Course No CHEM-103

3 Credits

Chemistry-I
Md. Abu Bin Hasan SUSAN
Department of Civil Engineering
Professor
Level-1, Term-1 Department of Chemistry
Session: 2024-2025 Dhaka University, Bangladesh
E-mail: [email protected]
Homepage: www.matchemdu.edu.bd
Atomic Structure: Atomic structure and quantum theory:
Bohr's theory, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle,
Schrödinger’s wave equation, electronic configurations and
properties of atoms.
Source:

Jason Overby, Raymond Chang, General Chemistry,

McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, 14th Edition
Chapter 7; Pages 273-318
 Electronic Structure of Atoms

Wave: A wave can be thought of as a vibrating

disturbance by which energy is transmitted.
Ocean water waves.

Water waves, sound waves, and light waves

The speed of a wave depends on the type of wave and the

nature of the medium through which the wave is traveling (for
example, air, water, or a vacuum).
 Electronic Structure of Atoms
Wavelength: The distance between identical points on
successive waves is called the wavelength l (lambda).
Wavelength is usually expressed in units of meters, centimeters,
or nanometers.
 Electronic Structure of Atoms
Frequency: The frequency n (nu) of the wave is
the number of waves that pass through a particular
point in one second.

Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), where

1 Hz = 1 cycle/s.
Wavelength: The distance between identical points on
successive waves is called the wavelength l (lambda).

❖The wavelength of the top wave is three times that of the

lower wave, but its frequency is only one-third that of the
lower wave.

❖Both waves have the same amplitude and speed.

 Electronic Structure of Atoms
Amplitude: The amplitude is the vertical distance
from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough.
Electronic Structure of Atoms

Problems
The wavelength of the green light from a traffic
signal is centered at 522 nm. What is the
frequency of this radiation?

What is the wavelength (in meters) of an electromagnetic

wave whose frequency is 3.64 × 107 Hz?
 Electronic Structure of Atoms
Electromagnetic Radiation:
In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell proposed that visible light
consists of electromagnetic waves. According to Maxwell’s
theory, an electromagnetic wave has an electric field
component and a magnetic field component. These two
components have the same wavelength and frequency, and
hence the same speed, but they travel in mutually
perpendicular planes.
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves travel 3×108 meters per second, or

186,000 miles per second, in a vacuum. This speed differs
from one medium to another.
 Electronic Structure of Atoms

Electromagnetic Radiation:

The electric field and magnetic field components of an

electromagnetic wave. These two components have the same
wavelength, frequency, and amplitude, but they vibrate in two
mutually perpendicular planes.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Planck’s Quantum Theory:
When solids are heated, they emit electromagnetic radiation
over a wide range of wavelengths.

Classical physics assumed that atoms and molecules could

emit (or absorb) any arbitrary amount of radiant energy.
Planck stated that atoms and molecules could emit (or
absorb) energy only in discrete quantities, like small
packages or bundles. Planck gave the name quantum to the
smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted (or
absorbed) in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The
energy E of a single quantum of energy is given by
E=hn

where h is called Planck’s constant and n is the frequency of

radiation. The value of Planck’s constant is 6.63×10-34 J.s
 Planck’s Quantum Theory
According to quantum theory, energy is always emitted in integral
multiples of hn; for example, hn, 2 hn, 3 hn, . . . , but never, for
example, 1.67 hn or 4.98 hn.

Really! I am a half cat.

 The Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric effect, a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected

from the surface of certain metals exposed to light of at least a
certain minimum frequency, is called the threshold frequency.

Below the threshold frequency no electrons were ejected no

matter how intense the light.

The photoelectric effect could not be explained by the wave

theory of light.
The Photoelectric Effect

A beam of light is a
stream of particles

These particles of light are

now called photons.
THEORETICAL DISCREPENCIES
 Einstein theory is dilemma.
Light possesses both particle and wavelike
properties.
 The Photoelectric Effect
Electrons are held in a metal by attractive forces, and so removing
them from the metal requires light of a sufficiently high frequency
(which corresponds to sufficiently high energy) to break them free.
If we use light of a higher frequency,
then not only will the electrons be
knocked loose, but they will also
acquire some kinetic energy.

where KE is the kinetic energy of the ejected

electron and W is the work function, which is a
measure of how strongly the electrons are held
in the metal.

