positive), shielded by an inert gas shroud, is struck between the
aluminium and a continuously fed aluminium wire electrode which
undergoes controlled melting at the tip and so acts as the filler material.
The process lends itself to high-speed automatic welding but lacks the
penetration control possible with T I G welding.

Filler wires

A variety of filler wires in different alloys and diameters is available. It is

important to select the appropriate filler for the alloy being welded in

41
Part I The metal

Fabricating an aluminium sheet architectural corner piece using TIG manual welding

order to achieve compatibility, and particularly to avoid the possibility of

weld cracking (Table 4.3).

Brazing
Many aluminium alloys can be brazed. The process is widely used com-
mercially and has particular importance nowadays for the production of
automotive radiators.
The filler metals used are invariably aluminium—silicon alloys with a
silicon content ranging from about 7.5 per cent up to 12 per cent. For
many sheet products an aluminium sheet clad with a thin layer of Al-Si
alloy sheet is frequently used, particularly for furnace or dip brazing, thus
avoiding the need for an applied filler metal. Such material, known as
brazing sheet, can be formed easily by conventional means.
As with soldering, chemical fluxes are required except where furnace
brazing is carried out in vacuum or inert gas. Any corrosive flux residues
must be removed after brazing, and after proper cleaning brazed joints
have excellent corrosion resistance. Much development work has been
done on non-corrosive fluxes and Nocolok is one proprietary flux that
gives good results.

42
 Table 4.3 Selection of filler rods and wires for MIG and TIG welding
Parent Metal Combination 7020 6082 6063 6061 6101A 5083 5454 5154A 5251 5005 3105 3103 1200 1050A 1080A

1080A 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A
and 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5154A 5056A 5154A 5056A 3103 3103 1050A 1050A 1080A
1050A 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 1050A 1050A 1050A 1050A 1080A
1200 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A 4043A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5154A 5056A 5154A 5056A 3103 3103 1050A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 1050A 1050A 1050A
3103 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5154A 5154A 5154A 5056A 3103 3103
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A 4043A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 3103 3103
3105 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5154A 5154A 5154A 5056A 3103
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 4043A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 3103
5005 5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5154A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5154A 5154A 5154A 5154A
5556A 4043A 4043A 4043A 4043A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5154A
5251 5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5556A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5154A 5154A 5554
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5556A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5154A 5556A 5556A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5054A 5554 5154A
5056A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5154A 5154A 5154A
5454 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5556A 5556A
5154A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5554
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5154A 5554
5083 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A
5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A
5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A 5556A
5056A 5056A 5056A 5056A NA 5056A
6061 NR 4043A 4043A 4043A
NR 4043A 4043A 4043A
NR 4043A 4043A 4043A
NR 5056A 5056A 5056A
6082 NR 4043A
NR 4043A
NR 4043A
NR 5056A
7020 5556A
5556A
5556A
5556A

R e c o m m e n d e d f i l l e r m a t e r i a l s for e a c h c o m b i n a t i o n of m a t e r i a l s to be w e l d e d a r e s h o w n in o n e box, w h i c h is l o c a t e d by t r a v e r s i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y a n d v e r t i c a l l y f r o m the a p p r o p r i a t e p a r e n t m e t a l s . The f i l l e r m a t e r i a l for m a x i m u m w e l d

s t r e n g t h is s h o w n on the top line. The filler m a t e r i a l for m a x i m u m r e s i s t a n c e to c o r r o s i o n (see CP 118 a n d BS 1500 Part 3) is s h o w n o n the s e c o n d line. The f i l l e r m a t e r i a l for f r e e d o m f r o m p e r s i s t e n t w e l d c r a c k i n g is s h o w n on t h e t h i r d l i n e .
43

The f i l l e r m a t e r i a l for o p t i m u m c o l o u r m a t c h i n g w h e n w e l d s a r e to be a n o d i z e d is s h o w n on the b o t t o m line. Note: NA = Not a p p l i c a b l e . NR = P a r e n t m e t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s not r e c o m m e n d e d .

Part I The metal

Brazing joint strength is very high and joints can be made rapidly and
inexpensively. Joints that are inaccessible and so not joinable by other
methods can often be joined by brazing. Automotive radiators are a good
example.

Soldering

Removal of the aluminium oxide skin is the important part of all alumin-
ium soldering operations. This removal operation generally requires the
use of an active corrosive flux, although fluxless soldering using a mecha-
nical means of abrading the oxide skin is effective for certain joint configu-
rations. Fluxes for aluminium are inherently corrosive and any residue left
after soldering can cause corrosion problems, and must therefore be
removed.
Various solders have been developed for use with aluminium alloys.
These can be classified into three groups low, intermediate and high
temperature depending upon the constituents of the solder. In general it
may be stated that the joint strength and corrosion resistance increase as
the soldering temperature increases, but conversely the ease of application
decreases.
Most aluminium alloys can be soldered.

Joint preparation

With all fusion welding, brazing and soldering, it is essential to thor-

oughly clean the joint area prior to welding. Additionally, depending
upon the metal thickness, edge preparation (such as tapering for example)
may need to be carried out.

Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding of aluminium has been carried out successfully for

many years, particularly in the aircraft industry. Recently it has assumed
increasing importance in the automotive industry where its use is enabling
very stiff aluminium structures to be assembled. Increased interest in
adhesive bonding is being shown in the general engineering industry.
A very high strength-to-weight ratio is achievable with this method.

44
 4 Joining

Laser welding

Laser welding is still very much in its infancy as a commercial method for
joining aluminium, but it is being used very successfully to make seam-
welded tube for double-glazing spacer bars.
The method suffers from the inherent problem caused by the high
reflectivity of aluminium, which dissipates much of the incident light
energy striking the metal surface during welding.

Joining to other m e t a l s

Various techniques exist for joining aluminium to other metals, with

adhesive bonding being perhaps the most adaptable (and also usable for
aluminium-to-plastics joints). Solid-state welding methods such as fric-
tion, explosive and cold pressure are all valuable for joining dissimilar
metals.

45
5 Finishing

Introduction

One of the advantages of aluminium is that it is a naturally durable

metal which can be used in many applications without the need for
added protection against the ravages of atmospheric or other chemical
attack. Profiled building sheet, greenhouse frames, ladders, and lorry
bodies are examples of uses where the natural 'mill' finish of aluminium
is perfectly acceptable.
Many products, however, call either for added protection or a
decorative appearance or even a combination of the two. For such
applications there are a number of suitable options using aluminium.
The metal may be:
• mechanically treated to produce a variety of attractive textures;
• chemically treated to produce a degree of atmospheric protection;
• anodized;
• coated;
• enamelled;
• chrome-plated;
• lacquered;
• printed.
Of these, anodizing and coating are in widespread use across industrial

46
 5 Finishing

and architectural applications, with lacquering and printing being used

extensively in canning and packaging applications of aluminium.

Anodizing

Immediately aluminium and aluminium alloys are exposed to oxygen a

very thin layer of aluminium oxide forms on the metal's surface. This
oxide film, about 0.01|im thick, provides a resistance to atmospheric
corrosion and it is the presence of this thin protective oxide coating that
gives aluminium its natural durability.
Anodizing, an electrolytic process that is commercially unique to alu-
minium, enables the oxide film to be thickened by a factor of more than
one thousand. The resultant anodic coatings have improved physical and
chemical properties together with colouring possibilities that have greatly
increased the range of applications for aluminium and its alloys. Widely
used and accepted in the building industry as the outstanding finishing
method for aluminium, anodizing has, over a number of years, opened up
diverse engineering applications. These range from nameplates and tea
trollies where decorative aspects predominate, to engine parts where
abrasion-resistance coatings are an important requirement.

The US Embassy in Grosvenor Square, London was fitted with gold anodized aluminium
windows in 1959. The 40 foot golden eagle that dominates the frontage facing the square was
constructed of cast and anodized aluminium components

47
Part I The metal

Figure 5.1 Microstructure of anodic film on aluminium

Principles of anodizing

When a piece of aluminium is the anode in an electrolytic cell and a

current is passed through, oxygen, instead of being liberated at the anode
as with some metals, reacts with the aluminium to form a layer of porous
aluminium oxide. The amount of aluminium oxide formed is directly
proportional to the current density and time. The structure of the oxide
layer comprises microscopic hexagonal columns each with a central pore.
The diameter of the pores and the thickness of the barrier layer that is
continuously formed during the anodizing process between the underly-
ing metal and the growing cells are controlled not only by the particular
electrolyte used but also by the temperature and voltage applied. Thus by
varying the anodizing conditions and the electrolyte itself, it is possible to
alter the physical properties of the coating, such as its hardness, abrasion
resistance, density and colour characteristics. It is this flexibility that
enables anodized aluminium to have so many different applications.
Figure 5.1 shows the anodic film structure on aluminium.

Basic anodizing processes

The properties of anodized aluminium depend upon a combination of the

following factors:

• the aluminium alloy used;

48
 5 Finishing

Silver anodizing of extruded lengths (courtesy Finalex)

• pre-treatment process;
• the anodizing process;
• post-anodizing processes.

Many chemical solutions have been used, or proposed, for anodizing

electrolytes; most of these are acidic but some alkaline solutions have been
considered. The most commonly used electrolytes are those based on
sulphuric acid, but other acids such as oxalic, chromic and phosphoric
acid are operated on a successful commercial basis where special types of
coatings are required.

Sulphuric acid Processes based on sulphuric acid are those that are gener-
ally preferred for both decorative and protective applications. On all
except a few alloys containing insoluble constituents, such anodizing
provides semi-transparent colourless films in thicknesses up to 35 |im. The
appearance of these coatings is significantly affected by the original
underlying surface finish of the aluminium, and so attractive textures such
as linishing and scratch brushing are frequently applied to the metal prior
to anodizing. 'Bright' anodizing, which gives a highly reflective appear-
ance, is achieved by selecting an alloy based on high-purity aluminium
and by subjecting the metal to mechanical polishing and chemical
brightening prior to the electrolysis.

49
Part I The metal

Bronze anodized curtain walling Bronze anodized fascia extrusions and

window frames are used to provide a striking
appearance at Chester Northgate

A process variation of considerable engineering importance is the use of

low-temperature anodizing. Normally sulphuric acid bath temperatures
range between 18° and 25°C but by operating at temperatures between
— 5° and + 5 ° C very hard coatings are obtained. 'Hard anodizing' is
finding increased applications in engineering where abrasion resistance is
of critical importance, such as in moving machine parts.

Chromic acid Chromic acid was used in the first commercial anodizing
process invented in 1923 by Bengough and Stuart. The process produces
thin films that are usually opaque grey in colour. Knitting needles are a
familiar but declining example. The process is still widely specified, and is
particularly used in the treatment of aircraft components.

Oxalic acid Solutions of this acid tend to produce translucent, hard,

yellowish coatings that in the past have had some acceptance for architec-
tural applications where an 'integral colour' obtained without the use of
added dyes or pigments has been required. The coatings have a higher
abrasion resistance than those obtained by sulphuric acid, but the higher
process costs and limited colour appeal have restricted the use of this acid.

50
 5 Finishing

Phosphoric Phosphoric acid produces a coating structure with larger pore

diameters than in conventional sulphuric acid anodizing. The structure is
ideally suited as a pre-treatment for the electro-plating of aluminium, and
as a pre-treatment for the adhesive bonding of aluminium components.

Coloured anodic films

Anodic films can be produced in colour by a variety of methods. Many of

the colours are extremely light-fast, and so find widespread appeal in
exterior architectural applications. Colour anodizing presents a lustrous
visual quality that is much appreciated by architects and their clients.
Colour is achieved in three principal ways:

• absorption of added colouring agent by the freshly produced ano-

dic film;
• integral colouring;
• electrolytic two-stage coloration using a metal salt.

Absorption A freshly produced anodic film made by the sulphuric acid

process has a porous absorptive structure that readily accepts dyestuffs.
Where no colouring is required the coating is sealed, generally in steam or
boiling water, but where colour is called for, the material is immersed in
an aqueous medium containing either an organic dye or an organic
pigment, prior to the sealing operation.
Dyes and pigments have different degrees of light fastness, and some are
more suitable than others for outdoor exposure. For many years black has
been a highly successful architectural finish and in recent years other
colours - yellow, gold, dark blue, turquoise blue and red - have been
added.

Integral colouring The oxalic acid process was one of the earliest 'integral'
colour processes - a one-stage anodizing operation in which the combi-
nation of choice of alloy and choice of electrolyte results in a naturally
developed colour within the built-up oxide skin. The oxalic acid process
produces yellowish films. Integral colouring using sulphuric acid anodiz-
ing and specially developed alloys has been developed for architectural
applications with a range of colours from pale gold through to bronze and
black. Colours produced in this way are extremely durable and light-fast,
and integral colouring has built up an outstanding record of fastness
performance. The coatings are harder than those of conventional sul-
phuric acid anodizing and have good abrasion resistance. They are fre-
quently referred to as 'hard' coatings, but should not be confused with the
low-temperature hard-anodizing method described earlier.

51
Part I The metal

Electrolytic The principles of electrolytic colouring go back to the 1930s,

but it was subsequent research by Professor Asada of Tokyo University
that led to the world-wide commercial exploitation of this process. This
two-stage process consists basically of, first, anodizing a piece of alumi-
nium by the conventional dc sulphuric acid method and then, second,
submitting the freshly anodized material to a second electrolytic process
using an ac current (generally) in a metal salt solution. Many metallic
salts can be used but the most reliable and controllable processes use
either nickel, tin or cobalt.
The process deposits metal at the base of the anodic pores and the
amount of deposition determines the perceived colour shade, which varies
from pale bronze to black. These colours are the result of light wavelength
scatter and reflection in the anodic film and are not dependent upon
colouring additives that could fade under exposure to ultra-violet light.
The light fastness of the coatings is therefore excellent.

