Cambridge University Press & Assessment

978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual

Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 Learning and teaching contexts

Main focus
To raise awareness of the ways in which learning contexts can vary and the impacts that these variations
will have on teaching.
Learning outcomes
• Trainees can describe a range of language learning purposes and situations, using standard
abbreviations.
• Trainees understand how variations in context may impact on teaching, with regard to class size and
the profile of learners.
• Trainees understand that different learners have different needs.
• Trainees develop an awareness of how learners’ needs can be investigated via simple needs analyses.
Key concepts
• EFL, ESL, CLIL, EIL, ESP, EAP
• needs and needs analyses

Stage Focus
A Warm-up introducing some key variations in learning contexts
B Learners’ purposes defining EFL, ESL, CLIL, EIL, ESP and EAP
C Needs and needs analyses identifying ways in which a teacher can investigate the needs
of learners
D More differences recognizing how class size and other variables will impact on
learning and teaching
Key words for teachers building of specialist vocabulary to talk about teaching
Reflection trainees consider how they might apply what they have learned
in the unit

A Warm-up
Encourage the learners to think back to a concrete situation in which they were either
a learner or a teacher. Give them a little planning time to think about what they wish to
say. The activity assumes some human interaction (rather than a lesson delivered entirely
through a learning app).
As an alternative, this could be set up as a visualization task, with the questions being asked
over appropriate music.
Give the learners time to compare the contexts they recalled before reporting back in open class.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

B Learners’ purposes
1 Write EFL on the board and try to elicit what the letters might stand for. Write one or two
further examples before setting up the matching activity.
Answers: 1–d) 2–f) 3–a) 4–b) 5–c) 6–e)
You could ask the trainees to identify an example of ESP from the list (EAP) in order to
highlight how ESP acts as a generic term with specific examples branching from it.
You may like to feed in more information about the types of learning context. This might
include:
ELT is a generic term that could cover all the other scenarios.
EFL can be extended to cover short stays in an English-speaking environment when the
learner is not a long-term resident in that country. So, a student who comes to the UK for a
four-week summer course is also an EFL learner.
ESL is one commonly used abbreviation for the phenomenon described. However, it may be
broken down further. In the UK, ESOL is used to refer to the teaching of English to migrant
or other minority groups, learning English in a host country. Learners may use their L1 at
home but need English to have full access to the wider community – schools, health care and
so on.
CLIL is one content-based model of instruction and includes the explicit teaching of English
to support learners so that they can also achieve in the ‘content’ subject.
There is almost no end of examples of ESP courses, but as well as the examples given,
common courses include: English for aviation, English for law, and English for hotels
and tourism.
2 Give the trainees some time to read the profiles of learners and ask any questions that they
need to. They could compare their answers before reporting back to you in open class.
• Han is an EAP student.
• Lucia is an EFL student.
• Kazankiran is an ESL student.
• Carmen is an ESP student, studying English for business purposes. It seems very likely that
she also uses English as an international language.
• Kah-Yee was a CLIL student. (Malaysia introduced CLIL in the early part of the 21st
century, with mathematics being one of the subjects taught through English, but later the
CLIL policy was reversed.)

C Needs and needs analyses

1 Invite the learners to look back at the profiles and consider which learners have the most
predictable needs. Arguably, it is only Lucia who does not have easily anticipated needs.
You may like to ask the trainees to speculate further about some of the needs of the other
learners and what sort of content their course might include.
2 Focus the trainees on the questions. Allow them to discuss in pairs or small groups before
reporting back.
a How might the needs of an ESL learner vary from those of an EFL learner?
The needs of an ESL learner are likely to be more predictable. In some cases they may
reflect day-to-day survival needs, such as making an appointment with a doctor, form-
filling, and talking to a child’s teacher. However, it is fair to say that people ought to have