The more intense the light, the greater the number of electrons
emitted by the target metal; the higher the frequency of the light,
the greater the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
 The Photoelectric Effect

Calculate the energy (in joules) of a photon with a

wavelength of 3.75 × 104 nm

E = hn
Ans:
 The Photoelectric Effect

a)

Setting KE = 0

b)
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
Einstein’s work paved the way for the solution of the emission
spectra of atoms
Emission spectra:
Emission spectra, that is, either continuous or line spectra of
radiation emitted by substances.
How can we see?
Energizing a sample of material either with thermal energy or
with some other form of energy (such as a high-voltage
electrical discharge if the substance is gaseous).
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

When a high voltage is applied between the forks, some of the

sodium ions in the pickle are converted to sodium atoms in an
excited state. These atoms emit the characteristic yellow light as
they relax to the ground state.
 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

The gas under study is in a discharge tube containing two electrodes. As

electrons flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode, they collide
with the gas. This collision process eventually leads to the emission of light by
the atoms (or molecules). The emitted light is separated into its components by a
prism. Each component color is focused at a definitive position, according to its
wavelength, and forms a colored image of the slit on the photographic plate.
The colored images are called spectral lines.
The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase do not show a
continuous spread of wavelengths from red to violet; rather, the
atoms produce bright lines in different parts of the visible
spectrum. These line spectra are the light emission only at specific
wavelengths.
Every element has a unique emission spectrum. The characteristic
lines in atomic spectra can be used in chemical analysis to
identify unknown atoms.
Emission spectrum of hydrogen atom
Balmer equation:
Rydberg formula
 Bohr’s Model
Bohr’s model incorporated three
postulates:
1. Only orbits of certain radii are
allowed. These radii correspond to
specific energies.
2. An electron in a permitted orbit
has this specific energy, an
“allowed” energy state.
Electrons will not radiate energy,
into a state that is not “allowed”, so
will not spiral into the nucleus.
3. Energy is only emitted or
absorbed by an electron as it
moves from one “allowed” state to
another. This energy is emitted or
absorbed as a photon, E= hn.
Emission Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom
Rosette
 Emission Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom
In 1913, not too long after Planck’s and Einstein’s discoveries, a theoretical
explanation of the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom was presented by
the Danish physicist Niels Bohr.

Bohr postulated that the electron is allowed to occupy only certain orbits of
specific energies. In other words, the energies of the electron are
quantized. An electron in any of the allowed orbits will not radiate energy
and therefore will not spiral into the nucleus.
Bohr attributed the emission of radiation by an energized hydrogen atom to
the electron dropping from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one and giving up
a quantum of energy (a photon) in the form of light.

Bohr showed that the energies that an electron in

hydrogen atom can occupy are given by

The energy of the electron in

the atom is lower than the
energy of a free electron
Limitations of Bohr’s Model

The Bohr Model can only explain the line spectrum of

hydrogen (an atom with only one electron)
adequately. Beyond the first 20 elements, Bohr-
Rutherford diagrams become too cumbersome to be
useful. Scientists eventually concluded that Bohr’s
model did not fully describe the structure of an atom.

It could not explain magnetic field (Zeeman effect)

and Electric field (Starc effect) on the spectra of the
atoms
 Problem
What is the wavelength of a photon (in nanometers) emitted during a
transition from the ni =5 state to the nf = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?

The negative sign indicates that this is energy associated with an

emission process.

This is consistent with the fact

that because nf=2, this transition
gives rise to a spectral line in
the Balmer series.
 Problem
An electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from an energy
state of principal quantum numbers ni to the n= 2 state. If the photon
emitted has a wavelength of 434 nm, what is the value of ni?
 The Dual Nature of the Electron
Why is the electron in a Bohr atom restricted to orbiting the
nucleus at certain fixed distances?
In 1924 the French physicist Louis de Broglie provided a solution to this puzzle.

De Broglie reasoned that if light waves can behave like a stream of particles
(photons), then perhaps particles such as electrons can possess wave properties.
According to de Broglie, an electron bound to the nucleus behaves like a
standing wave.