Combination colouring Where colour fastness is not a long-term necessity,

then the colour range available for anodizing aluminium is very wide, and
there are few restrictions on colour choice. For architectural applications,
where light fastness for many years is required, the range of colours has, in
the past, been mainly restricted to greys, bronzes and black. Recent
commercial development work on colour finishing by applying two differ-
ent colouring systems in succession has significantly widened the choice of
durable colours now available. Combination finishing expands the scope
for colour styling in architecture and retains the aesthetic lustrous quality
of the metal.
In essence, combination colouring consists of first producing a coloured
effect either by an integral or an electrolytic method and then impregnat-
ing the anodic film with a colour pigment. Using the electrolytic process,
plus additional colour pigment enables a highly attractive range of dur-
able gold, red and blue colours to be obtained.

Applications of anodized aluminium

Anodizing provides both protection and decoration for aluminium in all

forms — cast, rolled and extruded. Many engineering and military appli-
cations use anodizing purely as a means of protection against corrosion,
for example shell cases, rocket components, fuses and gun barrels. Other
engineering uses are increasingly exploiting the combined advantages of
using aluminium for its lightness, strength and, particularly with extru-
sions, for the shape potential. The latter frequently leads to easier compo-
nent production and assembly, plus the decorative appeal of a colour
anodized finish.

52
 5 Finishing

Special anodizing quality sheet is usedfor the profiledfascia thatforms a distinctive part of the
current Ford Motor Company corporate identity livery on its showrooms world-wide

Medical and scientific instruments, electronic components and cabi-

nets, shower cubicles and lighting units are just a few examples of diverse
applications of anodized aluminium. In the architectural and building
area, colour anodizing is being widely specified, and an interesting exam-
ple that typifies the properties and benefits of anodized aluminium is the
new style payphone booths that are now installed throughout the U K .
These have integral colour black anodized aluminium alloy in their
construction in order to provide both a durable and scratchproof anti-
graffiti surface.

Coating thickness

Except in one or two specialized instances it is unusual to produce anodic

coatings above 25 Jim. In the building industry the thicknesses used range
from 5 um up to 25 urn depending upon the application. Exterior appli-
cations where long-term durability is required call for thicknesses of
25 |im. For recommended thicknesses refer to BS1615/1987 'Specification
for Anodic oxidation coatings on aluminium', and BS3987/1974 'Specifi-
cation for Anodic oxide coatings on wrought aluminium for external
architectural applications'.

53
Part I The metal

Testing the film thickness of anodized sections

Paint and lacquer coatings

Coatings for aluminium are available in a range of compositions and can

be applied by a number of different production techniques. These coat-
ings are available in a wide spectrum of colours that will retain their
appearance for many years and will protect completely the underlying
metal. This combination of colour and protection, coupled with the
ability of today's coating specialists to apply finishes to consistently high,
industry-approved standards has resulted in coloured aluminium being
used more and more widely. Extruded sections for domestic windows are
generally coated in white, but other colours, particularly brown, are
applied, while sections for commercial fenestration and cladding are
employed in a myriad of colours to suit the specifier's requirements.
Sheet, too, is finished with a variety of colour coatings. Nowadays there
is very little 'mill finish' profiled sheeting used on buildings, although its
use from the 1950s onwards for many applications demonstrated the
intrinsic durability and functionality of aluminium sheet as a building
material.
Coating compositions have been developed by the paint industry to
satisfy a wide range of requirements from surface protection to decoration.
Compositions include liquid coatings based on acrylic, pvc, polyester,
polyurethane and fluoropolymer (such as polyvinylidene fluoride) resins,

54
 5 Finishing

Coils of pre-painted aluminium in readiness for roll forming into profiled building sheet

Jigging aluminium extrusions ready for powder coating (courtesy Hydro Aluminium Century)

55
Part I The metal

Table 5.1 Typical coatings and their properties (applied to pre-painted coil)

Type of Polyester PVF PE/PU/PA Alkydamine PVC Plastisol Silicone

coating polyester

Primer None Epoxy None None Epoxy Epoxy

Film thickness 20/25 ^m 28 [im 30/35 urn 20/25 |im 100/200 \am 25 urn
(Norn)

Gloss (60°) 8 90 + 30 30 8-90 + - 30%

Hardness H F-H 2H F-H - F-H

1
Bend test 2T-1T 1 /2T 1T 2T 1T 5T

Appearance Smooth Smooth Slight texture Smooth Textured Smooth

Colour None Bright colours None None Limited range Limited range
restrictions

Metallic Yes with life Yes with life Yes Yes with life No Yes with life
colours restrictions restrictions restrictions restrictions

Handleability Fair Fair Excellent Fair Excellent Fair

Abrasion Fair Fair Excellent Fair Excellent Fair

resistance

Chemical Good Excellent Excellent Fair Fair Fair

resistance

UV resistance Good Excellent Excellent Poor Fair Good

Temperature 120°C 120°C 140°C 120°C 60°C 120°C

resistance

Ease of Good Very good Very good Good Poor Very poor
cleaning

and powder coatings based on polyester, acrylic and polyurethane resins.

Table 5.1 shows some typical coatings and their properties.
Aluminium can be coated prior to forming into components, or as
assembled fabrications. For both of these basic types there are now estab-
lished coating specialists that carry out in-house rather than on-site paint-
ing. This approach brings uniformity of finishing and a high standard of
quality control and specification.
The main coating methods are electrostatic spray, used for both liquid
and powder applications, various immersion methods, roller and curtain
coating. As well as hand spray processes, mainly used on finishing compo-
nents, highly sophisticated automatic flow lines for extrusions, sheet and
coil are employed.
For all of these types of coating correct preparation of the metal surface
is essential to ensure good adhesion and in-service performance of the
coating. However good the paint formulation the end result can be ruined
by inadequate attention to pre-treatment. Pre-treatment is one of the

56
 5 Finishing

Keeping a watchful eye on the electrostatic powder coating of aluminium extrusions (courtesy
Hydro Aluminium Century)

features that distinguishes a factory-applied finish from a site-applied

finish.
The generally adopted way of applying an organic coating to alumin-
ium sheet and extrusions is by electrostatic spray. In this process the pre-
treated items are sprayed either manually or automatically, and subse-
quently stoved at a temperature of around 220°C for about 30 minutes.
The coating heads are charged to a voltage of up to 70 kV. The electro-
static nature of the process ensures that the coating gets into all of the
grooves, channels, slots and drilled holes in the extrusions.
Powder coatings have become increasingly popular, particularly since
the oil crisis of 1973. At that time solvent costs started to rise rapidly thus
making powder coatings financially more attractive than liquids. En-
vironmentally too, powder coatings are now preferred because of the
avoidance of solvent dispersed into the atmosphere, which can occur with
liquid coating methods unless very stringent process control is observed in
production.
Coatings based on polyester resins are widely available and now domi-
nate over other powder resins. These polyester coatings have weathering
characteristics comparable to the liquid acrylic coatings, and have very
good mechanical performance. Powder coatings can be applied to greater
thicknesses in a one-coat operation than can liquid coatings and down to
a minimum thickness of between 50 and 60 (im.

57
Part I The metal

A garden centre roofed in profiled, pre-painted aluminium coil with distinctive triangular
roofing

Thorough pre-treatment with as many as ten cleansing operations,

ensures that these coatings can withstand a whole series of mechanical
abuse tests. The tests include conical bends, sawing, scratching, gouging,
hammering and weight drops. Both liquid and powder coatings provide
strongly adherent weather-resistant coatings in attractive colours.
Electrophoretic coating is a refinement of the simple paint dipping
process. In some ways the process is akin to anodizing, because the metal
to be coated is made the anode in an electrolytic bath. In this case it is a
water-dispersable paint that is the electrolyte. A direct current is passed
through the bath and paint solids are deposited on the aluminium.
The process is ideal for a continuous automatic line, as well as a batch
process. A typical sequence of operations begins with cut-to-length
sections being sprayed with alkaline chemicals and then passed through a
series of rinses ending with a rinse in de-ionized water, after which the
sections, now thoroughly clean, are ready for coating. The sections are
then dipped in the paint, at the same time becoming the positive electrode
of an electrolytic cell. A current is passed through the paint, and paint
solids are deposited on the metal. After deposition, excess paint is rinsed
off and recycled back into the main coating tank. A final water rinse is
performed before the sections proceed to the stoving oven. Curing at a
temperature of around 200°C for about 30 minutes completes the oper-
ations, following which the sections are ready for assembly.

58
 5 Finishing

Coatings applied in this manner have a very smooth surface finish,

almost entirely free of the slight orange-peel effect that can be detected
with other methods. Because of the highly automated nature of the
process, it is only suitable for long continuous runs so, at the time of
writing, only white or bronze colours are available, as demand for other
individual colours is insufficient to justify using this method.
The electrophoretic process provides good penetration of paint into all
recesses and corners of the sections, with a minimum thickness of 20 um.
The close control exercised throughout the operation and thorough atten-
tion to surface preparation prior to coating ensures that the coating,
which can be up to 40 |im thick, adheres thoroughly. This method has
however lost favour in recent times to the powder spray process.
Large quantities of aluminium coil are colour coated prior to further
processing into profiled cladding or components. This highly specialized
operation involves large coils of aluminium being first pre-treated and
then passed through a paint-application station that applies a precise,
even liquid coating across the coil web followed in turn by a curing and
drying stage and then a final recoiling operation.

Care and m a i n t e n a n c e

Both anodized and coated aluminium finishes are tough and durable.
Anodizing produces a surface that is an integral part of the metal itself
and this cannot flake off or chip. Applied organic coatings, whatever the
application method, subject of course to following the correct procedures,
do not suffer from flaking or spalling. Because of aluminium's inherent
durability, these are no potential corrosion hazards resulting from the
bare edges that arise from any post-coating fabrication, such as cutting
and drilling. Both types of finish therefore eliminate the need for periodic
attention to make up for loss of the protective coating. In this sense the
coatings are 'maintenance free'. Unfortunately there has been a tendency
to take this phrase too literally and to equate 'freedom from maintenance'
with ' O K to neglect'. This is certainly not the case. All aluminium finishes
require regular, even if infrequent, cleaning to maintain appearance and
to ensure acceptable service life for the finish. Dirt, grime, and air-borne
chemical pollutants will, if not removed, spoil an aluminium finish as they
will any other surface or finish.
Solvents and abrasives should be avoided in any cleaning. The general
rule is to clean outside surfaces with a mild detergent and water at
something like three-monthly intervals depending upon the severity of the
environment.

59
6 Durability

Aluminium is accepted as one of the most durable of metals. Some of the

earliest uses of aluminium since the metal's commercial usage first started
just over a hundred years ago are still in excellent condition today. Two
classic examples are the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus, London, which
was erected in 1893, and the cupola roof of the San Gioacchino church in
Rome, fitted in 1897. The first example is of castings and the second of
rolled sheet, with different alloys being involved in each case. Outstand-
ing examples of longevity in architectural extrusions do not date back so
far, but the window frames of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, made and
installed in 1934 are still in excellent condition after well over fifty years of
trouble-free service.
Since those early pioneering days the uses of aluminium in all its forms,
wrought and cast, have expanded greatly, with free-world consumption
running at a rate approaching 20 million tonnes annually, with the
building and construction industry taking a share of about 20 per cent.

The oxide protector

It is the thin, inert layer of transparent aluminium oxide present on all

surfaces of aluminium exposed to the atmosphere that gives aluminium
and its alloys such good protection against corrosion. The oxide film,
approx. 0.01 |im thick, is chemically stable, hard, strongly adherent to the
underlying metal and has a melting point of 2000°C. This film reforms

60
 6 Durability

spontaneously if cut or abraded, providing that oxygen is present, and

thickens slowly with age. Anodizing (see page 47) is the process of thicken-
ing this natural film in order to enhance the protection it provides to the
metal beneath.

A t m o s p h e r i c pollution

The atmosphere in the U K and elsewhere, depending upon whether the

location is rural, coastal, suburban or industrial, can be polluted by gases
such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. Of these, it is the sulphur dioxide and hydrogen
chloride that are the most important regarding contamination of alumin-
ium. These two gases are found in greatest concentrations in industrial
areas; in urban areas the level is lower, and in rural areas the level of
pollution is very low. The sodium chloride content of marine, coastal
atmospheres is less aggressive to aluminium than the industrial pollutants,
and so generally aluminium is regarded as a good material to use in
marine environments.
Rainwater has a cleansing action on aluminium, and in the main,
surfaces exposed to the elements suffer less pollution damage than more
sheltered ones.

Weathering

The as-produced mill finish on wrought aluminium is naturally bright

and shiny. Inevitably this brightness is dulled and tarnished by continued
atmospheric exposure. The oxide darkens to a degree that is dependent
upon the amount of the atmospheric pollution, its situation relative to the
cleansing action of rainwater, and the amount, if any, of maintenance and
cleaning applied.
In the presence of moisture, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen chloride
gases form acids that can attack the metal through any weak points in the
protective oxide. Corrosion pits occur at such points, and the acidic action
results in the formation of corrosion by-products, which having a volume
greater than the metal from which they were formed, fill and seal the pit -
thus causing attack at this point virtually to cease.
This cessation of attack is a vital factor in the longevity of aluminium. It
means that any attack on mill-finish, untreated aluminium, takes place in
early years only and then virtually stops completely. This is illustrated by
the typical corrosion time curves shown in Figure 6.1.

