Python (Unit 2)

 Control Flow Statements in Python

A program’s control flow is the order in which the program’s code executes.

The control flow of a Python program is regulated by conditional statements, loops, and function
calls.

Python has three types of control structures:

 Sequential - default mode

 Selection - used for decisions and branching
 Repetition - used for looping, i.e., repeating a piece of code multiple times.

 Sequential

Sequential statements are a set of statements whose execution process happens in a sequence.
The problem with sequential statements is that if the logic has broken in any one of the lines, then
the complete source code execution will break.

Example:
# This is a Sequential statement
a=600
b=200
c=a-b
print("Subtraction is : ",c)

 Selection/Decision Control Statements

In Python, the selection statements are also known as Decision control statements or branching
statements.
The selection statement allows a program to test several conditions and execute instructions based
on which condition is true.
Some decision control statements are:
 if
 if-else
 nested if
 if-elif-else

Example:
n = 10
if n % 2 == 0:
print("n is an even number")

 3. Repetition

A repetition statement is used to repeat a group(block) of programming instructions.

In Python, we generally have two loops/repetitive statements:

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  for loop
 while loop

Example:
print("1st example")
lst = [1, 2, 3]
for i in range(len(lst)):
print(lst[i], end = " \n")
print("2nd example")
for j in range(0,5):
print(j, end = " \n")

 Uses of Control Statements in Python

Here are some of the common uses of control statements in Python:

1. Conditionally executing code: The if-else statement is used to execute specific code
based on a condition. This allows us to selectively execute certain parts of the code based
on the input data or the state of the program.
2. Repeating code: Loops such as for loop and while loop are used to execute a block of
code repeatedly based on a condition. This is useful when we want to perform a specific
operation multiple times, such as processing a list of items or iterating over a range of
numbers.
3. Exiting loops: The break statement is used to exit a loop prematurely when a specific
condition is met. This is useful when we want to terminate a loop when we have found
the desired value or have encountered an error condition.
4. Skipping iterations: The continue statement is used to skip a specific iteration of a loop
when a particular condition is met. This is useful when we want to exclude specific
values from the loop, such as even numbers or duplicates.
5. Handling errors: The try-except statement is used to handle errors that may occur
during the execution of a program. This allows us to gracefully handle errors and prevent
the program from crashing.

 Conditional Statements in Python

 Conditional statements are part of every programming language. With conditional

statements, we can have code that sometimes runs and at other times does not run,
depending on the conditions of the program at that time.
 Conditional statements help in making a decision based on certain conditions.
 Conditional statements are also known as decision-making statements.

 Basic if Statement

In Python, if statements are a starting point to implement a condition. Let’s look at the simplest
example:

if <condition>:
<expression>

When <condition> is evaluated by Python, it’ll become either True or False (Booleans). Thus, if
the condition is True (i.e, it is met), the <expression> will be executed, but if <condition> is
False (i.e., it is not met), the <expression> won’t be executed.

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Flowchart of Python If Statement

Example:
# Basic if statement
x=3
y = 10
if x < y:
print("x is smaller than y.")

 else Statement

The if statement alone tells us that if a condition is true it will execute a block of statements and if the
condition is false it won’t. But if we want to do something else if the condition is false, we can use the else
statement with the if statement Python to execute a block of code when the Python if condition is false.

if (condition):
# Executes this block if
# condition is true
else:
# Executes this block if
# condition is false

Flowchart of Python else Statement

Example:
# else statement
x=3
y = 10
if x > y:
print("x is greater than y.")
else:
print("x is smaller than y.")

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Python first executes the if condition and checks if it’s True. Since 3 is not greater than 10, the condition
isn't met, so we don’t print out “x is greater than y.” Then we say that in all other cases we should execute
the code under the else statement: x is smaller than y.

 elif Statement

In python, elif keyword is a short form of else-if and it useful to define multiple conditional expressions
between if and else statements. The elif keyword is pythons’ way of saying "if the previous conditions were
not true, then try this condition".

The elif keyword will combine both if and else statements and create if-elif-else statements.

The if-elif-else statements will contain multiple conditional expressions, but only one boolean
expression evaluates to True and execute the respective block of statements.

if boolean_expression1:
statement(s)
elif boolean_expression2:
statement(s)
elif boolean_expression3:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)

If you observe the above if elif else statement syntax, the statements inside of if condition will
execute only when the boolean_expression returns True otherwise, it will validate the next condition
of elif block, and so on. In case if all the defined expressions are False, the else block statements
will be executed.

Flow Chart of Python if-elif Statement

Example:
x = 30
y = 50
if x > y:
print("x is greater than y")
elif y > x:
print ("y is greater than x")
else:
print("x and y are equal")

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Example:
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

 Nested if Statement

if statement can also be checked inside other if statement. This conditional statement is called a nested if
statement. This means that inner if condition will be checked only if outer if condition is true and by this,
we can see multiple conditions to be satisfied.

Syntax: if (condition1): # Executes when condition1 is true if (condition2): # Executes when

condition2 is true # if Block is end here# if Block is end here

Flow chart of Nested If Statement

Example:
# Nested if statement example
num = 10
if num > 5:
print("Bigger than 5")
if num <= 15:
print("Between 5 and 15")

 Nested If Else Statement

If you create if-else statements inside other if-else statements, we will call them nested if-else statements
in python. The nested if-else statements are useful when you want to execute the block of code/statements
inside other if-else statements.

if boolean_expression:
if boolean_expression:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
else:
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 statement(s)

If you observe the above nested if-else statement syntax, we created an if-else statement inside another if-
else statement.

Flow chart of Nested If Else Statement

Example:
x = 30
y = 10
if x >= y:
print("x is greater than or equals to y")
if x == y:
print("x is equals to y")
else:
print("x is greater than y")
else:
print("x is less than y")

 Loops

Python offers 3 choices for running the loops. The basic functionality of all the techniques is the
same, although the syntax and the amount of time required for checking the condition differ. We
can run a single statement or set of statements repeatedly using a loop command. The following
sorts of loops are available in the Python programming language.