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 Learning and teaching contexts

the opportunity to thrive, not merely survive, and so although these may be reasonable
initial aims, they are unlikely to fulfil all of a learner’s needs.
b How might the needs of an EAP learner vary from those of an EFL learner?
The needs of an EAP learner will reflect the type of texts they need to understand (e.g.
lectures) and also produce (e.g. extended academic essays). This may mean that there is a
case for teaching the genre features of those text types. In addition, the learner needs to be
able to interact with their teachers in an appropriate manner.
c What sort of language content would you expect a CLIL learner to receive?
This will focus on the language needed for the subject they are studying. Again, there may
be a need to study certain text types (e.g. if science is taught via English, they may need to
study how to write a lab report). Particular vocabulary and grammar may accompany this
(e.g. the passive voice may be taught in relation to a lab report).
d Can you think of any implications for teaching if a student uses, or will use, English as an
international language?
There are several implications, including what ‘counts’ as an appropriate model of English
on which to base feedback. However, more easily implementable actions might, for
example, be things such as using listening comprehension texts that include speakers
from a variety of L1 backgrounds.
3 Try to elicit from the trainees that they could investigate needs by surveying the learners, or
by interviewing them.
Point out that if needs are known, courses can be designed to meet them, and this may prove
very motivating for learners.
Put trainees into pairs and ask them to write questions that they could use to establish a
learner’s needs. You may like to start this in open class, by eliciting questions such as How
important is practising reading to you?.
When the trainees have had some time, they can compare with another group before
reporting back in open class. You may like to collate relevant questions on the board.
You could also point out that there are other sources of information, in addition to the
learners themselves. For example, information could come from a learner’s previous
teachers, an HR department that knows the language demands of a company role, and so on.
An alternative to this activity is to provide a simple needs analysis form for the trainees to
analyse and comment on. You could use one that your centre uses and you are familiar with,
for example.

D More differences
1 Direct the learners to the quote provided and ask them to speculate on other ways in
which classrooms might differ. If necessary, provide an example to start. Trainees may
comment on such things as the age of the learners, the numbers in a class, online v physical
environments, the resources available, current English proficiency, groups that share a first
language v those that don’t, the experience and backgrounds of the teachers, and so on. The
trainees may also comment on the differences brought about by variables within individual
learners (such as their level of motivation). These types of difference are the subject of the
following unit.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

2 Put trainees into groups of three or four and allocate each group a), b) or c). If you have time,
groups could consider all three questions.
After sufficient time to generate some ideas, the trainees report back.
a The main difference would seem to be in terms of experience. It is unlikely that the young
group has much actual business experience or can predict accurately what their specific
needs will be in the future – and they may vary across the group anyway. However, the
senior manager has a lot of experience and has probably taken part in similar meetings
before. Their needs are therefore predictable. We might expect that the manager is
involved in specifying the content, and to some extent planning, their own course. The
degree of business knowledge expected of the teacher might also vary. This leads to a
distinction between (paradoxically) ‘general’ ESP and ‘specialized’ ESP.
b The main differences are obviously in group size and the sharing (or not) of an L1.
Teachers might feel more comfortable using pair and group work extensively with a
relatively small group that can be easily monitored and have no option but to use English
to communicate. They may feel more reluctant with a large group who might use their
L1 to communicate. The group based in the UK might benefit from activities centring on
places they have seen and will visit during their stay. This is unlikely to interest people
who might never go to the UK.
c As in a), it is likely that the 1:1 learner can have a greater say in what they want to do
in the lesson and what they enjoy doing. Activities can be designed to target particular
language areas that are problematic for them or would be useful. With a class of 15, the
teacher will need to think about how to set up pair and group work and how they might
monitor breakout rooms efficiently. In both cases the teacher would probably want to
include a balance of screen- and non-screen-based activities, so that learners do not spend
the entire lesson looking at the screen.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS

Remind the trainees of the need to be able to use teaching terms confidently and accurately.
Ensure trainees have a range of resources from which they can check key language and
teaching terminology. Remind them that there is a glossary at the back of the Trainee Book.

REFLECTION
Either focus the trainees on the sentence stems in their books or, if you prefer, dictate the stems.
Give learners time to complete the stems before sharing with partners and reporting back.
While a range of answers are obviously possible, the completed sentences produced should
reflect an appreciation of the diversity of learning contexts and the need to adapt teaching
appropriately.
If time is short, trainees could choose two or three stems to complete, or you could allocate stems
to different members of the group.