61
Part I The metal

Aluminium windows are fitted to the top of Blackpool Tower, providing good resistance to the
marine environment

Expected life

It is not possible to generalize with great accuracy on the expected life of

mill-finish aluminium exposed to the atmosphere. In rural, clean atmos-
pheres, an unlimited life may be predicted, whereas in heavily polluted
areas much shorter life is inevitable. The many examples throughout the
U K of aluminium in service in all kinds of atmospheres, however, make it
clear that long service can be confidently expected, and examples of
longevity abound. The added protection afforded by anodizing and coat-
ing ensures that the life in service of aluminium cladding, roofing, fen-
estration, balustrading and structures of all kinds will be very high.

Interior applications

In the interiors of domestic and office buildings, where the atmosphere is

usually clean, there will be little change in the appearance of the metal
apart from perhaps a slight dulling and darkening in certain areas.
Generally, however, interior applications are anodized or painted to
provide decorative colour.

62
 6 Durability

Figure 6.1 Maximum depth of attack by pitting in various environments

(based on work carried out at Alcan International, Banbury)

63
Part I The metal

Table 6.1 Galvanic series

Magnesium alloys
Zinc
Aluminium-zinc alloys
Aluminium-magnesium alloys
Pure aluminium
Aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys
Cadmium
aiqoN aJO|/\|

Aluminium-copper alloys
Mild steel, cast and wrought iron
Lead-tin solders
Lead
Tin
Brass
Copper
Bronze
Nickel
Stainless steels

T y p e s of c o r r o s i o n

Corrosion may be defined as 'the deterioration of a metal by chemical or

electro-chemical reaction with its environment'. This deterioration takes
place in different ways depending upon the corrosive medium, presence of
other metals, and temperature, etc.
There are various types of corrosion. Some of the commonest are:

Pitting This is a localized random form. With aluminium its rate of

penetration decreases with time, varying from alloy to alloy.

Galvanic This type of corrosion takes place when dissimilar metals are
effectively coupled together in the presence of moisture or some other
electrolyte. The severity of corrosion is dependent upon the relative
position of the two metals in the 'galvanic series'. See Table 6.1. A metal is
corroded galvanically by any metal beneath it in the table.

Crevice If aluminium is positioned such that a crevice is created between

it and another metal, then crevice corrosion can occur. At the mouth of
the crevice oxygen is freely available, whereas at the tip it is relatively
sparse. In consequence electrolytic action can occur due to the different
potential between the two regions.

Deposition This is a special form of galvanic corrosion in which ions of a

more noble metal are deposited from a solution onto aluminium thus
setting up electrolytic action resulting in pitting corrosion. Copper ions in

64
 6 Durability

aqueous solution are troublesome to aluminium, and for this reason it is

always recommended that copper and aluminium should not be used
together in building applications where, of course, damp conditions can-
not be avoided.

Alloy choice
The term 'aluminium' is usually used as a reference to the commercially-
pure metal (99.0-99.5 per cent purity).
By far the best corrosion resistance and durability are obtained where
super-purity aluminium (99.99 per cent aluminium) is used, but this
specification, because of its high extraction cost, is only rarely used in
industry. Commercial-purity aluminium, and all of its many alloys, con-
tain small amounts of other elements such as manganese, magnesium,
copper, iron and silicon. It is these elements that determine the corrosion
behaviour of the alloy, and as a general guide it can be stated that the
more copper and iron contained the higher the susceptibility, and the
smaller the amount of these two metals the lower the susceptibility.
The commonly used building sheet alloy (BS3103) has very good
corrosion resistance. Of the stronger alloys the aluminium-magnesium
series are very resistant, and are particularly good for marine environ-
ments.
Alloys containing magnesium and silicon are also satisfactory but the
very strong copper-bearing alloys have poor resistance and are frequently
given a cladding of pure metal to overcome this problem.
The aluminium-magnesium-silicon extrusion alloys have good weath-
ering and durability, as have the aluminium-silicon and aluminium-
magnesium casting alloys (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2 Durability and resistance to atmospheric attack

Alloy designation Main alloying elements Aluminium % Resistance factor

1080 A - 99.80 E
1050 A - 99.50 V
1200 - 90.00 V

2000 series Copper Balance P

3000 series Manganese „ V
5000 series Magnesium „ F-V
6000 series Magnesium and silicon ,, G-V
7000 series Zinc „ F-G
8000 series Lithium ,, F*

E = Excellent V = Very good G = Good F = Fair P = Poor * = More experience needed

65
Part I The metal

Compatibility w i t h foods and c h e m i c a l s

Aluminium is resistant to many, but not all, foods and chemicals. It is an

inert, non-toxic, odour-free metal and is widely used in food and chemical
processing plants and in packaging foodstuffs.
The corrosion behaviour of aluminium vessels and equipment in service
is influenced by many factors, not only the chemical nature of the product
in contact with the aluminium but also the temperature, concentration,
degree of agitation and aeration, and so on used during the processing.
The likelihood of corrosion or otherwise, is also affected by the design of
the plant. Galvanic and crevice corrosion, in particular, can be reduced or
eliminated by careful design, such that dissimilar metal contact is avoided
and corners and crevices that are difficult to clean are eliminated.

66
7 Aluminium and the
environment

As the third most abundant element in the earth's crust, after oxygen and
silicon, aluminium can justifiably be called one of the world's least scarce
resources. It is also one of the easiest to recycle; used aluminium may be
reconverted into high-quality metal in a very cost-effective operation.
This combination of advantages is one of the reasons why aluminium is
becoming regarded as a 'green' material, friendly to the environment and
the people in it.
The potential energy-saving characteristics of the metal in action are
also important in many industries, particularly transport and packaging.
It can be shown, according to figures published within the aluminium
industry, that in many applications the energy savings through using
aluminium products (to reduce weight and save fuel consumption, for
example) are greater than the additional energy required initially to
make an aluminium product, rather than (say) a steel one.
This positive energy equation works to aluminium's advantage across a
wide range of industries and is reinforced by the energy savings obtained
by recycling aluminium. The conversion of scrap aluminium back into re-
usable high-grade metal requires only 5 per cent of the energy needed to
make the same weight of virgin metal.
So recycling aluminium is assuming a greater importance than in less
energy-conscious times and the high recycle value of aluminium has
become an important 'plus' factor in material-selection decisions and is
likely to assume even greater significance in the future.
Within the aluminium industry itself recycling plays an important part

67
Part I The metal

Aluminium scrap, from production offcuts, all finds its way back into the melting pot to be
turned back into re-usable high-grade metal

in efficient plant operations. Constant recycling takes place of all process

scrap from rolling and extruding such that a recycle rate of virtually 100
per cent takes place.
The variable element in scrap recycling concerns the recovery of dis-
carded products such as saucepans, cans, packaging, motor-car compo-
nents and so on. Much of this scrap, however, is easy to collect and a high
percentage of 'consumer' scrap of this kind finds its way back into the
production cycle. Perhaps the aluminium product that currently has the
highest public profile regarding scrap recycling is the aluminium drinks
can. Over four billion aluminium drinks cans are used and then discarded
annually in the U K alone. Such a high volume of cans represents a large
and valuable tonneage of re-usable metal and the U K aluminium indus-
try is heavily committed to developing efficient collection and recycling.
It is not only consumer products that have a recycle value, however.
For example, thousands of tonnes of aluminium are used every year for
the production of window frames and many thousands more tonnes go
into other building products. All of these products have a long, perhaps
very long, working life, but at the end of that time they still have a high
recovery value and represent a valuable source of high-grade metal.
As yet there is little, if any, recognition of this long-term asset value,
when material choice is first considered. Of course, priority factors such as
performance, cost-effectiveness, strength, durability, weight, operating

68
 7 Aluminium and the environment

temperature, environment and safety all have to be satisfied. But in

addition, with conservation of materials and resources now so important,
and with many ecological considerations also involved, this extra benefit
offered by aluminium could become as important in the building industry
as it is already becoming in packaging, transportation and other market
sectors.

69
Part II
A BUILDING MATERIAL
8 Joining the establishment

Aluminium has gained itself a place alongside other materials such as

brick, concrete, steel and timber as a building material with proven
characteristics and behaviour. The unique combination of properties,
versatility of form, light weight and durability have made aluminium a
building material that is ideal in modern construction. Today's designs of
tall, strong but light-weight commercial buildings make important use of
aluminium cladding and curtain walling with its material benefits
coupled with the ease and speed of erection. Domestic houses incorporate
double-glazed aluminium window frames that offer a lifetime of attractive
and efficient service.
But curtain walling and windows are just two examples of aluminium
in action. The varied characteristics of the metal have opened up uses of
rolled metal from thin aluminium foil for vapour and moisture barriers in
insulation panelling to thick treadplate for walkways and of extruded
sections for products from ladders to space structures. The versatility of
aluminium is well demonstrated by its vastly differing market uses, yet all
in specific ways taking advantage of aluminium's properties of strength,
lightness, durability and formability.
Aluminium's progress into, and acceptance by, the building industry
was hindered in the early years of the metal's growth in the twentieth
century by the dominance of the huge, longer-established steel industry,
and aluminium was compared unfavourably - it was softer, more expen-
sive and bent more easily. However, the experience gained using alumin-
ium in the aircraft industry from 1940 onwards changed these attitudes.

73
Part II A building material

Flexible piping made from crimped aluminium foil, sometimes in combination with kraft
paper, is useful for a variety of heating and ventilating applications

Appreciation of the properties of the many alloys; realization that for a

metal only one-third the weight of steel cost/tonne comparisons are mean-
ingless; and importantly, recognition that aluminium is a metal having its
own structural characteristics calling for a new design approach and not a
steel-copy approach, have all resulted in aluminium now being treated as
a building and engineering material in its own right with its own specific
uses and advantages.
Early pioneering developments with aluminium in the 1930s, notably
in aluminium windows, were followed by the major production at the end
of World War II of the aluminium prefabricated bungalow as a means of
providing rapidly-erected, temporary housing, using existing assembly-
line facilities no longer required for aircraft manufacture. This was the
first time in this country that mass-production techniques had been
applied to housing production. The walls of the 'prefab' as the bungalow
became known were made of aluminium sheeting with an infill of
trapped-air cement grout. Structural members too were made of alu-
minium, and a total of about 1% tonnes of sheet, strip, castings and
extrusions was used in each prefab. Made from aircraft scrap material, the
alloy used contained a high copper content which would not nowadays be
recommended for building applications because of this alloy's suscepti-
bility to corrosion. But, despite some problems caused by insufficient
protective painting, the bungalows were remarkably successful. In fact a
large number of these prefabs were still in use many years after their
envisaged timespan of 10 years' occupation, and at the time of writing
some are still in use 45 years later.
This revolutionary and successful use of aluminium in housing marked
the start of an extensive, and intensive, research and development pro-

74
 8 Joining the establishment

Strong, light and durable, aluminium alloy ladders are now commonplace and have widely
displaced wood

gramme by aluminium companies in the U K to develop previously

unheard-of uses for aluminium.
Today, as a result, aluminium is well-established in a vast number of
product areas ranging from major structural applications such as space
frames and patent glazing to roofing and cladding, shop fronts, curtain
walling, windows and conservatories. Other important applications
include gutters and downpipes, flashings and copings, ducting, handrails,
bridge balustrading, road signs, Venetian blinds, insulation panels, door
furniture, grilles, partitioning and ceiling panels.
Some castings and forgings are used for a wide variety of building
components, but the bulk of metal used in building is in the extruded and
rolled forms. Over 70 000 tonnes of extrusions and 25 000 tonnes of sheet
go annually into this important aluminium market in the U K . The size of

75
Part II A building material

It is not just for standard non-structural window frames where aluminium finds many uses.
Here is a security window undergoing severe ballistic testing

the market for extrusions is evidence of the versatility of the extrusion

production process for obtaining shapes that are custom-designed to do a
specific job and to do it in a highly cost-effective manner. Not only can
shapes be made that include many features in one integral section, but
also the metal can be placed where it is needed and omitted where it is not
needed. This facility is very cost-effective, enabling metal weight to be
minimized and many subsequent machining, drilling and routing oper-
ations that might otherwise be necessary to be eliminated.
The range of alloys available gives the designer of aluminium compo-
nents a comprehensive choice. A small selection from the many available
provides a means of covering the whole range of likely building appli-
cations. For example, commercial-purity metal (99.0 per cent minimum

76
 8 Joining the establishment

A unique appearance was given to the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts at the University of
East Anglia by using 2 500 cladding panels shaped using super-plastic alloy sheet (courtesy
SuperForm)

aluminium), known as alloy 1200, is in sheet form a perfectly suitable

choice for flashings, louvres and other components where very easy forma-
bility is important but strength is not. For applications such as roofing and
cladding where some additional strength is needed and where good dura-
bility and resistance to atmospheric attack is required then alloy 3103
containing about 1 % per cent manganese is considered best.
For extruded sections requiring easy extrudability in complex shapes,
reasonable strength, a good surface finish and high resistance to atmos-
pheric corrosion, alloy 6063 containing magnesium and silicon is univer-
sally acknowledged as ideal. Applications requiring to be more highly
stressed are generally suited by extrusion alloy 6082, which is similar to
6063 but gains added strength by a slightly higher magnesium and silicon
content and the addition of a little manganese. The very high-strength
alloys containing copper and zinc are not generally recommended for
structural building applications because of their lower corrosion resis-
tance. These high-strength structural alloys are, however, successfully
used for military applications such as bridges and pontoons, where the
combination of strength and light weight enables structures to be readily
erected and dismantled.
Interest is also being shown in A l - Z n - M g alloys for offshore building

77
Part II A building material

A continental European example of extruded aluminium sun louvres

applications where the use of light-weight, above-sea level structures such

as accommodation units is becoming increasingly important.
Throughout the building industry, therefore, aluminium has over the
100 years of its commercial life moved from a novelty metal to a material
that has taken its place alongside traditional building materials such as
stone, brick, wood, glass and steel. The early use of aluminium was, as
might be expected, for various decorative and statuary applications. At
that time no reliance could be placed on the metal's strength and dura-
bility; confidence in these attributes has had to develop over years of use.
One of the first recorded uses of aluminium in building is the pyramid
capping on the Washington monument in Washington DC, which was
completed in 1884. In the U K the handsome statue of Eros in Piccadilly
Circus assembled using separate castings in 1893 is an early and still
standing example of aluminium statuary.
Inside and outside modern buildings aluminium is now playing its part
in shaping and styling modern architecture, providing both grace and
functionality to the many tall buildings that dominate our city skylines
and to the local high street where aluminium shopfronts abound in
colourful juxtaposition.