Name of the
Sr.No. Loop Type & Description
loop
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is TRUE. It tests the
1 While loop
condition before executing the loop body.
This type of loop executes a code block multiple times and abbreviates the code that
2 For loop
manages the loop variable.
3 Nested loops We can iterate a loop inside another loop.

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  for Loop

The for loop in Python is an iterating function. A for loop is a general, flexible method of
iterating through an iterable object. Any object that can return one member of its group at a time
is an iterable in Python. The basic syntax of the for loop in Python.

for itarator_variable in sequence_name:

Statements
...
Statements

 Python for loop Syntax in Detail

 The first word of the statement starts with the keyword “for” which signifies the beginning of
the for loop.
 Then we have the iterator variable which iterates over the sequence and can be used within the
loop to perform various functions
 The next is the “in” keyword in Python which tells the iterator variable to loop for elements
within the sequence
 And finally, we have the sequence variable which can either be a list, a tuple, or any other kind
of iterator.
 The statements part of the loop is where you can play around with the iterator variable and
perform various function.

Example:
for num in range(1,11):
print(num)

Example:
numbers = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
for num in numbers:
print(num)

Example:
nums = (1, 2, 3, 4)
sum_nums = 0
for num in nums:
sum_nums = sum_nums + num
print(f'Sum of numbers is {sum_nums}')

Output
Sum of numbers is 10
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  Nested for Loops

When we have a for loop inside another for loop, it’s called a nested for loop. There are multiple
applications of a nested for loop.

This is where a nested for loop works better. The first loop (parent loop) will go over the words
one by one. The second loop (child loop) will loop over the characters of each of the words.

Example:
months = ["jan", "feb", "mar"]
days = ["sun", "mon", "tue"]
for x in months:
for y in days:
print (x, y)

Output
jan sun
jan mon
jan tue
feb sun
feb mon
feb tue
mar sun
mar mon
mar tue

Example:
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 5]
for i in x:
for j in y:
print(i, j)

Output
14
15
24
25

Example:
# Running outer loop from 2 to 3
for i in range(2, 4):
# Printing inside the outer loop
# Running inner loop from 1 to 10
for j in range(1, 11):
# Printing inside the inner loop
print(i, "*", j, "=", i*j)
# Printing inside the outer loop
print()

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Output
2*1=2
2*2=4
2*3=6
2*4=8
2 * 5 = 10
2 * 6 = 12
2 * 7 = 14
2 * 8 = 16
2 * 9 = 18
2 * 10 = 20

3*1=3
3*2=6
3*3=9
3 * 4 = 12
3 * 5 = 15
3 * 6 = 18
3 * 7 = 21
3 * 8 = 24
3 * 9 = 27
3 * 10 = 30

 While Loop

In Python, a while loop is used to execute a block of statements repeatedly until a given
condition is satisfied. When the condition becomes false, the line immediately after the loop
in the program is executed.

while condition:
# body of while loop

 The while loop evaluates the condition.

 If the condition is true, body of while loop is executed. The condition is evaluated again.
 This process continues until the condition is False.
 Once the condition evaluates to False, the loop terminates.

Example:
number = 1
while number <= 3:
print(number)
number = number + 1
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Example:
# In Python for Printing those numbers divisible by either 5 or 7 within 1 to 50 using a while loop.
i=1
while i<51:
if i%5 == 0 or i%7==0 :
print(i, end=' ')
i+=1 It asks the user to enter a number.
Output
5 7 10 14 15 20 21 25 28 30 35 40 42 45 49 50

 Nested while Loops

To create a nested loop in Python, we can simply place a loop structure inside of the block of
statements that is repeated by another loop structure.

while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)

Example:
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 5]
i=0
while i < len(x) :
j=0
while j < len(y) :
print(x[i] , y[j])
j=j+1
i=i+1

 Infinite while Loop

If the condition of a while loop is always True, the loop runs for infinite times, forming an infinite
while loop.

Example:
age = 32
# the test condition is always True
while age > 18:
print('You can vote')

or
The above program is equivalent to:

Example:
age = 32
# the test condition is always True
while True:
print('You can vote')

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Note :-
 The for loop is usually used in the sequence when the number of iterations is known.
 The while loop is usually used when the number of iterations is unknown.

 Loop Manipulation

Loop control statements change execution from their normal sequence. When execution leaves a
scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed. Python supports the
following control statements.

 break Statement

The break statement is used to exit the for loop prematurely. It is used when we want to exit the
loop before it has completed all of its iterations.

Example:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
for fruit in fruits:
if fruit == 'banana':
break
print(fruit)

Output:
apple

Explanation:
In this above code, the for loop iterates over each element in the “fruits” list and prints it on a
new line. However, when the “fruit” variable equals “banana”, the break statement is executed,
and the loop is terminated.

Example:
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break
print(i)

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Note: The break statement is usually used inside decision-making statements such as if...else.

 continue Statement

The continue statement skips the current iteration of the loop and it is used when we want to skip
a certain element in the sequence and continue with the next iteration of the loop.

Example:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
for fruit in fruits:
if fruit == 'banana':
continue
print(fruit)

Output
apple
cherry

Explanation:
In this example, the for loop iterates over each element in the “fruits” list and prints it on a new
line. However, when the “fruit” variable is equal to “banana”, the continue statement is
executed, and the current iteration of the loop is skipped.

Example:
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

Example:
# Python program to show how the continue statement works
# Initiating the loop
for string in "Python Gitms":
if string == "o" or string == "i" or string == "t":
continue
print('Current Letter:', string)

Output
Current Letter: P
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Current Letter: y
Current Letter: h
Current Letter: n
Current Letter:
Current Letter: G
Current Letter: m
Current Letter: s

 pass Statement

In Python programming, the pass statement is a null statement which can be used as a
placeholder for future code. In other words, it is used when we want to write empty code blocks
and want to come back and fill them in later.

Suppose we have a loop or a function that is not implemented yet, but we want to implement it
in the future. In such cases, we can use the pass statement.

for variable in sequence:

pass

In this syntax, the variable is a temporary variable that holds the value of each element in the
sequence during each iteration of the loop.

The pass statement is used to create an empty code block, which is filled later.