10

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

2 Learners as individuals
Main focus
To raise awareness of individual learner variation and the need to support strategic learning. The primary
focus is on those variables over which the teacher has some control.
Learning outcomes
• Trainees can describe a range of language learning strategies and their importance.
• Trainees understand how learning strategies can lead to learner autonomy.
• Trainees can identify factors that are likely to maintain motivation.
• Trainees understand that some learners will enjoy different activity types to others.
• Trainees appreciate the need to embrace diversity and make classrooms safe and supportive spaces.
Key concepts
• language learning strategies
• motivation
• learner training
• learner autonomy
• learner preferences
• learner identity

Stage Focus
A Warm-up introducing some key factors in individual variations
in learning
B Learner preferences identifying different learner preferences
C Motivation recognizing factors that can impact on motivation
D Language learning strategies identifying a variety of learning strategies
E Learner training identifying opportunities for learners training and how
training might be best achieved
Key words for teachers building of specialist vocabulary to talk about teaching
Reflection trainees reflect on various dimensions of individual difference

A Warm-up
1 With books closed, describe the scenario to the trainees. Allow them to think for a few
moments before discussing in pairs and reporting back their ideas.
Accept all reasonable suggestions.
Motivation, learner preferences and learning strategies are dealt with in the unit. The
trainees may also suggest factors such as age and aptitude, which are not dealt with in detail
here because the teacher has no control over them.
If a trainee suggests learning styles, explain that you will return to that in the next section of
the lesson.
11

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

2 This would be an opportunity to point out that learning English is simply harder for some
people than others because of the ‘distance’ between their L1 and English. For example,
a French learner of English, such as Sophie, will recognize many cognates, see similar
grammar patterns and recognize the script and writing conventions of English. On the other
hand, a Chinese learner of English (Zhao) will not derive this support from their L1 and will
have to learn things, such as the Roman script, that some other learners take for granted.
Also, a learner who has already successfully learned other languages will have an advantage
– again, Sophie and also Safia. They will, for example, have probably developed successful
learning strategies and also may be more resilient if they sense a lack of progress because
they will be confident in their ability to learn another language.

B Learner preferences
If a trainee has suggested learning styles as an explanation for individual differences in task
A, explain that while different learners may like different classroom activities, there is very
little evidence to suggest that those preferences impact directly on learning (Lethaby and
Harries, 2016). However, doing things we enjoy, may impact on motivation to study and our
willingness to invest in particular activities.
1 Ask trainees to reflect on a language learning experience they have had. Encourage them to
recall it in as much detail as possible and share one or two thoughts about what they liked
and did not like. They then complete the questionnaire individually.
2 Trainees share their responses with others in small groups. Ask them to report back
particularly on the contrasts that they found in their groups.
They should understand that within any one class it is likely that there will be learners who
like different types of activities. Some, for example, may enjoy communicating with others in
small groups, while some may prefer a more conventionally studious approach and enjoy the
study of language. Teachers generally plan a variety of activity types within a lesson, and may
also consider how a single activity could be used to meet a variety of preferences. For example,
a communicative piece of group work could be followed by a focus on, and study of, the
language that was produced in that group work. It is also worth noting that learners may not
always enjoy the same activities as the teacher.

C Motivation
Note: Motivation is dealt with in more detail in unit 37.
1 Direct the trainees back to the learning experience they recalled for task B and then ask
them about the factors that contributed to motivation or diminished it. This can be done in
open class.
2 Ask the trainees to read through the list and explain any points that are unclear to them,
before giving them time to make their selections.
3 The trainees may already agree on some of the same points, but it is unlikely that they will
agree on all four. If there is time, the pairs could again be combined with a view of agreeing
on another list of four. The outcomes of these discussions can be reported back in open class.