78
 8 Joining the establishment

Military bridges are made from high strength Al-^n-Mg alloys. Armoured vehicles make
good use of the same material

79
9 General design data

F o r m s and s i z e s

Aluminium in the form of castings, forgings, plate, sheet, strip, foil,

extruded sections and tube are all manufactured in the U K and are
available direct from the manufacturers. Many of the forms are held in
stock by the wide network of U K stockists. Stockists not only offer just-in-
time delivery service, but also provide comprehensive cutting, forming
and finishing services.

Castings

Depending upon the production method used castings can be produced

weighing just a few grammes or 1 000 kg or more.

Plate

The maximum width to which plate can be produced is 3 500 mm*. Plate
length and maximum thickness is governed by the starting size of the
rolling slab, which can be up to 12 tonnes. Stockists hold a variety of plate
sizes and thicknesses, and some specialists offer cutting and shaping
services. Typically the maximum size of plate available from stock is 12 ft
x 6ft ( 4 m x 2 m).

80
 9 General design data

Sheet

The maximum practical sheet width is 2 m.* Standard sizes up to around

12 ft x 6 ft (4 m x 2 m) are generally available through stockists in a
range of thicknesses. In practice, for both sheet and plate materials,
handling considerations dictate the maximum practical size available.

Strip and coil

The maximum width applies as for sheet.

Patterned sheet and treadplate

Sheet is available in a range of thicknesses and sizes with impressed

decorative patterns. Stucco-embossing which gives a 'mottled' effect is
commonly used on building sheet to reduce glare and light reflectivity.
Other patterns are available to provide a variety of decorative effects.
Treadplate made from heavier thickness sheet or plate has sharply
raised patterning that provides a good non-slip surface.

Extrusions

Most extruders offer widths up to around 9 inches (228 mm), but shapes
are available using large extrusion presses up to a maximum width of
about 30 inches (800 mm).

* [Note For specific information on available sizes, readers should refer to

the manufacturers. The details given here are intended as a guide only.
Not all manufacturers will make to the maximum sizes indicated.)

Behaviour in service

Aluminium owes its excellent weathering characteristics to the tough,

adherent oxide film that is always present on its surface when in contact
with, or following any contact with, the atmosphere. This film, which
originally is less than 0.01 |im thick, re-forms spontaneously in air should
the surface be cut or abraded.
The atmospheric protection offered by this oxide film varies with its
thickness and the chemical composition of the alloy. Pure aluminium and
the medium-strength alloys are more resistant to atmospheric attack than
the high-strength alloys containing copper and zinc. All alloys, however,
where the surfaces are kept clean and dry remain virtually unchanged,

81
Part II A building material

Rugged 5-bar treadplate and various patterns of decoratively embossed aluminium sheet

but in damp conditions the oxide film starts to thicken up and in so doing
develops a roughened dull appearance. This increase in thickness provides
additional protection to the underlying metal reaching a maximum after
about two years' exposure.
In aggressive environments, such as marine and particularly polluted
industrial areas, the rate of oxide formation may be increased with a
consequent adverse effect on appearance. Importantly, this increase in
oxide thickness, which tends to be self-stifling in time rather than pro-
gressive, has no significant effect on the metal's structural performance.
The enormous experience built up over the past 60 years and more has
demonstrated the excellent durability of the commonly used building
alloys.
Today's practice is to anodize or paint much of the aluminium sheet
and extrusions used in building and this not only improves the decorative

82
 9 General design data

appeal by adding colour, but also adds many years' service to the surface
durability and appearance.
In all cases the best performance from aluminium in building is
obtained by:

1 Regular cleaning wherever practical and possible.

2 Allowing rainwater to wash exposed surfaces.
3 Avoiding static moisture and condensation.
4 Avoiding contact between aluminium and other metals, particularly
copper.
5 Designing-out dirt and moisture traps.
6 Designing-in moisture escape routes.

Contact w i t h w a t e r

Rainwater

Direct washing of aluminium by rainwater is beneficial, but water should

not discharge onto aluminium after passing over a copper roof or through
copper pipes.

Domestic water

Domestic waters vary greatly in their salt and mineral contents. Under
certain conditions these can cause pitting corrosion of aluminium, and so
aluminium piping is not generally recommended. Closed-circuit systems
in which the aluminium is treated or which include an inhibitor in the
water are generally acceptable.

Seawater

Aluminium building alloys are resistant to seawater corrosion and alu-

minium is accepted as a good coastal region building material.

Other waters

Aluminium is a popular choice for covering swimming pools and small

reservoirs. The strength and lightness of the metal are advantageous for
covering wide spans with a minimum of supporting structure. The small
chlorine content in the water of swimming pools has no harmful effect on

83
Part II A building material

an aluminium roof. Ventilation, however, is essential to remove water

vapour and minimize condensation.

Contact w i t h building m a t e r i a l s

Cement and mortar

Dry cement and mortar in contact with aluminium have no harmful

effect. However, contact with wet cement, concrete or mortar will attack
the surface of contact aluminium, but the rate of attack drops rapidly as
drying out occurs. As a precaution therefore against corrosive attack in
damp conditions any surfaces of the metal in contact with the cement and
mortar should be protected with a coat of bitumen compound.
It should also be noted that anodized surfaces can be stained by
droppings of wet cement. A protective lacquer or peelable paper covering
the metalwork during construction operations is therefore useful.

Timber

Aluminium and timber can be safely used in contact. It should be noted

though that some timber preservatives may be harmful to the metal, and
where preserved wood is in close proximity to aluminium particularly
under conditions of high humidity, it is advisable to coat the touching
aluminium surfaces with a protective paint or bitumen.

Plastics

Aluminium and plastics can be safely used in contact.

Metals

Electrolytic action takes place when two dissimilar metals are in contact
under damp conditions. The metal which is the more electro-negative of
the two is corroded while the one that is more electro-positive is protected.
The galvanic series (see Table 6.1, p. 64) lists the order of nobility of the
metals with the least noble (most negative potential) magnesium heading
the list. At the bottom of the list come stainless steels suggesting that these
steel alloys are to be avoided with aluminium. This in practice is not the
case. The surface oxide film on stainless steel causes a change in polarity
which makes it safe to use stainless steel fixings with aluminium except in
marine and aggressive industrial environments.
The safest fittings to use are those that are zinc coated or galvanized.

84
 9 General design data

Mild steel fittings should preferably be given a barrier coating of a

suitable paint.

F i n i s h e s on a l u m i n i u m

Anodizing

Anodizing is used to provide both additional protection to aluminium and

to give a choice of unique colourful finishes. Various anodizing processes
specially developed to suit architectural needs are available. These
provide the specifier with a range of colour options through from natural
silver to greens, blues and reds, to shades of bronze and to black. T h e
thickness of the film determines its durability and BS1615 and BS3987 lay
down specifications.

Painting

Prepainted sheet, strip, coil and extrusions are widely used to provide the
specifier with an option of colours as broad as the range of paints permits.
Prepainted aluminium may be formed, cut, drilled and fabricated in the
same way as mill-finish metal with no harm being caused to the coating
provided correct care is taken. Alternatively, many components are
coated after forming under controlled factory conditions. Finally, on-site
painting is always a possibility.

Handling and storage

Aluminium products need to be handled carefully to avoid surface

damage. Ideally, aluminium components should be dry on arrival on site.
It is possible, however, that they carry surface condensation, and in the
case of a consignment of sheet, the condensate may have penetrated
between the individual sheets by capillary action. This might cause
surface staining and it is therefore advisable to check the material on
arrival.
Storage conditions should be warm, dry and free from condensation.
Where possible extruded sections should be stocked vertically rather than
horizontally and sheet should be stacked on edge rather than flat. Battens
should always be used to avoid damage to the aluminium by contact with
rough ground.
Building materials such as cement, plaster and cleaning acids should be
prevented from splashing onto aluminium surfaces.

85
Part II A building material

Cleaning and m a i n t e n a n c e

Aluminium is a highly durable metal and it has been common practice to

regard aluminium as a 'no-maintenance' building material. It is certainly
the case that, left untouched for years, an aluminium component under
most atmospheric conditions will remain structurally sound and will not
deteriorate in a manner likely to affect the performance of the component.
It is not therefore necessary to refinish aluminium surfaces on a regular
basis because of any fear that the metal will corrode away if not protected,
but it is necessary to apply cleaning maintenance if the surfaces are to
retain a clean attractive appearance. Rainwater will play its part in
cleansing exposed surfaces but regular cleaning with water and a little
detergent, followed by rinsing with clear water, is recommended to
remove atmospheric dirt and pollutants.
Waxing the surfaces, after cleaning and drying, is an additional protec-
tion, and one that is beneficial for windows and shop-fronts.
Neglected surfaces cannot be restored to their original condition. Badly
neglected mill-finish metal will roughen and darken and perhaps exhibit
localized pitting corrosion. Such surfaces can be cleaned with a mild
abrasive such as a metal polish or impregnated nylon pad. Coarse abra-
sives and metallic wire-wool scouring pads should never be used.
Whether an anodized finish, natural or coloured, or an organic paint
coating is chosen, many years of excellent performance may be expected
provided that simple cleaning on a regular, albeit infrequent, basis is
carried out. With many applications this is most easily done when the
window panes are cleaned. No one expects windows not to need cleaning
and the same is true of their surrounds.

86
Part III
APPLICATIONS IN
BUILDING
10 Windows and doors

Windows

The first aluminium windows in the U K were installed in the early 1930s.
Natural anodized frames, basically copies of existing steel casement
windows, for example, were fitted to the New Bodleian Library, Oxford,
and in a new office block in Banbury. Both of these installations are still in
good condition today.
Since then designs have become much more sophisticated and specific
to the aluminium extrusion process. Today's aluminium frames, smooth
and sleek on the outside visible surfaces, have inbuilt internal features that
provide a window performance undreamt of in the 1930s. Retaining
grooves for weatherstripping, screw ports, condensation channels, inter-
locking devices, grooves for butyl strip and thermal insulation channels
are all as-extruded features of the various sections that together make up a
suite of window sections.
The early casement style has been superseded by a range of styles to suit
differing requirements (Figure 10.1). Fixed lights and opening lights that
include vertical and horizontal sliders, horizontal and vertical pivot, top
hung, bottom hung, side hung, and tilt 'n' turn designs offer today's
designer a choice for all buildings. Complementary subframes, too, are
available in aluminium, plastics and hardwood, although these are not
essential as many aluminium frames can be fixed directly into brickwork
and masonry (Figure 10.2(a) and (b)).
The usual alloy selected for window frames is BS1474/6063. Both solid

89
Part III Applications in building

The offices of British Alcan Extrusions at Banbury werefittedwith silver-anodized aluminium

windows in 1935. Fifty-five years later they are still in excellent condition (photo taken 1990)

and hollow sections are used, and many of the solid sections are designed
to clip together forming a frame that is multi-hollow with easy access to
interior components.
The strength of alloy 6063 is such that slim frames are the norm for
aluminium windows, maximizing the amount of glass that may be used.
Not only do aluminium frames, either painted or anodized, possess
excellent durability, they also are immune to warping, twisting, sticking
and rotting. Aluminium alloy sections retain dimensional accuracy and
stability.
The market for aluminium windows, certainly in the domestic area, has
been coincident with that for double-glazing. Aluminium frames accept
double-glazed panels making a combination that provides high-perfor-
mance windows.
Thermal insulation of aluminium frames is very popular. Aluminium, a
good heat conductor, will, if not insulated between inside and outside
surfaces, provide a path for heat to travel from one side of the frame to the
other. The phenomenon can manifest itself under appropriate conditions
by condensation on the interior surface of the window frame. By inserting
an insulating barrier either on the outside of the frame or in the inside this
condensation can be minimized. The thermal barrier also prevents heat
loss from the building to the outside, an important consideration in an
energy-conscious age. It must be said, however, that the amount of heat

90
 10 Windows and doors

Aluminium was used extensively in the fenestration of the Yvonne Arnaud Theatre, Guildford

that can escape through an aluminium frame, as compared for example

with the loss through a single-glazed instead of a double-glazed panel, is
very small.
Methods of thermally insulating aluminium frames fall basically into
three categories:

(a) Thermally clad The application of a plastic covering to the outside

of the frame (Figure 10.2(c)).

(b) Thermally-broken The insertion of an insulating barrier into the

centre of a section (Figure 10.2(d)). The general method of doing this is
the Azon 'fill and de-bridge' method or similar. An alternative to this
method, which takes one section and effectively separates it into two, is to
take two sections and join them with a solid strip or strips of insulating
plastic such as polyamide. The use of solid strip insulant provides the

91
92

Figure 10.1 Window styles available in aluminium

 10 Windows and doors

Figure 10.2 Window frames: (a) a typical aluminium single-glazed window

frame set on a timber subframe; (b) a typical double-glazed,
non thermally broken aluminium window frame set in a plastic
subframe; (c) a typical thermally clad, double-glazed alumin-
ium window frame; (d) a typical thermally broken, double-
glazed aluminium window frame

93
Part III Applications in building

This modern house is fitted throughout with white painted, double glazed and thermally broken
aluminium windows and doors. Diamond-patterned leaded glass provides a traditional look
(courtesy Kaye Aluminium)

additional benefit of allowing the use of two-colour effects. By joining two

aluminium profiles, each of a different colour finish, it is practical to have
a different colour on the inside and outside of the frame.