Example:
fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
for fruit in fruits:
# Code block to be filled later
pass

Explanation:
In this example, the for loop iterates over each element in the “fruits” list, and an empty code
block is created using the pass statement.

Example:
n = 10
# use pass inside if statement
if n > 10:
pass
print('Hello')

Output
Hello

Example:
x = 10
if x > 5:
pass
else:
print ("x is less than or equal to 5")

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Explanation: In this example, we have a variable called x that has a value of 10. We want to
print a message when the value of x is greater than 5. We use an if statement to check if the
value of x is greater than 5. Inside the if statement, we use the pass statement as a placeholder
for the code that we haven’t written yet. If the value of x is less than or equal to 5, we print a
message.

When we run this program, it will not output anything, as the pass statement does nothing.
However, it serves as a placeholder for the code that we will write in the future.

Note: The difference between a comment and a pass statement in Python is that while the
interpreter ignores a comment entirely, pass is not ignored.

 else Statement

In other languages, the else functionality is only provided in if-else pairs. But Python allows us
to implement the else functionality with for loops as well.

The else functionality is available for use only when the loop terminates normally. In case of
forceful termination of the loop else statement is overlooked by the interpreter and hence its
execution is skipped.

 NOTE: When the loop is not terminated by a break statement, the else block
immediately after for/while is executed.

Example:
for i in ['G','O']:
print(i)
else:
# Loop else statement
# there is no break statement in for loop, hence else part gets executed directly
print("ForLoop-else statement successfully executed")

Output
G
O
ForLoop-else statement successfully executed

Example:
def print_sum_even_nums(even_nums):
total = 0
for x in even_nums:
if x % 2 != 0:
break

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 total += x
else:
print("For loop executed normally")
print(f'Sum of numbers {total}')
# this will print the sum
print_sum_even_nums([2, 4, 6, 8])
# this won't print the sum because of an odd number in the sequence
print_sum_even_nums([2, 4, 5, 8])

Output
For loop executed normally
Sum of numbers 20

The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for statement in
Python. Till the count is less than 5, the iteration count is printed. As it becomes 5, the print
statement in else block is executed, before the control is passed to the next statement in the main
program.

 for loop using range

Python range is one of the built-in functions. When you want the for loop to run for a specific
number of times, or you need to specify a range of objects to print out, the range function works
really well. By default, the sequence starts at 0, increments by 1, and stops before the specified
number.

When working with range(), you can pass between 1 and 3 integer arguments to it:

 start states the integer value at which the sequence begins, if this is not included then
start begins at 0
 stop is always required and is the integer that is counted up to but not included
 step sets how much to increase (or decrease in the case of negative numbers) the next
iteration, if this is omitted then step defaults to 1

Consider the following example where I want to print the numbers 0, 1, and 2:

Example:
for x in range(3):
print("Printing:", x)

Output
Printing: 0
Printing: 1
Printing: 2

Example:
# create a sequence from 0 to 3 (4 is not included)
numbers = range(4)
# iterating through the sequence
for i in numbers:
print(i)

Output

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0
1
2
3

The range function also takes another parameter apart from the start and the stop. This is the step
parameter. It tells the range function how many numbers to skip between each count.

In the below example, I’ve used number 3 as the step and you can see the output numbers are the
previous number + 3.

Example:
for n in range(1, 10, 3):
print("Printing with step:", n)

Output
Printing with step: 1
Printing with step: 4
Printing with step: 7

 range() Syntax
range(start, stop, step)
The start and step arguments are optional.

 range() Return Value

The range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers.

We can also use a negative value for our step argument to iterate backwards, but we’ll have to
adjust our start and stop arguments accordingly:

Example:
for i in range(100,0,-10):
print(i)

Here, 100 is the start value, 0 is the stop value, and -10 is the range, so the loop begins at 100
and ends at 0, decreasing by 10 with each iteration. This occurs in the output:

Output
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

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When programming in Python, for loops often make use of the range() sequence type as its
parameters for iteration.

Example: range (start, stop)

# create a sequence from 2 to 4 (5 is not included)
numbers = range(2, 5)
print(list(numbers)) # [2, 3, 4]
# create a sequence from -2 to 3
numbers = range(-2, 4)
print(list(numbers)) # [-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3]
# creates an empty sequence
numbers = range(4, 2)
print(list(numbers)) # []

Output
[2, 3, 4]
[-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3]
[]

Example: range(start, stop, step)

# create a sequence from 2 to 10 with increment of 3

numbers = range(2, 10, 3)
print(list(numbers)) # [2, 5, 8]

# create a sequence from 4 to -1 with increment of -1

numbers = range(4, -1, -1)
print(list(numbers)) # [4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

# range(0, 5, 1) is equivalent to range(5)

numbers = range(0, 5, 1)
print(list(numbers)) # [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

Output
[2, 5, 8]
[4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

 List
A list in Python is a sequence data type used for storing a comma-separated collection of objects
in a single variable. Lists are always ordered and can contain different types of objects (strings,
integers, Booleans, etc.). Since they are mutable data types, lists are a good choice for dynamic
data (that may be added or removed over time) and ordered collection of elements enclosed within
square brackets [].

The beauty of Python lists lies in their flexibility and convenience. Whether you're organizing
data, managing tasks, or solving complex problems, lists provide a powerful way to store and
manipulate information in your Python programs.

 Syntax

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# With square brackets
list_a = []

# With built-in function

list_b = list()

Lists can either be defined with square brackets ([]) or with the built-in list() constructor method.
In any case, the values initially passed to the new list must be comma-separated.

 Single line list

Lucknow = ["Goel", "Gitm", "Gips"]

 Multi-line list for readability

numbers = [
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
]
 Mixed data type list
mixed_list = ["hello", 3.14, Goel]

 How to Access Elements in a List

To get the candy from a specific jar, you look at the label and pick the right one. Similarly, to get
an item from a list, you use its index. Here's how you do it in Python:

# Let's say we have a list of fruits

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

# To access the first fruit (apple), which is at index 0

first_fruit = fruits[0]
print(first_fruit)

# Output: apple

# To access the second fruit (banana), which is at index 1

second_fruit = fruits[1]
print(second_fruit)

# Output: banana

 List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

 Ordered

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When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that order
will not change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the
items will not change.

 Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it has
been created.

 Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

 List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:

Example
Print the number of items in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))
 List Items - Data Types
List items can be of any data type:

Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]
 type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>

Example
What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(type(mylist))

 Python list() Function

Python list() function takes any iterable as a parameter and returns a list. In Python iterable is
the object you can iterate over. A list object is a collection which is ordered and changeable.

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  Python list() Function Syntax

Syntax: list(iterable)

Parameter:

 iterable: an object that could be a sequence (string, tuples) or collection (set,

dictionary) or any iterator object.

Note: If we don’t pass any parameter then the list() function will return a list with zero elements
(empty list).

Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)

Example
# initializing a set
set1 = {'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E'}

# initializing a dictionary
dictionary = {'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3, 'D': 4, 'E': 5}

# using list() to create a list

list1 = list(set1)
list2 = list(dictionary)

# printing
print(list1)
print(list2)
output
['D', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'E']
['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E']

Note: In the case of dictionaries, the keys of the dictionary will be the items of the list. Also, the
order of the elements will be random.

Note: - set is unordered and un-indexed data structure. where as list is ordered data structure.

Example: Taking User Input as a List

In this example, we are using list() function to take user input from the user and create a Python
list from that input.

Example:
# Taking input from user as list

list1 = list(input("Please Enter List Elements: "))

# printing

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print(list1)

Output
Please Enter List Elements: 12345
['1', '2', '3', '4', '5']

 List Operations and Methods

Unlike strings, lists are mutable. This means you can change their content after you create them.
S.no Method Description
Used for adding elements to the
1 append()
end of the List.
It returns a shallow copy of a
2 copy()
list
This method is used for
3 clear() removing all items from the
list.
These methods count the
4 count()
elements.
Adds each element of an
5 extend()
iterable to the end of the List
Returns the lowest index where
6 index()
the element appears.
Inserts a given element at a
7 insert()
given index in a list.
Removes and returns the last
8 pop() value from the List or the given
index value.
Removes a given object from
9 remove()
the List.
Reverses objects of the List in
10 reverse()
place.
Sort a List in ascending,
11 sort() descending, or user-defined
order
Calculates the minimum of all
12 min()
the elements of the List
Calculates the maximum of all
13 max()
the elements of the List

1. Python append() Method

Adds element to the end of a list.
Syntax: list.append (element)

Example:
# Adds List Element as value of List.
List = ['Mathematics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]
List.append(20544)
print(List)

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 21

Output
['Mathematics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000, 20544]

2. Python insert() Method

Inserts an element at the specified position.

Syntax:
list.insert(<position, element)

Note: The position mentioned should be within the range of List, as in this case between 0 and 4,
else wise would throw IndexError.

Example:
List = ['Mathematics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]
# Insert at index 2 value 10087
List.insert(2, 10087)
print(List)

Output
['Mathematics', 'chemistry', 10087, 1997, 2000]

3. Python extend() Method

Adds items of an iterable(list, array, string , etc.) to the end of a list.

Syntax: List1.extend(List2)

Example:
List1 = [1, 2, 3]
List2 = [2, 3, 4, 5]

# Add List2 to List1

List1.extend(List2)
print(List1)

# Add List1 to List2 now

List2.extend(List1)
print(List2)

Output
[1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5]
[2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5]

4. Python sum() Method

Calculates the sum of all the elements of the List.

Syntax: sum(List)

Example:
List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
print(sum(List))
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 22
Output
15

Note :- What happens if a numeric value is not used as a parameter

The sum is calculated only for numeric values, else wise throws TypeError.

Example:
List = ['gfg', 'abc', 3]
print(sum(List))

Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "", line 1, in
sum(List)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

5. Python count() Method

Calculates the total occurrence of a given element of the List.

Syntax: List.count(element)

Example:
List = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1]
print(List.count(1))

Output
4

6. Python len() Method

Calculates the total length of the List.

Syntax: len(list_name)

Example:
List = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1]
print(len(List))

Output
10

7. Python index() Method

Returns the index of the first occurrence. The start and end indexes are not necessary
parameters.
Syntax: List.index(element[,start[,end]])

Example:
List = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1]
print(List.index(2))

Output
1
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 23
Another example:
In this example, we are using index() method which is one of the list functions in Python,
searching the first occurrence of the element 2, starting from index 2 in the list.
List = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1]
print(List.index(2, 2))

Output
4

8. Python min() Method

Calculates minimum of all the elements of List.

Syntax: min(iterable, *iterables[, key])

Example:
numbers = [5, 2, 8, 1, 9]
print(min(numbers))

Output
1

9. Python max() Method

Calculates the maximum of all the elements of the List.

Syntax: max(iterable, *iterables[, key])

Example:
numbers = [5, 2, 8, 1, 9]
print(max(numbers))

Output
9

10. Python sort() Method

Sort the given data structure (both tuple and list) in ascending order.
Key and reverse_flag are not necessary parameter and reverse_flag is set to False if nothing is
passed through sorted().

Syntax: list.sort([key,[Reverse_flag]])

Example:
List = [2.3, 4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]

#Reverse flag is set True

List.sort(reverse=True)

#List.sort().reverse(), reverses the sorted list

print(List)

Output
[5.33, 4.445, 3, 2.5, 2.3, 1.054]
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 24
11. Python reverse() Method
reverse() function reverses the order of list.

Syntax: list. reverse()

Example:
# creating a list
list = [1,2,3,4,5]
#reversing the list
list.reverse()
#printing the list
print(list)

Output
[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]

12. Python pop() Method

Removes an item from a specific index in a list.
Syntax: list.pop([index])
The index is not a necessary parameter, if not mentioned takes the last index.
Note: The index must be in the range of the List, elsewise IndexErrors occur.

Example 1:
List = [2.3, 4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]
print(List.pop())

Output
2.5

Example 2:
List = [2.3, 4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]
print(List.pop(0))

Output
2.3

13. Python del() Method

Deletes an element from the list using it’s index.