The standing waves generated by plucking a guitar string.

Each dot represents a node i.e. do not move at all; or, the
amplitude of the wave at these points is zero.
The Dual Nature of the Electron

De Broglie deduced that the particle and

wave properties are related by the
expression
E=mc2 E=hn

where l, m, and u are the wavelengths

associated with a moving particle, its mass,
and its velocity, respectively.
 Problem

a)

b)
 Quantum Mechanics

Bohr’s approach could not account for the emission spectra

of atoms containing more than one electron, such as atoms
of helium and lithium.

Cannot explain why extra lines appear in the hydrogen

emission spectrum when a magnetic field is applied.

Electrons are wavelike: How can the “position” of a wave

be specified?
 Quantum Mechanics
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is impossible to
know simultaneously both the momentum (mass times
velocity) and the position of a particle with certainty.

Significance: ???
German physicist Werner Heisenberg

Thus, it is not appropriate to imagine the electron

circling the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
 Quantum Mechanics
In 1926 the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, using a
complicated mathematical technique, formulated an equation that
describes the behavior and energies of submicroscopic particles.
The Schrödinger equation requires advanced calculus to solve.
The equation incorporates both particle
behavior, in terms of mass m, and wave
behavior, in terms of a wave function y (psi)
The wave function itself has no direct physical
meaning. However, the probability of finding
the electron in a certain region in space is
proportional to y2.
The most likely place to find a photon is
where the intensity is greatest, that is, where
the value of y 2 is greatest.
 Quantum Mechanical Description of the
Hydrogen Atom
• An atomic orbital can be thought of as the wave function of an
electron in an atom. When we say that an electron is in a
certain orbital, we mean that the distribution of the electron
density or the probability of locating the electron in space is
described by the square of the wave function associated with
that orbital.
• An atomic orbital, therefore, has a characteristic energy, as well
as a characteristic distribution of electron density.
The Schrödinger equation works nicely for the simple hydrogen
atom with its one proton and one electron, but it turns out that it
cannot be solved exactly for any atom containing more than one
electron
We can use the energies and wave functions obtained from the
hydrogen atom as good approximations of the behavior of
electrons in more complex atoms.
 Schrodinger Wave Equation

The fundamental wave equation describing the behavior of a

small particle in terms of wave motion is:

y represents the amplitude of the wave

x is the displacement in a given direction
l is the wavelength
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
According to de-Broglies equation
l=h/mv
or m2v2 =h2/l2

This is Schrodinger wave equation in one dimension.

Operators in Schrodinger Equation

Hamiltonian Operator

Vector Operator
Laplacian Operator (DEL Operator)
Momentum Operator
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
For a particle whose motion is described by three space
coordinates x, y, z

For hydrogen atom

 Eigen values and Eigen functions
Schrodinger wave equation has several solution but many of these are
imaginary and therefore not valid.
Only those values of the wave function y are valid which satisfy the
following conditions
1. It must be finite and continuous

2. It must be single valued i.e. at a given point,

there is not more than one value of y

3. must be continuous

functions of x, y, z respectively
4. The solution must be normalized i.e. they must

satisfy the dr is a small volume element

Values of y which satisfy these condition and hence valid are called Eigen
functions and the values of E corresponding the Eigen functions are called
Eigen values. The Eigen function for an electron is called atomic orbital
 Significance of y and y2
The wave function y by itself has no physical significance.
The probability of finding an electron in a given region is proportional to y2
The probability at any point must be a real quantity

Y of an electron is often an imaginary quantity

where

The probability is
- which is an imaginary quantity
But the probability must be a real quantity
 Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers are required to describe the

distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms.
These numbers are derived from the mathematical
solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen
atom.
Principal quantum number,
Angular momentum quantum number,
Magnetic quantum number
Spin quantum number
 Quantum Numbers

Principal Quantum Number (n)

The principal quantum number (n) can have integral

values 1, 2, 3, and so forth.

The larger n is, the greater the average distance

of an electron in the orbital from the nucleus and
therefore the larger the orbital.
 Quantum Numbers

Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

The angular momentum quantum number (l) tells us the “shape”
of the orbitals
For a given value of n, , has possible integral values from 0 to (n - 1).