(c) Composite frames An increasingly popular trend today is to combine

aluminium with either plastics or timber. This is a means some manufac-
turers claim of 'getting the best of two materials'. The combination
certainly provides good insulation and additionally offers the strength
and durability of aluminium as an external material exposed to the
elements with the option of alternative materials and colours on the
inside.
The use of aluminium as a framing material enables high-performance
specifications to be achieved. Weatherstripping for example, such as
woven pile, neoprene, pvc or ethylene propylene can be housed within
retaining grooves extruded into the flanges of the sections. Pressure-
equalization and self-draining features can also be designed-in to the
frames. Figure 10.3(a), (b) and (c) illustrate composite frames.
Rigid and reliable corner construction is achieved by mitring and
mechanically cleating. Although welding of aluminium is commonly
practised it is only rarely used for the corner jointing of window frames.
Not only rectangular but curved frames are possible using aluminium

94
 10 Windows and doors

The slim aluminium frames in the thermally Close-up of a pivoted thermally broken alu-
broken, double-glazed windows installed by minium window equipped with a multi-
South Herefordshire District Council provide locking device (courtesy Heywood Williams)
a light, airy look to the cottage-style property.
Minimum maintenance and long life were
reasons for the installation (courtesy Warm-
shield)

sections bent on modern equipment. Curves may be either in the plane of

the glass or at an angle to it.

Doors

The strength and lightness of aluminium is particularly valuable for

entrance doors of all kinds due to the demanding service conditions and
traffic requirements to which doors are subjected.
Typically doors are constructed of hollow extruded sections in alloy
6063T6. The use of hollow sections not only provides a combination of
lightness, strength and rigidity, but importantly, also enables many
features such as multi-locking devices, bolts, spring closers and various
security features to be concealed within the frame.
Options such as midrails and kick plates are easily incorporated and
thermal-break features too are available.

95
Part III Applications in building

Installing an aluminium 'picture7 window Georgian-style aluminium white painted

windows (courtesy Caradon Everest)

These black powder-painted thermally This 3-storey extension to Christ College,

broken windows with leaded double glazing Brecon, is fitted with white-painted thermally
give a distinctive look to this cottage style broken aluminium windows. Note the top
property (courtesy Caradon Everest) centre curved frame above the entrance door
(courtesy Smart Systems)

Patio doors

The patio door market is worthy of individual mention on two counts.

First it was, historically, the starting point for aluminium's rise to promi-

96
 10 Windows and doors

Figure 10.3 Composite frames: (a) details of a horizontally sliding window

(non thermally broken) (courtesy Avdon)

97
Part III Applications in building

Figure 10.3 (Continued): (b) typical detail of a casement window incorpor-

ating polyamide thermal break strips. These permit the inside
and outside sections to be finished in different colours
(courtesy Kawneer Europe); (c) typical cross-section of a ther-
mally broken pivoted window (courtesy Heywood Williams
Windows, Chester)

nence in the domestic home improvement market, and second it remains

one sector where aluminium has been least affected by the emergence of
the plastics material P V C - U (based on polyvinyl chloride) as an alterna-
tive, competitive material.
It is also the one area where aluminium is a major choice in 'new-build'
housing as well as in the home improvement market. Whereas currently
soft wood overwhelmingly dominates the new-build window sector, with
aluminium taking only a small share, the reverse is true of sliding patio
doors where aluminium is the first choice, with wood only taking a small
part of the market.
High standards of safety, security, weather performance, insulation and
slim appearance are all achievable with aluminium frames, which include
such items as specially designed roller tracks, inbuilt double weather strip
retention grooves, and pressure equalization features.

98
 10 Windows and doors

This white-painted aluminium doorframe is Contrasting black and silver anodized

fitted with a contrasting gold anodized lock finishes help provide an attractive entrance to
handle and letter flap this commercial building

Aluminium patio doors remain one of the most popular uses for aluminium in domestic
fenestration, either for new or improved properties

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Part III Applications in building

Many different types of fittings and fastenings can be designed into the
frames, such as hook latches, multi-point fastenings and espagnolette
bolts. Figure 10.4(a) to (d) illustrate sections of various doors and patio
doors.

Security

The rapidly rising necessity to protect property from unwanted intrusion

has led to many sophisticated locking devices being incorporated into
aluminium window and door designs.
Additionally there is a growing trend towards the use of exterior alumin-
ium shutters and security screens. Wooden shutters, of course, are com-
monplace in Europe, where windows are designed to open inwards rather
than outwards as in the U K . Now it would appear that the concept of
shuttering on windows is gaining momentum in the U K , based not on
wood, but on a combination of aluminium sheet and extrusions. There is
significant future potential for aluminium in this new market area.

100
 10 Windows and doors

Figure 10.4 Various doors and patio doors: (a) detail through a composite
plastic-aluminium residential door frame (courtesy Smart
Systems Duotherm); (b) typical cill detail of non thermally
broken, double-glazed residential door (courtesy Tru Architec-
tural Products)

101
Part III Applications in building

Figure 10.4 (Continued): (c) typical detail of sliding patio door (thermally
broken) (courtesy Kaye Aluminium); (d) section through sliding
panel of thermal barrier patio door (courtesy Glostal)

102
11 Curtain walling

Historical development
The need to clad a building structure has existed since the earliest
recorded times. The aboriginal tents of North America and South Africa,
for example, illustrate how cladding to withstand elemental conditions
was achieved with primitive materials and tools.
In more recent times, the nineteenth century was dominated by the
evolution of ironwork as the structure and glass as the cladding material.
Based on these two materials 'frame and fill' techniques, as they were
known, became successful architectural practices for many decades.
What is now commonly called curtain walling is a much more recent
development which follows on from the pioneering work in the USA
around the 1880s and 1890s when the skyscraper architects developed
structure and cladding to a degree unknown elsewhere in the world.
The arrival on the commercial scene in 1888 of aluminium led logically
to the use of this lightweight metal for the cladding of buildings, which,
coupled with the increasing availability of glass panes in larger sizes and
bigger production quantities spurred the development of this new
approach to cladding. With load bearing concentrated in the structural
framework of a building, the size of openings was no longer restricted by
wall strength and so the design approach changed dramatically.
In theory thin, lightweight, easily-hung aluminium wall cladding
enables structural members to be reduced and floor-space to be increased.
In practice, the maximum theoretical savings are generally not achieved,

103
Part III Applications in building

Bronze anodized curtain walling The Euston Central building, finished in

1969, emphasises its high towers with natur-
ally anodized mullions

but real advantages are certainly obtained. Rapid erection, accuracy and
precision of component sizes, guaranteed performance, quicker internal
finishing and also earlier building occupancy all follow from the ability to
'skin' a building with pre-made factory units.

T y p e s of curtain wall

Curtain walling, which may be defined as a light cladding that covers and
protects the sides of a building, requires to be fixed to the building
structure. (Table 11.1 describes the functions of curtain walling.) This
secondary means of support can take various forms such as a lightweight
framework (generally aluminium) erected between or over the primary
structural frame; a bracing frame contained within the cladding itself; or a
fixing device attached directly to the structure. In all cases the use of
aluminium extrusions assists in the provision of a lightweight but strong
framework.
The cladding itself may consist of both a framing system of mullions
and transoms and panel components either of glass or opaque sheet
material such as aluminium.

104
 11 Curtain walling

Table 11.1 Function of a curtain wall

To withstand:
The action of the elements
Wind
Rain, snow, hail, sleet
Sunlight
Temperature variations
Atmospheric pollution
Fungal, insect and vermin attack

To prevent:
Unwanted access
Ingress of moisture
Fire damage
Injury to occupants

To control:
Heat transmission
Air movement
Light
Sound

The advantages of fast track curtain wall construction, which eliminates the need for
scaffolding, enabled City House, Isle of Dogs, London, to be erected economically and rapidly
(1989)

105
Part III Applications in building

Close up of aluminium curtain walling

A prefabricated aluminium curtain-wall panel being lifted into position during the construction
of the Forum Hotel, Glasgow, 1989

106
 11 Curtain walling

The North London Blood Transfusion Centre (1989) contains offices, laboratories, storage
and garaging. Externally the building is clad in a mixture of glazed curtain walling,
continuous horizontal windows and aluminium faced cladding panels. Inside, aluminium is
used very extensively for shelf systems, fire resistant screens, partitioning, handrails, internal
glazing, ceiling panels, ducting and laboratory furniture

The curtain walling may be either built up on site in what is called

'stick' construction or built up in pre-assembled units under controlled
factory conditions ready for easy and rapid installation on site.
The use of aluminium extrusions for mullions, transoms and other
components offers all the same advantages to a curtain wall construction
as to windows and doors. As with these latter products, many curtain wall
systems incorporate thermal-break features in order to minimize heat loss
and condensation.
Aluminium faced infill panels are usually fitted with an insulation liner,
sometimes fitted on site, but mostly forming part of the cladding specifica-
tion offer to the curtain wall manufacturer.
The use of aluminium-foil honeycomb enables extremely lightweight
but very strong robust panels to be constructed. Such panels can be faced
with a variety of materials including not only flat, curved or shaped
aluminium sheet, finished to suit the specific requirement, but also more
unusual materials such as granite and marble facing.
Figures 11.1 and 11.2 show detail of two curtain wall designs.

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Part III Applications in building

The Merry Hill Centre, near Dudley, Worcestershire, makes extensive use of aluminium. The
marble-faced curtain walling on this Debenham's store is backed with aluminium foil
honeycomb to provide a strong, rigid and lightweight panelling (1990)

108
 11 Curtain walling

Figure 11.1 Curtain-wall design: detail of a pressure-equalized design with

patented internal drainage arrangement (courtesy Pearce &
Cutler)

109
110

Figure 11.2 Curtain-wall design: isometric view of a patented system using a silicone rubber gasket compressed by
screwed aluminium glazing beads to secure the glazing and cladding panels (courtesy Stoakes
Systems)
12 Cladding and roofing

Wide range of uses

Aluminium profiled sheeting has been used for the roofing of industrial,
commercial and agricultural buildings for many years. The earliest examples,
at a time when aluminium was a relatively new material trying to break into
markets held by other materials, were copies of corrugated iron designs. The
sinusoidal pattern so popular with corrugated iron reigned supreme. Since
then aluminium roofing has moved much more 'up market' in many senses -
its profiled shapes are more varied and purpose-designed to accommodate the
strength and rigidity characteristics of aluminium; it is provided in many
designs including special secret-fix varieties and it is available in a range of
thicknesses and finishes. The use of prepainted material is a current-day
standard, with mill-finish metal generally used only on non-visible areas.
Applications too, have broadened dramatically in scope, ranging from power
stations to leisure centres, airport terminals, office buildings and mosques.
The need to provide claddings that not only are weatherproof but that also
offer insulation against heat and sound transfer has become important. To
meet this demand many composite panels are now available that incorporate
insulant layers such as polyurethane foam or polyiso-cyanurate. To complete
the sandwich, linings of aluminium foil or sheet are frequently included.
Figures 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3 show details of aluminium sheet, secret-fix
aluminium roofing and typical composite panels respectively.
Most profiles are produced by roll-forming, but in some cases brake-press
equipment is employed. Forming techniques exist to produce curved profiled

111
Part III Applications in building

Aluminium pre-painted cladding played an important role in the construction of the new Daily
Telegraph building in London's Docklands (1988)

The International Garden Festival, Liverpool, was clad with profiled aluminium sheeting

112
 12 Cladding and roofing

The Bintulu Mosque, Malaysia, incorporates 'midnight blue'pre-painted aluminium sheeting

supplied as coil from Alcan Duralcote (UK) to the Malaysian roofing contractors

Side-wall profiled cladding on a sports hall in Lancashire

113
Part III Applications in building

A length of profiled sheeting undergoing performance testing

Close-up of foam insulated aluminium roofing panels

114
 12 Cladding and roofing

Detail of a hidden-fix roofing sheet system (courtesy British Alcan Building Products)

Aluminium roofing being fixed in position

115
Part HI Applications in building

Figure 12.1 Typical profiles available in aluminium sheet. Generally such

material is available in plain mill, stucco-embossed, pre-
painted or post-painted finishes in a wide range of colours
(courtesy British Alcan Building Products)

116
 12 Cladding and roofing

Figure 12.2 A secret-fix roofing system ideal for roof pitches down to 1.5
(courtesy British Alcan Building Products)

Figure 12.3 Typical composite panels incorporating an inner and outer skin
of rigid profiled aluminium sheet with a factory-injected core of
rigid closed cell polyurethane foam. These panels typically
have 'U' values of less than 0.40 W/m2degC

sheet. This gives additional design flexibility and enables roofs to be specified
with a blend of curved and straight sheets of the same profile.
An exciting alternative to both of these production methods is offered by
superplastic forming. This technique, applicable to specialized alloys only,
offers greater depths of forming and allows more decorative patterns and
shapes to be incorporated than are possible with standard forming methods.
Flashings are available in various thicknesses. The versatility of fabrication
with aluminium sheet means that virtually any detail required can be
accommodated. Rigid flashings in a range of finishes to match the roofing
finish - mill finish, stucco, alocrom or painted - are complemented by soft
aluminium high-purity flashing available in rolls for on-site forming

117
Part III Applications in building

This CEGB building in Gloucestershire is roofed with blue pre-coated aluminium sheeting
with distinctive rounded eaves. Side-wall cladding is finished in a contrasting white

The North Terminal at Gatwick Airport makes extensive use of aluminium cladding to
provide afunctional, adaptable building with an impressive facade. The terminal incorporates
many interior uses of aluminium also

118
 12 Cladding and roofing

Close-up of some of the many ribbed panelsformed from super-formed aluminium sheeting used
at the North Terminal, Gatwick Airport

Cladding panels for the Western Pier of the Gatwick Airport North Terminal are made from
super-formed aluminium panels backed with a polystyrene core and an aluminium sheet lining
panel

119
Part III Applications in building

Table 12.1 Typical alloy compositions for building sheet

Application BS Specification 1470 Temper ISO Designation

Building sheet 3105 H6, H8 Al-Mn-Mg

3103 H8 Al-Mn1

Flashings 3105 H4, H6 Al-Mn-Mg

(rigid) 3103 H4, H6 Al-Mn1

Flashings 1050A O Al 99.5

(ductile)

operations (Table 12.1). Step flashings, soakers, dormers, canopy tops and
cheeks, valley flashings, copings and linings can all be produced this way.
Ductile and easy to work, such flashing offers the advantages of being
cheaper and safer than lead, and more durable than zinc.