Syntax: del list.[index]

Example:
List = [2.3, 4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]
del List[0]
print(List)

Output
[4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 25

14. Python remove() Method
Removes a specific element using it’s value/name.

Syntax: list.remove(element)

Example :
List = [2.3, 4.445, 3, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]
List.remove(3)
print(List)

Output
[2.3, 4.445, 5.33, 1.054, 2.5]

 Stacks and Queues

 Python lists can also be made to behave like stacks and queues.

 Stacks follow a “last-in, first-out” insertion order. This behavior can be showcased with
the .append() and. pop() methods for adding to and removing from the top of the stack,
respectively:

Example :
stack_example = ["a", "b", "c"]
print(stack_example)
# Output: ['a', 'b', 'c']

stack_example.append(1)
stack_example.append(2)
stack_example.append(3)
print(stack_example)
# Output: ['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2, 3]

stack_example.pop()
stack_example.pop()
print(stack_example)
# Output: ['a', 'b', 'c', 1]

Queues follow a “first-in, first-out” insertion order and also utilize the .append() and .pop()
methods:

Example :
queue_example = ["a", "b", "c"]
print(queue_example)
# Output: ['a', 'b', 'c']

queue_example.append(1)
queue_example.append(2)
print(queue_example)
# Output: ['a', 'b', 'c', 1, 2]
queue_example.pop(0)
print(queue_example)
# Output: ['b', 'c', 1, 2]

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 26

  Dictionaries

A dictionary is a data set of key-value pairs. It provides a way to map pieces of data to each
other and allows for quick access to values associated with keys.

In Python, dictionaries are dynamic and mutable, which means they can change.

Note: As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered based on insertion, but this is not the
case in previous versions.

Syntax

The syntax of a dictionary is as follows:

dictionary_name = { key1: value1, key2: value2, key3: value3 }

Each entry in a dictionary is a key-value pair. Each pair is separated by a comma.

In Python, a dictionary can be created by placing a sequence of elements within curly {} braces,
separated by a ‘comma’.

The dictionary holds pairs of values, one being the Key and the other corresponding pair element
being its Key:value.

Dictionary keys must be immutable types such as numbers and strings because keys should not
change. Keys cannot be lists because lists are mutable, and it will raise a TypeError. Values in a
dictionary can be of any data type and can be duplicated.

Values can be any type, such as strings, numbers, lists, and even other dictionaries.

Note – Dictionary keys are case sensitive, the same name but different cases of Key will be treated
distinctly.

Example :
Dict = {1: 'Goel', 2: 'For', 3: 'Gitm'}
print(Dict)

Output
{1: 'Goel', 2: 'For', 3: 'Gitm'}

Example :

Dict = {1: 'Gitms', 2: 'For', 3: 'Goels'}

print("\nDictionary with the use of Integer Keys: ")
print(Dict)
Dict = {'Name': 'Goels', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}
print("\nDictionary with the use of Mixed Keys: ")
print(Dict)

Output
Dictionary with the use of Integer Keys:
{1: 'Gitms', 2: 'For', 3: 'Goels'}
Dictionary with the use of Mixed Keys:
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 27
{'Name': 'Goels', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}

 Python dict() Function

Python provides the built-in function dict() method which is also used to create the dictionary. An empty
dictionary can be created by just placing curly braces{}.

Example :
# Creating an empty Dictionary
Dict = {}
print("Empty Dictionary: ")
print(Dict)

# Creating a Dictionary
# with dict() method
Dict = dict({1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3:'Facebook'})
print("\nCreate Dictionary by using dict(): ")
print(Dict)

Output
Empty Dictionary:
{}
Create Dictionary by using dict():
{1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'Facebook'}

 Accessing a Dictionary

The values in a dictionary can be accessed by passing the associated key name in a
dictionary[key] syntax:

Example :
coffee_shop = { "cold brew": 3.50, "latte": 4.25, "cappucino": 3.99 }
print(coffee_shop["cold brew"])

Output
3.5

Note:- When a value is retrieved from a key that does not exist, KeyError is raised. If a value is
assigned to a key that doesn’t exist, the new key-value pair will be added. If a value is assigned
to an existing dictionary key, it replaces the existing value.

 Nested Dictionaries

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 28

The nested dictionary named ‘Dict’ with multiple levels of key-value pairs. It includes a top-level
dictionary with keys 1, 2, and 3. The value associated with key 3 is another dictionary with keys ‘A,’ ‘B,’
and ‘C.’ This showcases how Python dictionaries can be nested to create hierarchical data structures.

Example :
Dict = {1: 'Gitms', 2: 'For', 3: {'A': 'Welcome', 'B': 'To', 'C': 'Goels'}}
print(Dict)

Output:
{1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: {'A': 'Welcome', 'B': 'To', 'C': 'Geeks'}}

 Adding Elements to a Dictionary

The addition of elements can be done in multiple ways. One value at a time can be added to a
Dictionary by defining value along with the key e.g. Dict[Key] = ‘Value’.

Updating an existing value in a Dictionary can be done by using the built-in update() method.
Nested key values can also be added to an existing Dictionary.

Note- While adding a value, if the key-value already exists, the value gets updated otherwise a
new Key with the value is added to the Dictionary.

Example: Add Items to a Python Dictionary with Different DataTypes

The code starts with an empty dictionary and then adds key-value pairs to it. It demonstrates
adding elements with various data types, updating a key’s value, and even nesting dictionaries
within the main dictionary. The code shows how to manipulate dictionaries in Python.

Example :
Dict = {}
print("Empty Dictionary: ")
print(Dict)
Dict[0] = 'Gitms'
Dict[2] = 'For'
Dict[3] = 1
print("\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: ")
print(Dict)

Dict['Value_set'] = 2, 3, 4
print("\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: ")
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 29
print(Dict)

Dict[2] = 'Welcome'
print("\nUpdated key value: ")
print(Dict)
Dict[5] = {'Nested': {'1': 'Life', '2': 'Goels'}}
print("\nAdding a Nested Key: ")
print(Dict)

Output:
Empty Dictionary:
{}

Dictionary after adding 3 elements:

{0: 'Gitms', 2: 'For', 3: 1}

Dictionary after adding 3 elements:

{0: 'Gitms', 2: 'For', 3: 1, 'Value_set': (2, 3, 4)}

Updated key value:

{0: 'Gitms', 2: 'Welcome', 3: 1, 'Value_set': (2, 3, 4)}

Adding a Nested Key:

{0: 'Gitms', 2: 'Welcome', 3: 1, 'Value_set': (2, 3, 4), 5: {'Nested': {'1': 'Life', '2': 'Goels'}}}

 Dictionary Operations and Methods

In Python Dictionary we have various built-in functions that provide a wide range of operations
for working with dictionaries. These techniques enable efficient manipulation, access, and
transformation of dictionary data.