If n=1, l=0
n=2, l=0,1
n=3, l=0, 1, 2
 Quantum Numbers
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
The magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the orientation
of the orbital in space.
For a certain value of l, there
are (2l+1) integral values of ml as
follows:

l=0, ml =0
l=1, ml =-1, 0, 1
l=2, ml =-2, -1, 0, 1, 2

The number of ml values indicates the number of

orbitals in a subshell with a particular l value.
 Quantum Numbers
Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

If electrons are thought of as spinning

on their own axes, as Earth does, their
magnetic properties can be accounted
for. According to electromagnetic
theory, a spinning charge generates a
magnetic field, and it is this motion that
causes an electron to behave like a
magnet.
 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach first observed electron spin
magnetism in 1921.
The beam of hydrogen atoms is split into two by the magnetic field;
half of the atoms are bent in one direction and half in the other. The
fact that the atoms are affected by the laboratory magnet shows that
they themselves act as magnets. The beam of hydrogen atoms is split
into two because the electron in each atom behaves as a tiny magnet
with only two possible orientations. In effect, the electron acts as
though it were a ball of spinning charge and, like a circulating
electric charge, the electron would create a magnetic field.
 Atomic Orbitals
Orbitals: Three dimensional region in space where the
probability of finding an electron is more than 95%.
 s-orbitals
An orbital does not have a well-defined shape because the wave
function characterizing the orbital extends from the nucleus to infinity.

Thus, we can represent the 1s orbital

by drawing a boundary surface
diagram that encloses about 90
percent of the total electron density
in an orbital

All s orbitals are spherical in

shape but differ in size, which
increases as the principal
quantum number increases.
P-orbitals
d-orbitals
 The Energies of Orbitals
H atom

Orbital energy levels in the hydrogen atom. Each

short horizontal line represents one orbital. Orbitals
with the same principal quantum number (n) all have
the same energy.
 The Energies of Orbitals
Many electron atom

Each orbital can

accommodate up
to two electrons.

Orbital energy levels in a many-electron atom. Note that the

energy level depends on both n and l values.
 The Energies of Orbitals

The order in which atomic subshells

are filled in a many-electron atom.
 Electron Configuration
The four quantum numbers n, l, ml,
and ms enable us to label
completely an electron
in any orbital in any atom.
The value of ms has no effect on the
energy, size, shape, or orientation
of an orbital, but it determines how
electrons are arranged in an
orbital.

The electron
configuration
of H atom
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli
No two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers. If two electrons in an atom should have
the same n, l, and ml values (that is, these two electrons are
in the same atomic orbital), then they must have different
values of ms.

The (a) parallel and (b) antiparallel spins of two electrons. In

(a), the two magnetic fields reinforce each other. In (b), the two
magnetic fields cancel each other.
 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances are those that contain
net unpaired spins and are attracted by a
magnet.

n odd number of electrons will always contain

one or more unpaired spins.
Diamagnetic substances do not contain net unpaired
spins and are slightly repelled by a magnet.

atoms containing an even number of electrons may

or may not contain unpaired spins.
 Shielding Effect in Many-Electron Atoms
2s and 2p orbitals are larger than the 1s orbital, an electron in either of these
orbitals will spend more time away from the nucleus than an electron in the
1s orbital. Thus, we can speak of a 2s or 2p electron being partly “shielded”
from the attractive force of the nucleus by the 1s electrons. it reduces the
electrostatic attraction between the protons in the nucleus and the electron in
the 2s or 2p orbital.

Although a 2s electron spends most of its time (on average)

slightly farther from the nucleus than a 2p electron, the
electron density near the nucleus is actually greater for the 2s
electron.
2s orbital is said to be more “penetrating” than the 2p orbital.
Therefore, a 2s electron is less shielded by the 1s electrons and
is more strongly held by the nucleus.
 Hund’s Rule

None of the three arrangements violates the Pauli exclusion principle.

The answer is provided by Hund’s rule (after the German
physicist Frederick Hund), which states that the most stable
arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the
greatest number of parallel spins.
Hund’s Rule
 Building-Up Principle

The German word “Aufbau” means “building up.”