Vapour barriers

For some buildings single-skin roofing and wall cladding is adequate weather
protection. During wintertime or cold evenings condensation droplets may
occur on the underside of single skins. Where this is unacceptable it can be
remedied by the use of an anti-condensation paint treatment.
In the UK, however, Building Regulations requirements regarding
thermal transmission through the fabric of a building generally call for the
use of additional insulation. Such insulation can be provided by the use of
composite panel constructions involving an inner and outer layer of alu-
minium with a core of insulation material such as polyurethane foam. With
insulated panels of this kind the internal surfaces, in normal conditions, are
kept warm enough to avoid condensation.
As an alternative to composite panels, separate insulation panels may be
fixed on the underside of single-skin cladding. Such panels frequently include
aluminium foil in the construction as a means of providing a good weather-
proof barrier and protective skin for any underlying moisture-absorbent
insulant material. Insulation panels of this construction are also extensively
used as linings in traditional brick and tile constructions.
Table 12.2 shows a comparison of various vapour barrier materials.

Sound insulation

There are no specific Building Regulations requirements covering sound

insulation in industrial and commercial buildings. There are, however,

120
 12 Cladding and roofing

An aluminium foil cored vapour barrier was used in the reroofing of the industrial unit at
Eastbourne General Hospital (courtesy D. Anderson)

Foil-faced insulation panels on the walls of this home provide a snug heat-insulating outer
envelope (courtesy Celotex Ltd)

121
Part III Applications in building

Double-faced aluminium foil foam boarding being fitted to the roof of a new home in order to
give a high thermal resistant insulation covering (courtesy Celotex)

Table 12.2 Comparison of various vapour barrier materials*

Approximate vapour resistance

Description Material MegaNewtons seconds/gram

High efficiency barrier Aluminium foil up to 4000

Insulex 370 1386
Medium efficiency barrier Polythene sheeting 250
Low grade vapour check Zinc oil paint on wood 50
Glass oil paint on plaster 30

Tigures courtesy of British Sisalcraft Technical Data Sheet.

occasions when local authority or other specifiers demand specific levels of

sound insulation.
Aluminium cladding on its own does not offer a significant barrier to noise.
The use of underlays consisting of high-density mineral or glass fibre mats is
very beneficial and not only reduces noise but provides effective heat insula-
tion too.

Fire resistance

Non-combustible materials do not assist in spreading a fire. Aluminium does

not burn, and mill finish aluminium is classified as non-combustible, so that
in consequence it is rated 'Class O' as defined in Building Regulations.

122
 12 Cladding and roofing

An aluminium rainscreen was successfully applied in 1989 to the badly leaking Millbank
House, Southampton. This 16-storey block of flats was erected in the 1960s. Ribbed alu-
minium panels and high-performance, aluminium-clad timber windows fitted by aluminium
mullions to the existing structure have revitalized the building. Aluminium balustrading was
also added in the renovation

In many cases walls and roofs can be designated as 'unprotected areas' in

accordance with the Governing Regulations. This means that there is no
requirement for a period of fire resistance (see BS476 Part 8 for details). In
such cases it may be considered an advantage if the roof or wall concerned
burns through relatively quickly at the heart of the fire providing an escape
vent for heat and smoke to the outside atmosphere. The lower melting point
of aluminium compared with steel may be considered an advantage in this
respect.

Rainscreen cladding

Rainscreen and overcladding systems are becoming increasingly popular for

the refurbishment of industrial and commercial buildings.
The principle is to provide a back-ventilated and drained flat panel
cladding envelope that is erected over or around existing structures to protect
those structures from the effects of changing atmospheric conditions. The
light weight of the aluminium system imposes minimal strain on the support-
ing walls and provides an external skin that weatherproofs aged brick, stone

123
Part III Applications in building

Millbank House before its restoration

and cement work, while at the same time giving the building an attractive
facelift to its external appearance.
The object of this cladding is not to provide a hermetic skin, but a
'breathing' structure. A ventilated cavity is formed between the existing
fabric and the additional cladding. This combats condensation, allows
drainage and evaporation of moisture and permits the original fabric to
release any entrapped moisture. Figure 12.4 illustrates overcladding prin-
ciples for various situations.
Structural framing and cladding elements are produced using both alu-
minium sheet and custom-designed extrusions. A variety of fixing methods
have been developed to suit different requirements. The methods may be
described as:

Face fix using fastenings such as rivets visible from the exterior (Figure
12.5(a)).
Semi-secret fix using fastenings such as rivets that locate in rebated joints,
subsequently disguised by cover strips (Figure 12.5(b)).
Secret fix a variety of clip attachments and concealed fittings exists (Figure
12.5(c)).
Cassette fix panels are mounted using slots or keyhole apertures onto appro-
priate fixings provided by the framework of the added substructure
(Figure 12.5(d)).

The overcladding system lends itself to attractive colour coordination using

either anodized and/or powder painted components.

124
 12 Cladding and roofing

This 11-storey housing block at Chertsey Crescent, Surrey, is another 1960s building to have
been renovated 20years later using an aluminium rainscreen cladding system. Water ingress,
rotting windows, condensation and concrete degradation were all problems remedied by
installing the overcladding

Detail of the fixing of the aluminium outer cladding to the original fabric

125
Part III Applications in building

Figure 12.4 Overcladding principle for various situations

126
 12 Cladding and roofing

Figure 12.5 Typical overcladding fixing methods: (a) face fix method, verti-
cal section; (b) semi-secret method, horizontal section; (c) sec-
ret fix method, vertical section; (d) cassette fix method,
perspective view (all courtesy Baco Contracts)

127
13 Conservatories

One of the success stories of the 1980s was the resurgence in popularity of
the conservatory, based largely on special designs and systems of alu-
minium extrusions. Whereas the standard garden greenhouse is made of
mill-finish aluminium, the standard conservatory mainly embodies white-
painted aluminium. Many designs utilize single-glazing only, but a
number of more sophisticated 'up market' systems now incorporate both
double-glazing and thermal-break extrusions. Detailing of design is facili-
tated through the ease of producing custom-made sections by extrusion
and by the relative cheapness of making the required dies. As a result,
inbuilt features now include drainage channels, gutters, concealed wiring
tracks and weatherseal gasket fixings.
The strength of aluminium alloy is important in conservatory design,
particularly for roof members where it is essential to have properly
stressed sections that will withstand snow and wind loadings.
Designs range from simple domestic 'lean-to' styles to sophisticated
'Victoriana' designs and shapes. White painted finishes have become the
accepted aluminium standard. But other colours are available and brown
is a popular alternative.
Both the domestic and commercial markets are important for conserva-
tories. On the domestic scene the ease of erection of these 'add-on' rooms
coupled with freedom from involvement with planning permission has
made conservatories an ideal way of providing an attractive house exten-
sion. Commercially hotels and other establishments have benefited from
the same advantages.

128
 13 Conservatories

A rectangular 'lean-to' style single-glazed aluminium conservatory

A double-glazed 'Victoriana' style conservatory incorporating contrasting hardwood surrounds

129
Part III Applications in building

Interior view of a double-glazed aluminium framed conservatory

A typical guttering detail for an aluminium conservatory

130
 13 Conservatories

Mullion and transom fixing detail on an aluminium conservatory

An unusual conservatory application providing extra living space to an upstairs room (courtesy
Kaye Aluminium)

131
Part III Applications in building

This rotating pyramid glasshouse provides a novel approach to undercover gardening in

confined spaces. All components, base, glazing bars and cone are constructed of aluminium

A room extension with an octagonal conservatory 'Victoriana' style feature. Powder painted
thermally-broken extrusions were used throughout

132
14 Patent glazing

In essence, patent glazing is a method of providing glass-panelled struc-

tures ranging from a simple domestic glass-house to the largest of covered
shopping malls and centres, factories and power stations.
Perhaps the most important patent glazing application in the U K , and
possibly in the world, is the St Enoch Square shopping centre in Glasgow.
A unique glass envelope containing 28 000 sq m of vertical and roof
glazing covers the entire shopping and leisure centre, providing a com-
pletely controlled internal environment. This imaginative structure, com-
pleted in 1989, is a tribute both to the architects and the engineering and
building skills provided by the British companies involved.
Traditionally, glazing bars provide a two-edge support for the glazed
cladding, which may be either single or double panels. The glass is held in
place by clips, generally applied in continuous lengths to produce an even
pressure along the glass edges. Figure 14.1 shows bar profiles for single
and double glazing.
A typical standard glazing bar is a bulb tee section, providing the
combination of stiffness and lightness, with incorporated double drainage
channels and built-in grooves to incorporate the spring glazing wings.
Extruded sections for glazing bars, heads, cills and various fittings are
usually extruded in alloy 6063T6. The spring glazing wings are cold roll
formed from sheet alloy 3103. Metal flashings are usually formed from
alloy 1200 or 5005, the latter being specifically specified where an ano-
dized finish is required.
Many patent glazing applications are acceptable in mill-finish

133
Part III Applications in building

Figure 14.1 Patent glazing bar profiles:(a) double glazed; (b) single glazed

134
 The glass cover for the St Enoch Square shopping and leisure precinct in Glasgow - the largest glasshouse in the world - dominates this aerial
view of the city alongside the River Clyde. The 28 000 m2 of vertical and roof glazing incorporates 17 glazed pyramids. Naturally anodized
aluminium is usedfor interior components while the external surfaces are powder coated. The project was completed in 1989 (courtesy Mellowes
135

PPG Ltd)
Part III Applications in building

An interior view of some of the patent glazing at St Enoch Square

Aluminium glazing contributes to the impressive atrium at the Aztec Centre, near Bristol

136
 14 Patent glazing

Figure 14.2 A high-performance roof glazing system design primarily for

shallow pitch situations. It is fully drained and thermally
broken (courtesy Heywood Glazing Systems)

aluminium, but for those applications where decorative considerations

demand a more pleasing appearance, then either anodizing or painting
may be specified. Patent glazing may be used for vertical surfaces and for
roofs with pitches down to 5° (depending upon design).
For applications demanding higher performance than is obtainable
with standard glazing bar sections, other specially designed sections are
available. Figure 14.2 illustrates a double-hollow section that gives high
strength and incorporates various drainage channels.

137
Part III Applications in building

The monorail transport system at the Merry Hill, West Midlands, shopping complex has
tubular stations embodying aluminium patent glazing and curved infill panels

138
 14 Patent glazing

An interior view of one of the monorail stations at Merry Hill, taken during construction,
showing the glazing bars, and the external aluminium skin of some of the cladding panels. The
curved panels were of varying constructions but typically comprised aluminium sheet j insulation
core I aluminium sheet.

139
Part III Applications in building

A series of glazed pitched roofs incorporating aluminium patent glazing and curtain walling
form the main entrance to a Safeways supermarket at St Helens, Lancashire

Aluminium glazing continues to be the first choice for commercial and domestic glasshouses.
Invariably in mill-finish metal, aluminium glasshouses give years of trouble-free service
(courtesy Cambridge Glasshouse)

140
 14 Patent glazing

A dramatic view of one of the two glazed domes at Whiteleys department store, Queensway,
London, after being reglazed with aluminium patent glazing (courtesy Ruberoid)

141
142

Manchester's old Central Station was given a new lease of life when an imaginative refurbishment scheme converted the Victorian barrel-vaulted
building into an exhibition centre. Extensive use of aluminium was made for the patent glazing, all with a black polyester powder finish, and the
roofing,finishedwith a PVF2 granite-grey long-life coating
15 Space frames

In the creation of structural frameworks, aluminium competes directly

with steel. Because of the differences in physical characteristics between
the two metals, aluminium can only compete economically and effectively
where full advantage is taken of the metal's excellent strength-to-weight
ratio, or where light weight is a critical factor, as in off-shore oil rig
structures.
The characteristics of aluminium have been put to impressive effect
with the development of spectacular space-frame structures of which
Triodetic is notable. Triodetic structures consist of an assembly of alu-
minium tubular members coupled together using patented joints. These
can be joined together to form two-way, double-layer, flat space frame
grids with clear spans of up to 40 m, three-way grids in a similar span
range, barrel vaults up to 50 m span, various composite structures such as
A-frame and V-frame trusses, domes up to 70 m diameter and pyramids
up to 50 m clear span (Figure 15.1 (a)-(c)).
Adaptations of this space-frame grid can be used to construct free-form
structures of complex geometry such as hyperbolic paraboloid shells.
The Triodetic space frame construction has been used in recent years
for exciting projects on a world-wide basis, including the giant domes of
Shah Alam state mosque at Selangor, Malaysia, a free-standing double-
curvature feature roof for a marina at Niagara Falls, Canada, and by
contrast, a glazed pyramid roof over a leisure centre at Romford, Essex.