Functions Name Descriptions

clear() Removes all items from the dictionary
copy() Returns a shallow copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Creates a dictionary from the given sequence
get() Returns the value for the given key
Return the list with all dictionary keys with
items()
values
Returns a view object that displays a list of all
keys()
the keys in the dictionary in order of insertion
Returns and removes the element with the
pop()
given key
Returns and removes the key-value pair from
popitem()
the dictionary
Returns the value of a key if the key is in the
setdefault() dictionary else inserts the key with a value to
the dictionary
Updates the dictionary with the elements from
values()
another dictionary

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 30

 Functions Name Descriptions
Returns a list of all the values available in a
update()
given dictionary

1. Dictionary clear() Method

The clear() method in Python is a built-in method that is used to remove all the elements (key-
value pairs) from a dictionary. It essentially empties the dictionary, leaving it with no key-value
pairs.

Example :
my_dict = {'1': 'Geeks', '2': 'For', '3': 'Geeks'}
my_dict.clear()
print(my_dict)
Output
{}

2. Dictionary get() Method

In Python, the get() method is a pre-built dictionary function that enables you to obtain the value
linked to a particular key in a dictionary. It is a secure method to access dictionary values
without causing a KeyError if the key isn’t present.

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
print(d.get('Name'))
print(d.get('Gender'))
Output
Ram
None

3. Dictionary items() Method

In Python, the items() method is a built-in dictionary function that retrieves a view object
containing a list of tuples. Each tuple represents a key-value pair from the dictionary. This
method is a convenient way to access both the keys and values of a dictionary simultaneously,
and it is highly efficient.

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
print(list(d.items())[1][0])
print(list(d.items())[1][1])

Output
Age
19

4. Dictionary keys() Method

The keys() method in Python returns a view object with dictionary keys, allowing efficient
access and iteration.

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 31

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
print(list(d.keys()))

Output
['Name', 'Age', 'Country']

5. Dictionary values() Method

The values() method in Python returns a view object containing all dictionary values, which can
be accessed and iterated through efficiently.

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
print(list(d.values()))

Output
['Ram', '19', 'India']

6. Dictionary update() Method

Python’s update() method is a built-in dictionary function that updates the key-value pairs of a
dictionary using elements from another dictionary or an iterable of key-value pairs. With this
method, you can include new data or merge it with existing dictionary entries.

Example :
d1 = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
d2 = {'Name': 'Neha', 'Age': '22'}
d1.update(d2)
print(d1)
Output
{'Name': 'Neha', 'Age': '22', 'Country': 'India'}

7. Dictionary pop() Method

In Python, the pop() method is a pre-existing dictionary method that removes and retrieves the
value linked with a given key from a dictionary. If the key is not present in the dictionary, you
can set an optional default value to be returned.

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
d.pop('Age')
print(d)
Output
{'Name': 'Ram', 'Country': 'India'}

8. Dictionary popitem() Method

In Python, the popitem() method is a dictionary function that eliminates and returns a random
(key, value) pair from the dictionary.

As opposed to the pop() method which gets rid of a particular key-value pair based on a given
key, popitem() takes out and gives back a pair without requiring a key to be specified.

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 32

Example :
d = {'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19', 'Country': 'India'}
d.popitem()
print(d)
d.popitem()
print(d)
Output
{'Name': 'Ram', 'Age': '19'}
{'Name': 'Ram'}

 string
A String is a data structure in Python Programming that represents a sequence of characters. It is
an immutable data type, meaning that once you have created a string, you cannot change it.

Python String are used widely in many different applications, such as storing and manipulating
text data, representing names, addresses, and other types of data that can be represented as text. A
string is a sequence of characters contained within a pair of single quotes (‘ ‘) or double quotes (”
“) and triple double quotes (“”” “””).

The triple quotes can be used to declare multiline strings in Python. Strings can store words,
sentences, or whole paragraphs. They can be any length and can contain letters, numbers, symbols,
and spaces.

Example:
message1 = "I am a string"
message2 = 'I am also a string'

Other data types such as integers, doubles, and Booleans can also be strings if they are wrapped
in quotes. Strings are immutable; they cannot change. Every time an operation is performed on a
string, a new string is created in memory.

# Creating a String
# with single Quotes
String1 = 'Welcome to the Gitm World'
print("String with the use of Single Quotes: ")
print(String1)

# Creating a String
# with double Quotes
String1 = "I'm a Gitm"
print("\nString with the use of Double Quotes: ")
print(String1)

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 33

# Creating a String
# with triple Quotes
String1 = '''I'm a Gitm and I live in a world of "Goel"'''
print("\nString with the use of Triple Quotes: ")
print(String1)

# Creating String with triple

# Quotes allows multiple lines
String1 = '''Goel
For
Life'''
print("\nCreating a multiline String: ")
print(String1)

 Accessing characters in Python String

The character of the string can be accessed using the index of the string in a square bracket [
index ]. If we want to access the last character of the string then we can pass the [length of the
string- 1] inside the square bracket.