12

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

2 Learners as individuals

D Language learning strategies

1 Write I get very nervous and anxious in English lessons … on the board. Elicit how this might
impact on learning. Ask trainees to suggest any potential solutions.
Ask trainees to focus on the other difficulties, again thinking of solutions where possible.
2 Trainees match difficulties and solutions and then quickly check answers with a partner.
Confirm answers.
Answers: A–3) B–5) C–2) D–1) E–4)
3 Focus the trainees on the questions. Explain that there may be more than one learner for
each question, and each learner may fit more than one category.
Answers:
i A and C
ii E and perhaps C, although their anxiety may also be treated by avoidance strategies.
iii B (Trainees might also suggest D, who has taken action to target their listening skills, but
difficulties in this area are common at low levels and are not necessarily an indication
that learning is not working.)
You may wish to point out that deliberate strategies to control emotion are often referred to
as ‘affective strategies’.
Those strategies that plan and monitor success of an activity (as in person B) are referred to
as ‘metacognitive strategies’ and those actions that are designed to lead to learning (such as
downloading a vocabulary learning app) are ‘cognitive’ strategies.
4 Depending on time, this could be set up as an all-class activity or as group work. Accept any
plausible suggestions and prompt and elicit if the trainees struggle to think of ideas.
What advice would you give these learners?
a I need to improve my grammar – what can I do?
There are plenty of online sentence-level grammar exercises, admittedly of varying
quality, that a simple search would produce. In order to make such searches, learners
need to have some awareness of metalanguage – the language used to describe language.
For example, they need to know the names of verb forms or terms such as ‘countable/
uncountable noun’, and so on.
There are also more text-level exercises a learner could do. For example, some studies
have shown that extensive reading can lead to improved grammar production. Also,
learners could record themselves during pair work in a lesson and later transcribe what
they said, checking it for accuracy.
b I want to improve my vocabulary – what can I do?
Again, reading will help grow the number of words known and also the quality of
knowledge in terms of things like collocation and register restrictions. There are also
plenty of vocabulary practice activities online. One important factor in remembering new
words is the spacing of practice. So, vocabulary should be recycled, and learners should
review their notes regularly.
c I want to improve my speaking – what can I do?
The learner could access pronunciation materials, look for opportunities to join groups
online, arrange a skills swap with someone who wants to learn their language, or make
recordings of their speaking, amongst other things. There are a number of online sites that
connect people wishing to practise their respective languages, e.g. HelloTalk.

13

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press & Assessment
978-1-009-09539-6 — The CELTA Course Trainer's Manual
Scott Thornbury , Peter Watkins , Sandy Millin
Excerpt
More Information

1 – Learners and teachers, and the teaching and learning context

E Learner training
1 It would be a good idea to prepare for this by looking at the coursebook(s) before the session
so that trainees can be directed to particular pages. If the coursebook(s) do not have any
examples of learner training, you could supply some material that does. Alternatively, you
could extend activity 2 and have the trainees suggest what might be useful to add.
Assuming there is learner training material in the coursebook(s), ask trainees to identify the
strategies presented. Not all strategies will appeal to all learners equally, so many materials
will present two or three strategies together, so that learners can experiment with all of them
and select what appeals to them.
2 This can feed forward into future planning. Learning strategies can be simply explained, they
may be demonstrated, or the teacher may recount examples of their own language learning
experiences. Often the best way to present a learning strategy is simply for the teacher to
explain it, or if possible, demonstrate it.

KEY WORDS FOR TEACHERS

Remind the trainees of the need to be able to use teaching terms confidently and accurately.
Encourage them to experiment with one or more of the vocabulary-learning strategies you
have discussed in the lesson.

REFLECTION
1 Answers will vary, and will obviously depend on how well the trainees know their learners
by this point in the course.
2 Trainees may, amongst other things, suggest: age, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation,
physical and mental (dis)abilities, beliefs, attitudes, and experiences.
If the trainees need support in thinking of ideas, they could be prompted by being asked to
think about differences between people generally in society, as the members of a class are a
subset of the wider population.
3 Suggestions may include: respecting all members of the class; giving equal opportunities to
speak and voice opinions/beliefs to all members of the class; ensuring that the classroom
is a safe and supportive environment, free of hostility and bullying; using material that
represents the lives and identities of all the people in the class.
4 Trainees may make a variety of suggestions. One obvious advantage of understanding more
about the learners is that the teacher can make better informed decisions about what topics
and material should be included and/or avoided in lessons. In order to do this, teachers might
individually interview learners about their lives and experiences, or ask them to write short
autobiographies as a writing task. Of course, these strategies are only likely to succeed when
there is a degree of trust between the teacher and learners.

Reference
Lethaby, C. and Harries, P. (2016). Learning Styles and Teacher Training: Are we Perpetuating Neuromyths?
ELT Journal, 70,1, pp.16–27.

14

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org