143
Part III Applications in building

Figure 15.1 Domes (a) possible forms: almost every shape of dome can be
constructed using the Triodetic system: (b) half plan; (c) double-
layer and single-layer domes (courtesy Baco Contracts)

144
 15 Space frames

A space frame constructed from a patented tubular system (courtesy Spherobat)

Space-frame structures not only lend themselves to innovative design

but also offer easily handled and erected components that enormously
simplify site handling and installation.

145
Part III Applications in building

Fitting infill panels to a Triodetic aluminium space frame (courtesy Baco Contracts)

146
 15 Space frames

Erecting a space-frame structure for a mosque in SE Asia

147
Part III Applications in building

The splendid dome of the Selangor mosque is built with a Triodetic space frame for lightness,
strength and ease of construction (courtesy Baco Contracts)

The Triodetic space frame covering a swimming pool in Basildon, Essex, gives a light, airy
impression to the roof structure

148
 15 Space frames

This multi-curvature, free-standing Triodetic space structure makes an unusual centrepiece for
this dolphin pool in Canada

149
16 Highway furniture

Balustrades

Aluminium in cast, extruded and plate forms is being increasingly used for
a diverse range of exterior balustrade and parapet applications, particu-
larly on bridges. There are a number of reasons for this. The metal has a
high strength-to-weight ratio, it is very durable and may be safely left for
many years without painting or applying a protective coating, and it has
a high energy-absorption coefficient. These advantages combine to make
aluminium an acceptable and frequently preferred alternative to steel for
many locations where safety barriers, either for pedestrians or traffic, are
required.
The three basic alloy materials used in parapet construction are
BS1474 6082T6 for extrusions, BS1470 6082T6 for plate and BS1490
L M 6 M for castings. Mill finish, or as cast finish, is acceptable.
Where welded posts and joints are employed it is important to use M I G
welding techniques with the choice of filler wire selected to suit the alloys
being welded. Where extrusions or plate are welded to a casting, the filler
wire choice should be BS1475 4043A; all welds between wrought compo-
nents should be completed with BS1475, 4043A or 5056A. Various ingeni-
ous patented systems of 'secret' fixings have been developed, and at least
one hand-rail system incorporates integral lighting strips by using spe-
cially designed extrusions. Bolts and washers should be of stainless steel.

150
 16 Highway furniture

Aluminium parapet railing with a fitted wire mesh pedestrian safety barrier

A square tubular design of aluminium bridge railing

151
Part III Applications in building

Heavy-duty bridge parapet across a Scottish loch (courtesy Baco Contracts)

Another major highway product where aluminium offers advantages,

but where so far it has made only modest inroads in the U K , is lighting
columns. Such columns could be the answer to the serious problem and
expense of maintaining installed steel columns on many of Britain's
motorways and arterial roads.

Lighting c o l u m n s

Lighting columns in aluminium have been successfully used in shopping

centres, car parks and private roads for many years. In main road appli-
cations where taller columns are required there has been a lower accept-
ance because of aluminium's higher initial cost, compared with steel and
concrete. It is when the additional costs of maintaining steel columns in
particular are included in the cost equation that aluminium looks more
cost-effective.
The improved safety aspect of aluminium columns is another potential
advantage. Experimental work in the U K , and many years of field
experience in the USA, indicate that personal injuries caused when a
vehicle is in collision with an aluminium column are less serious than
when a vehicle collides with either a steel or a concrete post. Experience

152
 16 Highway furniture

Class 'A' aluminium lighting columns on a busy highway. The mill-finish columns provide a
long, virtually maintenance-free life

Fabricating the trunks of aluminium lighting columns (courtesy Thorn Electrical)

153
Part III Applications in building

Direction signs and road signs are made from both aluminium sheet and extruded aluminium
plank sections. The light weight and good atmospheric durability are key features

suggests that the higher energy-absorbing characteristics of aluminium

are a contributory factor in reducing road accident severity.
Even higher levels of personal safety are achievable with aluminium
columns fitted with breakaway bases. The use of such columns is com-
monplace in the USA and good results are reported.
Both extrusions and sheet are used in lighting column construction.
Many of the larger columns are constructed from formed and welded
sheet using alloy BS1470 5251.

154
17 Shopfronts and ground-floor
treatment

In the highly competitive environment of the shopping high street, an

attractive frontage and good merchandise visibility are essential for survi-
val.
To achieve this combination aluminium shop fronts and ground-floor
treatment have been installed virtually to the exclusion of all other
materials. The slim lines obtained by using specially designed suites of
aluminium extrusions provide attractive appearance, strength and maxi-
mum uninterrupted display area, together with all the advantages of
aluminium's durability and requirement for minimum maintenance.
Window frames, entrance doors, canopies and porches are available
not only in many modern designs but also in a simulated Victorian
appearance, obtained by the use of special decorative features. Anodized
finishes are very popular, with specifiers choosing widely from the full
range of colours now available through the appropriate selection of ano-
dizing process.
Perhaps more importantly, however, the much broader colour range
offered by powder coating has been decisive in the architect's mind. Using
a powder paint finish the shop-owner can select a coloured frontage that is
distinctive, unique and which reflects the corporate identity and colour
scheme of the company.
Figure 17.1 illustrates typical shop-front constructions.

155
Part III Applications in building

Figure 17.1 Typical details of shop front construction (courtesy Heywood

Doors Shopfronts)

156
18 Rainwater systems

Aluminium rainwater systems are becoming increasingly popular, and

cater for all types of domestic, commercial and industrial building, either
of traditional or modern design. Competing with steel and plastics, alu-
minium rainwater goods offer the advantages of light weight, ease of
erection, and above all, durability.
Plain finish products are available, but much more in vogue are the
polyester paint powder-coated finishes that are available and which can
complement or contrast with brickwork, windows and roofing as
required. The durability of both painted and unpainted aluminium rain-
water goods is excellent. Manufacturers' claims for such products refer to
a minimum maintenance-free life of 40 years in rural and suburban
conditions, and of 25 years in industrial and marine environments.
Cast, rolled and extruded forms of aluminium are all used. Generally
cast gutters and fittings are made from LM2 and LM6 specifications;
rolled gutters and other sheet-based items are generally 3103 or 5251,
while extruded components are mainly made of 6063T6.

Guttering s t y l e s

Styles are available to suit all kinds of properties from old to new.
Traditional half round gutters are widely specified, but also Victorian
Ogee gutters and box gutters are available. Rainwater downpipes may be
either round, square or rectangular.

157
Part III Applications in building

Aluminium guttering and downpipe made on site from roll formed pre-painted aluminium coil.
Note the pleat formation that enables curves to be included in the downpipe

Roll-forming aluminium guttering on-site from the back of a van. The technique enables
guttering to be quickly and easily erected with a minimum of joints as lengths can be rolled to
the exact size required

158
 18 Rainwater systems

A flush-fit' cast aluminium downpipe with no climbing aid projections. Specially designed as a
'no-climb'pipe (courtesy Alumasc)

An attractive 'Victorian' style cast aluminium ornamental hopper head (courtesy Alumasc)

'Seamless5 guttering

The benefits of pre-painted aluminium alloy coil are put to good use by
manufacturers offering on-site guttermaking and fixing. By forming exact
lengths of guttering on site, using a travelling roll-forming machine, it is
possible not only to offer a rapid, efficient delivery and fix service, but also

159
Part III Applications in building

to avoid the joints that occur when fixing together standard lengths of
guttering.

Compatibility

Direct contact with dissimilar metals or with materials containing lime or

cement should be avoided. Any gutter joints should be insulated using a
low modulus silicone sealant. A liberal coating of bitumen is recom-
mended as an insulant between, for example, lead flashings in contact
with aluminium gutterwork, and between downpipes and any touching
cement or brickwork.
The use of aluminium guttering and fixings in conjunction with roofs
having copper flashings or cladding is not recommended.

Suitability

Aluminium has built up a solid history of performance for rainwater

goods. It was first used in 1945 and since that date its durability has been
well proven. Its strength is adequate to withstand snow loadings and also
to support ladders.
The advent of powder-coating techniques and of pre-coated aluminium
coil has added a colourful new dimension and led to a significant growth
in demand. Much growth potential still exists in the UK, as currently pre-
coated rainwater products account for just 5 per cent of the total market,
whereas in the USA pre-coated aluminium accounts for a dominant 80
per cent.

160
19 Architectural metal work

Sculpture
Aluminium is an easily workable material. It can be cast, or shaped by
various means ranging from hammering and beating through to spinning,
pressing and forging. Its surface texture can be varied by chemical etch-
ing, anodizing, scratch brushing, embossing, peening, or polishing and of
course it can be painted and lacquered either using opaque or translucent
coatings.
One of the world's sculptural landmarks - Gilbert's 'Eros' statue in
Piccadilly Circus, London - is a tribute to the use of aluminium. Cast in
1893 it was one of the very first uses of what was then a very new material.
Despite being cast from an 'impure' alloy the condition of the statue has
remained excellent.
For architectural sculpture the lightness of aluminium is particularly
valuable, enabling large and imposing figures to be erected without
creating structural overloads on the flooring or walls of a building.
Reduced transport and erection costs are an additional benefit.
Various alloys can be used for sculptured objects, and all forms of
aluminium, cast and wrought can be employed in a fabrication. Modern
welding methods, coupled with the more recent availability of adhesive
bonding have widened the designer's scope, enabling large, intricate
objects to be easily constructed.
Aluminium sculptures are highly suited for both interior and exterior
applications. Ecclesiastical uses have been very popular, with interesting

161
Part III Applications in building

and imaginative applications to be seen in a number of cathedrals. One of

the latest in this line of church-style artefacts is the interesting piece
constructed in 1990 by designer Michael Joannidis while a student at the
Royal College of Arts, London. Made of polished aluminium plate and
adorned with cast aluminium lamp brackets supporting glass orbs filled
with coloured paraffin lights, this imposing modern design, entitled Altar
Lights, makes an impressive use of aluminium's properties.

H a r d w a r e and fittings

The growth in use of aluminium doors and windows has naturally led to a
demand for matching hardware for items such as handles, bolts, stays and
letter flaps. But the use of aluminium for architectural hardware spreads
very much wider - aluminium hardware is used to complement products
of other materials. Aluminium door furniture, and indeed furniture trim
of many kinds, either cast or cut from extruded sections, has become over
the past 30 years as accepted and as popular as brass fittings had been in
earlier times.
Both anodized and lacquered finishes are used to enhance appearance.
Lacquered finishes are less permanent than anodized ones and are more
susceptible to wear and abrasion. Anodizing, which may be applied on

Aluminium door closures

162
 19 Architectural metalwork

A cast aluminium door handle with black powder paint finish

top of plain or textured aluminium, need not be as thick for interior

applications as the 25 |im recommended for exterior applications. The
lowest recommended grade for interior applications is 5 |im (AA5), but
this should only be used where very little wear is anticipated. A minimum
thickness of 10 |im, AA10, is generally recommended.
Anodized finishes are applied in natural silver, and in a range of colour
options of which golds, bronzes and black are the most popular.
As in many other areas of aluminium usage, powder coating has
extended the range of colour finishes and it is now possible to get hard-
ware that is colour coordinated with window and door frames.

163
20 Interior applications

Partitions and ceilings

Aluminium partitioning and screening, built up on systems of extruded
aluminium frames, is ideal for subdividing room space. Either permanent
fix or demountable structures are available. Slim aluminium frames com-
bine lightness and elegance with strength and functionality. Hollow
extrusions or clip-together solid sections can be used which incorporate
hidden channels for the passage of electrical wiring and communications
cabling.
Aluminium framed partitioning can be either solid-filled with a variety
of panel materials or glazed, as appropriate.
Suspended, or false ceilings, can be constructed along similar lines to
vertical partitioning, using a Trame-and-fuT method with aluminium
extrusions again providing the framework. Alternatively an entire 'open'
ceiling structure can be assembled using either aluminium strip or extru-
sions. The use of pre-painted or lacquered aluminium coil is particularly
appropriate for ceilings of this type.

Ducting and trunking s y s t e m s

Aluminium is widely used for a variety of industrial and commercial
ducting applications. Heating and ventilating systems make good use of

164
 20 Interior applications

Bronze anodized and glazed partitioning in an office reception (courtesy Finalex)

An aluminium suspended ceiling constructedfrom pre-painted aluminium coil (courtesy Alcan

Duralcote). The entrance door is silver anodized aluminium and extrusions are used in the
showcases

165
Part III Applications in building

Components of a suite of aluminium extrusions designed for a suspended ceiling framework.

The close tolerances obtainable on extrusion enable interlocking and sliding jits to be readily
obtained

This vertical lighting column hides an office An 'opened-up' view of the sections that corn-
management system for wiring and cabling, prise the Supapole 7 lighting column
The column is built up from a series of
interlocking sections and the smooth exterior
contours contrast with the complex detailing
contained within (courtesy Supapole 7)

166
 20 Interior applications

aluminium sheet for its light weight and durability and for its ease of
handling, workability and installation.
In modern office environments suites of specially designed extrusions
are finding favour as a means of incorporating trunking routes for electri-
cal and communications cables into a planned system. By this means
cabling is conveniently concealed so that cables and flexes trailing across
floors and desks are avoided, along with the safety hazard that inevitably
accompany haphazard cabling.