The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one

by one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons are
similarly added to the atomic orbitals.
The elements from scandium (Z = 21) to copper (Z=29) are
transition metals.
Transition metals either have incompletely filled d subshells or
readily give rise to cations that have incompletely filled d
subshells
 Building-Up Principle: Irregularities

The electron configuration of

chromium (Z =24) is

Cu
Slightly greater stability is associated with the half-filled (3d 5)
and completely filled (3d10) subshells.
Electrons in the same subshell (in this case, the d orbitals) have
equal energy but different spatial distributions. Consequently,
their shielding of one another is relatively small, and the
electrons are more strongly attracted by the nucleus when they
have the 3d5 configuration.
Write the ground-state electron configurations for
(a) sulfur (S) and (b) palladium (Pd), which is
diamagnetic.
a) the electron configuration of S is

b)
 Atomic Number

The discrepancies that had puzzled earlier scientists now

made sense. The atomic number of argon is 18 and that of
potassium is 19, so potassium should follow argon in the
periodic table.
 Modern Periodic Law

Modern periodic law states that the properties of

elements are dependent on their atomic numbers,
and elements show similar properties at regular
intervals of increasing atomic numbers.
The most essential characteristics:
• The atomic numbers of the elements are arranged in ascending order.
• Periods are the seven horizontal rows, and groups are the eighteen
vertical columns.
• Because they all have the same number of outer electrons, the
elements in a group have comparable physical and chemical
properties. However, as we progress from top to bottom in a group,
they show a steady change.
• Moving from left to right, the qualities of the elements in a period
change gradually. As we move from left to right, the atomic size
decreases.
 Modern Periodic Law

• The designation of A and B groups is not universal.

• In Europe the practice is to use B for representative
elements and A for transition metals, which is just
the opposite of the American convention.
• The IUPAC has recommended numbering the
columns sequentially with Arabic numerals 1
through 18. The proposal has sparked much
controversy in the international chemistry
community.
• In this text we will adhere to the American
designation.
 Periodic Classification of the Elements
Representative elements

Representative elements (also called main group elements)

are the elements in Groups 1A through 7A, all of which have
incompletely filled s or p subshells of the highest principal
quantum number.
 Periodic Classification of the Elements
The noble gases

The noble gases (the Group 8A elements) all have a completely

filled p subshell. The electron configurations are 1s2 for helium
and ns2np6 for the other noble gases.
 Periodic Classification of the Elements
The transition metals

The transition metals are the elements in Groups 1B and 3B through 8B, which
have incompletely filled d subshells or readily produce cations with
incompletely filled d subshells. (These metals are sometimes referred to as the
d-block transition elements.)
 Periodic Classification of the Elements

The Group 2B elements are Zn, Cd, and Hg, which are
neither representative elements nor transition metals.
 Periodic Classification of the Elements
f-block transition elements

The lanthanides and actinides are sometimes called f-block transition elements
because they have incompletely filled f subshells.
Periodic Classification of the Elements
Group 1A and Group 2A Elements
Group 1A alkali metals have similar
outer electron configurations; each has
a noble gas core and an ns1
configuration of the outer electron.
Similarly, the Group 2A alkaline earth
metals have a noble gas core and an ns2
configuration of the outer electrons.

The outer electrons of an atom, which

are those involved in chemical bonding,
are often called the valence electrons.

Having the same number of valence

electrons accounts for similarities in
chemical behavior among the elements
within each of these groups.
 Periodic Classification of the Elements
Groups 3A to Group 6A Elements

The elements in Group 4A all have the same outer electron configuration,
ns2np2, but there is much variation in chemical properties among these
elements:
Carbon is a nonmetal, silicon and germanium are metalloids, and tin and
lead are metals.
Periodic Classification of the Elements
 Atomic Radii
Atomic size is the volume containing about 90
percent of the total electron density around the
nucleus. Size of an atom in terms of its atomic
radius, which is one-half the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms.

covalent radius
metallic radius
The Sizes of Atoms and Ions
 Atomic Radii

Because orbital size

increases with the
increasing
principal quantum
number n, the size
of the atomic
radius increases
from Li to Cs.