Example: Using Square Bracket and Index

In the below example, we consider the string “Hello, World!” and stored it in a variable
my_string. To access the first character of the string we can use the index 0 as follows.

my_string = "Hello, World!"

first_character = my_string[0]
print(first_character)

Output
H

Example: Using Negative Indices

We can also access the characters of the string from the end using a negative index starting from
-1 for the last character in the string.
my_string = "Hello, World!"
last_character = my_string[-1]
print(last_character)
Output
!
Using Indices Separated by a Colon
We can access multiple characters from a string by using a range of indices. We provide the
starting and ending index separated by a colon. The starting index character is included in the
multiple characters but the ending character is not included in the multiple strings we are trying
to access. We can access the first three characters of the string “Hello, World!” as follows

Example:
my_string = "Hello, World!"
first_three_characters = my_string[0:3]
print(first_three_characters)

Output
Hel

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 34

Example
To get the characters from 6 to 11 index we use the range 6:12.
my_string = "Hello, World!"
characters_6_to_11 = my_string[7:12]
print(characters_6_to_11) # Output: World

Output
World

 Case Changing of Python String Methods

The below Python functions are used to change the case of the strings. Let’s look at some Python
string methods with examples:

 lower(): Converts all uppercase characters in a string into lowercase

 upper(): Converts all lowercase characters in a string into uppercase

 title(): Convert string to title case

 swapcase(): Swap the cases of all characters in a string

 capitalize(): Convert the first character of a string to uppercase

Example: Changing the case of Python String Methods

# Python3 program to show the

# working of upper() function
text = 'goeLs For giTMS'

# upper() function to convert

# string to upper case
print("\nConverted String:")
print(text.upper())

# lower() function to convert

# string to lower case
print("\nConverted String:")
print(text.lower())

# converts the first character to

# upper case and rest to lower case
print("\nConverted String:")
print(text.title())

# swaps the case of all characters in the string

# upper case character to lowercase and viceversa
print("\nConverted String:")
print(text.swapcase())

# convert the first character of a string to uppercase

print("\nConverted String:")
Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 35
print(text.capitalize())

# original string never changes

print("\nOriginal String")
print(text)

Output

Converted String:
GOELS FOR GITMS

Converted String:
goels for gitms

Converted String:
Goels For Gitms

Converted String:
GOElS fOR GItms

Converted String:
Goels for gitms

Original String
goeLs For giTMS

 String Methods in Python

Here is the list of in-built Python string methods, that you can use to perform actions on string:

Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original string.

1 .capitalize()

The .capitalize() method takes in a string, and returns a copy of the string with the first character
in upper case, and the remaining characters in lower case.

Syntax

"string".capitalize()

 This method does not have any parameters.

 It does not modify the original string, it returns a copy of the string with the applicable
case changes.

Example:
#using capitalize function
print("WELCOME TO LUCKNOW".capitalize())
# initializing a string
text = "welcome to lucknow city"
#using capitalize function

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 36

print(text.capitalize())

Output
Welcome to lucknow
Welcome to lucknow city

2 .casefold()

The .casefold() method returns a copy of a string with all characters in lowercase. It is similar to
.lower(), but whereas that method deals purely with ASCII text, .casefold() can also convert
Unicode characters.

Syntax

"String".casefold() # Output: string

Example:
Below is an example of casefold() being used to set all characters in a string to lowercase:
my_string_1 = "THIS SHOULD ALL BE IN LOWERCASE!"
print(my_string_1.casefold())

output
this should all be in lowercase!
Example:
my_string_2 = "this Should ALSO Be Entirely In Lowercase!"
print(my_string_2.casefold())

output
this should also be entirely in lowercase!

.casefold() can convert a wider scope of characters than .lower() can, including characters unique to
human languages. Take the German lowercase letter “ß”, for example. While .lower() cannot
convert it, .casefold() can convert it to “ss”:

Example:
text = "Straße"
print(text.casefold())

Output
strasse

3 .center()

The .center() string method returns a new string that has been amended with padding. The
padding is allocated evenly to both sides of the string, depending on the overall length specified.
The default padding is whitespace, but any character may be used, including numbers or
symbols.

Syntax

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 37

string.center(length, 'character')

The length parameter is required and must be an integer. This will be the length of new string.
The .center() method accepts an optional 'character' parameter. If no character is specified the
default is whitespace.

Example:
In the following example the .center() method is used to create a string that has a length of 10
characters. The padding character is a ‘+’:

str = "Hello"
new_str = str.center(11, '+')
print(new_str)

output
+++Hello+++

4 .center()

The below example shows what happens when the length parameter specified in the .center()
method isn’t long enough to create a new padded string. The new string is unchanged, as the
length of the original string is less than that of the specified one in the length parameter.

Syntax

string.center(length, 'character')

The length parameter is required and must be an integer. This will be the length of new string.
The .center() method accepts an optional 'character' parameter. If no character is specified the
default is whitespace.

Example:
str1 = "Programming is fun!"
new_str = str1.center(8)
print(new_str)
str = "Hello"
new_str = str.center(12, '+')
print(new_str)

Output
Programming is fun!
+++Hello++++

Method Description
capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case
casefold() Converts string into lower case
center() Returns a centered string

Dr. Yusuf Perwej Page 38

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string
encode() Returns an encoded version of the string
endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value
expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
find()
found
format() Formats specified values in a string
format_map() Formats specified values in a string
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
index()
found
isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric
isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet
isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii characters
isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals
isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits
isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier
islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric
isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable
isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces
istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title
isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case
join() Converts the elements of an iterable into a string
ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string
lower() Converts a string into lower case
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string
maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations
partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
rfind()
was found
Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it
rindex()
was found
rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string
rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts
rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string
split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list
splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list
startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value
strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string
swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa
title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case
translate() Returns a translated string

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upper() Converts a string into upper case
zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning

 Mutable and Immutable in Python

Python, as a versatile programming language, employs various data types to store and manipulate
information. Among these types are mutable and immutable objects, which play a crucial role in
understanding Python’s behaviour in terms of memory management, data manipulation, and
programming paradigms.

Understanding the distinction between mutable and immutable objects is fundamental for Python
developers to write efficient, bug-free, and optimized code. This article aims to delve into the
concept of mutable and immutable objects in Python, elucidating their differences, usage
scenarios, and implications in programming.

 Mutable and Immutable Objects

A mutable object is an object whose value can be changed after it is created. In other words, the
internal state of the object can be modified without creating a new object.

Examples of mutable objects in Python include,

 Lists
 Dictionaries
 Sets

On the other hand, an immutable object is an object whose value cannot be changed once it is
created. Any operation that appears to modify an immutable object actually creates a new object
with the modified value.