Grilles

Expanded mesh made from sheet, first perforated and then stretched, has
been popular for many years as a decorative grille material. More
recently a more robust type of lattice grille made from punched and
stretched extrusions, has found applications for decorative partitioning,
window security screens and protective, safety grilles for bars and
counters.

Others
There are too many interior applications of aluminium, both actual and
potential, within a building to discuss in this publication. We can just
mention, however, suspended ceilings, cooker hoods, stair tread and nos-
ing, carpet edging, furniture, shelving, radiators, curtain rails, lighting
tracks, kick plates, balustrades, panelling, insulation panels and decora-
tive trim.

167
Part III Applications in building

Extruded and anodized aluminium lighting track was fitted throughout the Trustees Savings
Bank offices in Edinburgh

168
 20 Interior applications

The interior ofGatwick Airport North Terminal uses large quantities of aluminium sheet for
panelling

169
Part III Applications in building

An entrance foyer fitted with bronze anodized panelling, specially selected for its hardwearing
properties as well as attractive finish

170
 20 Interior applications

Clip fits, sliding fits and screw location chan- Part of an extruded aluminium supporting
nels are just some of the features built into the structure for a demountable and easily erected
extrusions illustrated. They form part of the portable stage
K- Tek high-tech work centre which is an all-
aluminium construction. Designed for
computer room and laboratory use the system
is extremely rugged and presents clean,
modern lines free from clutter and cables

171
Part III Applications in building

The vertical supports of this bookshelf system This bathroom shower unit is made of ano-
are made from anodized extruded channel dized aluminium extrusions and corner cast-
section. The horizontal supports that lock ings. The excellent durability of aluminium
into retaining slots on the uprights are under steamy, moist conditions provides a
machined from a c T' bar section long-lasting, easy-to-clean unit

172
 20 Interior applications

This experimental solar heat collection panel makes good use of aluminium's heat conductivity.
It is an application not yet exploited in the UK

173
21 Looking ahead

The conclusion of the first century of aluminium is an appropriate time to

take stock of successes and failures and to look ahead towards the next 100
years.
There can be no doubt that aluminium has, in a relatively short space
of time made a tremendous impact on modern life. Take away alu-
minium, and the clock would turn back many years, as many products
ranging from aeroplanes to printing plates, and from electric cable
sheathing to food packaging rely upon the diverse properties of this
twentieth century metal. In more recent times, other materials, plastics
and composites have been developed. These have replaced aluminium in
some applications, but more importantly have complemented it in others,
enabling products to be made - such as the thermally insulated alu-
minium window that have been such a success in the last decade.
Environmental considerations are now well to the fore when material
selection is being considered. Judged on this criterion aluminium stands to
gain. It is in plentiful supply, much more so than iron and steel, oil-based
plastics and hardwoods. Importantly too, it is recyclable easily and effi-
ciently so that once produced aluminium can be used again and again;
and not just in theory either, for recycling already takes place on a large
scale turning scrapped or discarded aluminium products, from old engine
components to used drinks cans, back into high-grade products.
Whether any new alloys will be developed, other than perhaps varia-
tions on a theme, is doubtful; but in today's highly inventive and techno-
logical age such a possibility cannot be discounted completely. It is, after

174
 21 Looking ahead

all, only in recent times that the aluminium-lithium series has been
developed, with its increased elastic modulus and reduced density. Cer-
tainly we will see advances in aluminium composite materials such as
aluminium-ceramics and these may open up exciting new possibilities, as
will further developments in superplastic forming, powder metallurgy and
fibre reinforcement.
Improvements in production and processing methods and techniques
which have resulted over the years in increasing metal quality and res-
training price rises by improving productivity and efficiency are likely to
continue, but at an exponentially slower pace. The Hall-Heroult smelting
process, for example, the starting point for all metal production, is basi-
cally the same now as it was in 1886. Its efficiency has steadily improved
and today the production of 1 kilogramme of aluminium requires less
than 14 kWh of electricity compared with 25 kWh in 1950.
Improvements are continuing but clearly at a slower pace. The big
question is - when will we see a new smelting process? The advent of a
new less energy-intensive method would revolutionize attitudes towards
aluminium and expand its uses dramatically.
Expansion using today's existing production methods of smelting and
converting seems certain to continue, however. Existing applications such
as curtain walling, and to a lesser extent windows, will expand and other
established uses are likely to grow in line with general economic expan-
sion. Today's designs of buildings ranging from the Gatwick Airport
North Terminal with its extensive use of aluminium in many forms to the
magnificent Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank in Hong Kong, with its
imaginative use of extruded components, are setting the pace for a greater
awareness of the possibilities for aluminium as a modern, sympathetic,
building material. With greater use being made of aluminium in presti-
gious commercial buildings such as these, there is likely to be a greater
overall usage of aluminium in building, perhaps extending into a far
greater use of aluminium insulated cladding for exterior and interior
walls, and maybe for roofing too.
The domestic house building industry is a bastion of tradition but in the
long-term economic considerations must lead to an extended use of pre-
fabricated, factory-made components instead of the current on-site meth-
ods of construction that are used. At this time all of the experience and
confidence that has been built up with aluminium over the years will reap
rich rewards. In building, the aluminium age may still be yet to come.

175
Appendix 1 Relevant standards

The following British Standards and Codes of Practice relate to various

uses of aluminium in building and to the metal itself Also itemized are
relevant Aluminium Window Association specifications.

Aluminium

BS1470/1987 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: plate, sheet and
strip.

BS 1471/1972 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: drawn tube.

BS 1472/1972 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: forging stock and
forgings.

BS 1473/1972 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: rivet, bolt and
screw stock.

BS 1474/1987 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: bars, tubes and
sections.

176
 Appendix 1

BS1475/1972 Specification for wrought aluminium and aluminium

alloys for general engineering purposes: wire.

BS1490/ Specification for cast aluminium and aluminium alloys

for general engineering purposes.

Finishes

BS1615/1987 Method for specifying anodic oxidation coatings on

aluminium and its alloys.

BS3987/1974 Specification for anodic oxide coatings on wrought alu-

minium for external architectural applications.

BS5599/1978 Specification for hard anodic oxide coatings on alu-

minium for engineering purposes.

BS6496/1984 Specification for powder organic coatings (on alumin-

ium).

BS4842/1984 Specification for liquid organic coatings (on alumin-

ium).

Structures

BS1161/1984 Specification for aluminium alloy sections for structural

purposes.

CP118/1969 The structural use of aluminium.

BS8118/1990 Design Code for structural uses of aluminium.

Welding
BS4870 Part 2* T I G or M I G welding of aluminium and its alloys.

BS4871 Part 2* T I G or M I G welding of aluminium and its alloys.

*Soon to be replaced by EN288 and EN287 respectively.

177
Appendix 1

BS4872 Part 2 T I G or M I G welding of aluminium and its alloys.

Performance

CP153 (Windows and Roof Lights) Part 1/1969: Cleaning and Safety.
Part 2/1970: Durability and Main-
tenance.
Part 3/1972: Sound insulation.

Applications

Windows and Doors

BS5286 Specification for aluminium-framed sliding glass doors.

BS4873/1986 Specification for aluminium alloy windows.

AWA Specification for aluminium alloy doors and side

screens for domestic buildings.

Curtain walling

AWA Specification for aluminium alloy curtain walling.

Cladding and Roofing

BS4868/1972 Specification for profiled aluminium sheet for building.

CP143(i)/1958 Aluminium, corrugated and troughed.

CP143 (15) /1986 Aluminium, metric units.

AWA Specification for flat faced aluminium alloy building

panels.

Patent glazing

BS5516/1977 Code of Practice for patent glazing.

178
 Appendix 1

Highway furniture

Balustrades:
BS6779 Part 1 Vehicle parapets.
Lighting columns:
BS5649 Part 3 Specification for materials and welding requirements
for lighting columns.

Rainwater goods

BS2997/1980 Specification for aluminium rainwater goods.

Suspended ceilings

CP290/1973 Suspended ceilings and linings using metal fixing

systems.

Office furniture electrical systems

BS6396/1983 Code of Practice for electrical systems in office furni-

ture and screens.

179
Appendix 2 Additional reference
material

The Properties of Aluminium and its Alloys, Aluminium Federation

Products and Services Guide, Aluminium Window Association
Guide to the Specification of Windows, Aluminium Window Association
Guidance in the handling, care, protection, fixing and maintenance of aluminium
windows and doors, Aluminium Window Association
Guidance to specifiers in the use of mastics and sealants on site, Aluminium
Window Association

180
Appendix 3 Contact addresses

Aluminium Federation Broadway House

Aluminium Extruders Association Calthorpe Road
Aluminium Finishing Association Five Ways
Aluminium Rolled Products Birmingham Bl5 1TN
Manufacturers Association
Aluminium Stockholders Association

Aluminium Window Association Suites 323/324

Golden House
28-31 Great Pulteney Street
London W 1 R 3 D D

The Architectural Aluminium Association 11 Cleeve Cloud Lane

Prestbury
Cheltenham
Glos. GL52 5SE

181
Index

adhesive bonding 39, 44 chemical compatibility 66

ageing 23 chemical treatments 46
airports 111 chromic acid anodizing 50
alloys 8, 10, 23, 26, 27, 38, 39, 65, 76 ; 120, cladding 73, 75, 111
150 cleaning 86
alocrom 117 coating 46
annealing 23 coining 28
anodizing 14, 26, 46, 47, 85, 124, 162 colour anodic films 51
architectural metalwork 161 combination colouring 52
atmospheric pollution 61 composite frames 94
composite panels 111, 120
balustrading 75 condensation 83, 89, 90
bauxite 3 conductivity 15, 39
bend radii 34 conservatories 75, 128
bending 32 contact, with other materials 84, 160
blanking 29 copings 75
Bodleian Library 60, 89 corrosion resistance 14, 26, 61, 62, 63, 64
brake-press 29, 32, 111 curtain walling 73, 75, 103
brazing 42 curved window frames 94
bridges 77
bright anodizing 49 design data 80
building materials 73 die-casting 26
Building Regulations 120 dissimilar metals welding 45
domestic houses 73, 74
canopies 155 domestic water 83
cassette fix 124 door furniture 75, 162
casting alloys 9, 23, 26, 150, 157 doors 95, 155
castings 75, 80, 150 double rolling 19
ceiling panels 75, 164 downpipes 157

183
Index

drainage channels 128, 133 joining 38

drawing 31 processes 40
drinks cans 68 suitability 41
ductility 12 joint preparation 44
ducting 75, 164
durability 60 lacquering 46
ladders 46, 73
elasticity 13 laser welding 45
electric power 3 leisure centres 111
electrolysis 3 lighting columns 150, 152
electrolytic colouring 52 liquid coating 54
electrophoretic coating 58 locking devices 89, 95, 100
electrostatic spray 56 lorry bodies 46
energy louvres 77
absorption 152 low-temperature anodizing 49
savings 67
environment 67 machinery 33, 35
Eros statue 60, 78, 161 maintenance 59, 83, 86
marine environment 61
fabrication 16 mechanical treatments 46
face fix 124 metal-working 29
filler wires 41, 43, 150 M I G welding 39, 41
finishing 46, 85 mill finish 45, 54, 117, 128, 133, 150, 157
fire resistance 122 mosques 111
flashings 75, 77, 117
forgings 28, 75 Nocolok 42
forming 28
office buildings 111
galvanic series 64 offshore oil rigs 40, 77
glazing bars 133, 137 oxalic acid anodizing 50
greenhouses 46 oxide film 14, 38, 40, 44, 47, 53, 60, 81
grilles 75, 167
gutters 15, 128, 157 paint coatings 54, 56, 57, 85, 111, 124,
128, 155, 157, 163
Hall-Heroult process 3, 175 partitioning 75, 164
handrails 75 patent glazing 75, 133
handling 85 patio doors 96
hardware 162 patterned sheet 19, 81
heat-treatment 19, 22, 26 permanent-mould casting 26
heating and ventilating 164 phosphoric acid anodizing 50
high purity flashing 117 pitting 63, 64
highway furniture 150 polyester resins 57
home improvement market 98 pontoons 77
honeycomb panels 107 porches 155
hot rolling 17, 19 powder coatings 56
hydroelectric power 4 power stations 111
prefabricated bungalows 74
infill panels 107, 111 pressing 30
insulation 73, 7 5 , 9 8 , 111, 120 pressure equalization 94
integral colouring 51 pre-treatment 56
interior applications 62, 164 printing 46

184
 Index

profiled sheet 29 stockists 80

properties 8 strength 12
stretch forming 30
rain screens 123 stucco finish 117
rainwater 83 subframes 89
systems 157
sulphuric acid anodizing 49
recycling 67
superplastic forming 117
reflectivity 15, 39
road signs 75
roll-forming 29, 111 tempers 19
rolled products, definitions of 16 thermal expansion 14
rolling process 17 thermal insulation 90
roofing 75, 77 T I G welding 39, 41
tool wear 28
safety 98 treadplate 19, 73, 81
sand-casting 26 Triodetic structures 143
sculpture 161 trunking 166
seam-welded tube 45
seawater 83
Ultrasonic welding 39
secret fix 111, 124
security 98, 100
shop fronts 75, 155 vapour barrier 73, 120, 122
shutters 100 Venetian blinds 75
size limitations 80
soldering 44 Washington M o n u m e n t 78
solid-state welding 39, 45 weather performance 98
sound insulation 120 weatherstripping 94
space frames 143 weathering 6 1 , 8 1
space structures 73, 75 weight 11
spacer bars 45 welding 39
spinning 31 window frames 15, 73, 75, 89, 155
St Enoch Square 133, 135 wire and bar 27
statuary 78 work-hardening 19
'stick' construction 107 wrought alloys 10

185