Because the effective nuclear charge increases from left to right, the
added valence electron at each step is more strongly attracted by the
nucleus than the one before. Therefore, we expect and indeed find the
atomic radius decreases from Li to Ne.
 Atomic Radii Decreases Across the Period
Period 2 Li Be B C N O
1e- 2e- 3e-
2e- 2e- 2e-

3 p+ 4 p+ 5 p+

Li (3p+ & 3e-) Be (4p+ & 4e-) B (5p+ & 5e-)

4e- 6e- 8e-

2e- 2e- 2e-
6 p+ 8 p+ 10 p+

C (6p+ & 6e-) O (8p+ & 8e-) Ne (10p+ & 10e-)

 Atomic Radii Increases Down the Group
2e-
Group IIA
2e-
Be Be (4p+ & 4e-) 4 p+
Mg
Ca 2e-
8e-
Sr 2e-
Ba Mg (12p+ & 12e-)
12 p+
Ra
2e-
8e-
8e-
2e-
Ca (20p+ & 20e-)
20 p+
Trends in Atomic Radii
Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic
radius: P, Si, N. Z=15, 14,
7
 Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required
to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state.
In other words, ionization energy is the amount of energy in
kilojoules needed to strip 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of
gaseous atoms. Ionization is always an endothermic
process.
I1 + X(g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

I2 + X+(g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

I3 + X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I1 < I2 < I3
 General Trends in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy

This trend is due to the increase in effective nuclear charge from

left to right (as in the case of atomic radii variation). A larger
effective nuclear charge means a more tightly held valence
electron, and hence a higher first ionization energy.
 Variation of the First Ionization Energy with Atomic Number

Filled n=1 shell

Filled n=2 shell

Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell

Noble gases have high ionization energies, whereas the alkali

metals and alkaline earth metals have low ionization energies.
 Irregularities
The Group 3A elements have lower first ionization energies
than 2A elements because they all have a single electron in the
outermost p subshell (ns2np1), which is well shielded by the
inner electrons and the ns2 electrons. Therefore, less energy is
needed to remove a single p electron than to remove a paired s
electron from the same principal energy level.
In the Group 5A elements (ns2np3) the p electrons are in three
separate orbitals according to Hund’s rule. In Group 6A
(ns2np4) the additional electron must be paired with one of
the three p electrons. The proximity of two electrons in the
same orbital results in greater electrostatic repulsion, which
makes it easier to ionize an atom of the Group 6A element,
even though the nuclear charge has increased by one unit.
Thus, the ionization energies for Group 6A elements are lower
than those for Group 5A elements in the same period.
(a) Which atom should have a smaller first ionization energy: oxygen or
sulfur?
(b) Which atom should have a higher second ionization energy: lithium or
beryllium?
 Electron Affinity

Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that

occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.
X(g) + e- X-(g)

F(g) + e- F-(g) DH = −328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O(g) + e- O-(g) DH = −141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

Electron affinity is positive if the reaction is exothermic
and negative if the reaction is endothermic.

There is a much less regular variation in electron

affinities from top to bottom within a group.
Why are the electron affinities of the alkaline earth metals
either negative or small positive values?
Variation of Electron Affinity With Atomic Number (H – Ba)
Electronegativity
 Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom
in a molecule to draw bonding electrons to itself.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a
molecule to draw bonding electrons to itself.
Periodic Properties of the Elements

Prentice-Hall © 2002 General Chemistry: Chapter 10

 General Trends in Chemical Properties
Diagonal Relationships on the Periodic Table

Diagonal relationships are similarities between pairs of elements in different

groups and periods of the periodic table.
The reason for this phenomenon is the closeness of the charge densities of their
cations. (Charge density is the charge of an ion divided by its volume.)
115
 General Trends in Chemical Properties
Groups 1A and 2A,
which are all metals,

Groups 7A and 8A,

which are all nonmetals.

Groups 3A through 6A,

where the elements change either from
nonmetals to metals or from nonmetals
to metalloids

It is natural to expect greater variation in chemical properties

even though the members of the same group have similar outer
electron configurations.
Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids
 The elements can be divided into three categories—
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
 A metal is a good conductor of heat and electricity
while a nonmetal is usually a poor conductor of heat
and electricity.
 A metalloid has properties that are intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals.
Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids
Metals Tend to Lose Electrons

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 Nonmetals Tend to Gain Electrons

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