Examples of immutable objects in Python include,

 Strings
 Numbers
 Tuples

 Mutable Objects in Python

As mentioned earlier, mutable objects are those whose value can be changed after creation. This
means that any changes made to the object will modify the object itself, without creating a new
object.

 Lists

Lists are a commonly used mutable object in Python. A list can be modified by adding,
removing, or changing elements. The following code demonstrates the mutability of lists in
Python.

Example:
list = [1, 2, 3]

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print("Original List: ", list)
# adding element
list.append(4)
print("List after adding element: ", list)
# modifying element
list[0] = 5
print("List after modifying element: ", list)
# removing element
list.remove(5)
print("List after removing an element: ", list)

Output:

Original List: [1, 2, 3]

List after adding element: [1, 2, 3, 4]
List after modifying element: [5, 2, 3, 4]
List after removing an element: [2, 3, 4]

Explanation:
From the above code, we can easily see that we can add an element, modify any current element,
and can also remove the element from the list. This proves that the lists are mutable in Python.

 Dictionaries

Dictionaries are another commonly used mutable object in Python and are used to store key-
value pairs. A dictionary can be modified by adding, removing, or changing key-value pairs.
This can be seen in the code given below.

Example:
dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
print("Original Dictionary: ", dict)
# Adding a key value paper
dict['c'] = 3
print("Dictionary after adding key-value pair: ", dict)
# modifying a value
dict['a'] = 4
print("Dictionary after modifying a value: ", dict)
# removing key value pair
del dict['b']
print("Dictionary after removing element: ", dict)

Output:
Original Dictionary: {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
Dictionary after adding key-value pair: {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
Dictionary after modifying a value: {'a': 4, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
Dictionary after removing element: {'a': 4, 'c': 3}

Explanation:
From the above example, it is clear that we can add key-value pairs, modify values, and remove
key-value pairs from a dictionary, all of which modify the dictionary itself. Thus, a Dictionary is
a Mutable Object in Python.

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  Sets
Sets are another mutable object in Python that can be modified by adding or removing elements.
Here’s an example.

Example:
set = {1, 2, 3}
print("Original set: ", set)
# Adding element in set
set.add(4)
print("Set after adding element: ", set)
# Removing element
set.remove(3)
print("Set after removing element: ", set)

Output:
Original set: {1, 2, 3}
Set after adding element: {1, 2, 3, 4}
Set after removing element: {1, 2, 4}

Explanation:
In the above code, we get no error when we try to add or remove an element from the set which
proves that a set is a mutable object in Python.

 Immutable Objects in Python

As mentioned earlier, immutable objects are those whose value cannot be changed once they are
created. This means that any operation that appears to modify an immutable object actually
creates a new object with the modified value.

 Strings

Strings are a commonly used immutable object in Python. A string can be indexed and sliced,
but any attempt to modify a string will result in the creation of a new string object.

Example:
str = "PrepBytes"
# This will result in creation of new object
str += "CollegeGitm"
print(str)

Output:
PrepBytesCollegeGitm

Explanation:
As we can see if we try to concatenate a string. It does not modify the original string. Instead, it
creates a new string object by concatenating the original string with the new string.
Moreover, we cannot modify a particular character from a string. The given code shows what
happens if we try to modify a character in the string.

Example:
str = "PrepBytes"
str[1] = 'a'

Output:
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Traceback (most recent call last):
File "a.py", line 2, in
str[1] = 'a'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Explanation:
As we can see, attempting to modify a string will result in a TypeError. Thus, strings are
Immutable in Python.

 Numbers

Numbers in Python are also immutable. This means that any attempt to modify a number will
result in the creation of a new number object as shown in the code given below.

Example:
n=5
# The value will not change in place
# in fact, a new number object is created
n += 2
print(n)

Output:
7

Explanation:
Here, in this code, the value of n was not modified in place, but a new number object was
created with the new value.

 Tuples

Tuples are another example of an immutable object in Python. The values of tuples cannot be
changed, after their creation. Here’s an example.

Example:
tup = (1, 2, 3)
# This will raise an error because tuples are immutable
tup[1] = 6

Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "a.py", line 4, in
tup[1] = 6
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Explanation:
As we can see, attempting to modify a tuple will result in a TypeError.

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  Between Mutable and Immutable Data Type: Mutable vs Immutable

Mutable Immutable
Data type whose values can be changed Data types whose values can’t be
Definition
after creation. changed or altered.
Memory Retains the same memory location even Any modification results in a new
Location after the content is modified. object and new memory location
Example List, Dictionaries, Set Strings, Types, Integer
It is memory-efficient, as no new objects It might be faster in some scenarios
Performance
are created for frequent changes. as there’s no need to track changes.
Not inherently thread-safe. Concurrent
They are inherently thread-safe due
Thread-Safety modification can lead to unpredictable
to their unchangeable nature.
results.
When you need to modify, add, or When you want to ensure data
Use-cases
remove existing data frequently. remains consistent and unaltered.

1. What are mutable and immutable objects in Python?

Mutable objects in Python are those whose state or content can be altered after creation. Lists,
dictionaries, and sets are examples of mutable objects. On the other hand, immutable objects
cannot be changed once created. Examples include tuples, strings, and numbers (integers, floats).

2. What are the advantages of using immutable objects?

Immutable objects offer benefits such as thread safety, as they cannot be modified concurrently,
and are thus inherently safe in multithreaded environments. They also enable caching, as their
values can be reused without the risk of alteration, leading to potential performance
improvements.

3. Why should I use mutable objects?

Mutable objects allow in-place modifications, which can be more memory-efficient and time-
saving in certain scenarios. They are beneficial when the data needs frequent alterations without
creating new objects, especially in tasks involving large datasets or real-time updates.

4. How do I choose between mutable and immutable objects in my Python code?

Consider the requirements of your program. If the data needs to be frequently changed or
updated, mutable objects might be preferable. Conversely, if data integrity and avoiding
accidental modifications are crucial, immutable objects are more suitable.

5. Can immutable objects be modified indirectly?

While immutable objects themselves cannot be altered, operations involving immutable objects
might create new objects. For instance, concatenating strings or performing arithmetic
operations on immutable objects generates new objects rather than modifying the existing ones.

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