The English language is a relatively easy language to learn and understand, with several key

characteristics that make it an attractive choice for teachers. These include its relative ease of learning,
the use of the Latin alphabet, its simple inflexion, its receptiveness to accepting and adopting words
from other languages, its fixed word order, pronunciation, continuous tense, articles (A, An, The), phrasal
verbs, non-tonal nature, and the lack of connection between word sound and word spelling.

English is one of the easiest natural languages in the world, making it relatively easy to learn and
understand compared to complex languages like Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean, and Japanese.
The Latin alphabet is the most universal, short, and straightforward alphabet, with only 26 basic letters.
Inflexion is the name for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives in their different
grammatical forms. English is considered to be a weakly inflected language when compared to other
languages, with nouns having only traces of inflexion and regular verbs having only four forms.

Receptiveness is another significant feature of the English language, as it is receptive to accepting and
adopting words from other languages. Examples of common English words include alligator, cargo,
bungalow, jungle, ketchup, and gung ho. English has also accepted words from classical languages like
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.

The English language has a fixed word order, with most sentences conforming to the SVO word order,
meaning that the subject comes before the verb, which comes before the object. This makes it easy for
learners to grasp. Pronunciation is another key characteristic of the English language, with words such as
this, thin, clothes, thirteenth, months causing problems for learners who do not need to use the tip of
the tongue to produce words in their language. Continuous tense is another feature that can cause
mistakes for English learners, especially those whose native language does not use articles.

Phrasal verbs are an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another item, typically either an adverb or
a preposition. These phrasal verbs are a significant feature of the English language and can cause severe
difficulties for learners. Phrasal verbs are extremely common in colloquial English language but can be
difficult for beginners.

English is a non-tonal language, meaning that changes in pitch are used to emphasize or express
emotion, not to give a different word meaning to the sound. This is why native speakers of tone
languages often have strong accents when speaking English.
Lastly, the lack of a connection between word sound and word spelling makes it difficult for non-native
learners to predict the pronunciation of English words they first come across in writing or the spelling of
many English words they first hear. Common words in the language include words containing ough,
words with different spellings but sound the same, silent letters not pronounced, and words that look
the same but must be pronounced differently.

In conclusion, understanding the English language is essential for both native and non-native learners. By
understanding these characteristics, teachers can better prepare their students for the challenges of
teaching English and ensuring their success in the classroom.

Frequently Used Acronyms in the TEFL Environment

• ELT (English Language Teaching): An umbrella term for all aspects of teaching English.

• TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are common
terms.

• TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages): Similar to ELT but more widely used in the
USA, Canada, and Australia.

• TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners): Contained within TEFL, geared towards teaching young
English learners.

• TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language): Teaching immigrants in English-speaking countries.

• CLT (Communicative Language Teaching): Learner-centered, authentic, and meaningful language

• L1 (Learner’s First Language): Allows learners to use their native language in class.

• L2 (Second Language): The second language a learner is learning, typically English.

• PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production): A model of classroom teaching for lesson planning and
delivery.

• STT (Student Talking Time): The amount of time learners spend talking in class.

• TTT (Teacher Talking Time): The amount of time teachers spend talking during a class.

• Course prepares learners to enhance their English Language level and prepare them for specific EFL
qualifications.
The English Language Teaching (ELT) method has evolved over time, with several traditional approaches.
The Grammar-Translation Approach, developed in the 19th century, focuses on reading and writing, with
most lesson time spent translating written sentences or texts from the foreign language.

The Direct Approach, originating in the late 19th century, focuses on learning a second language like a
first language, with language acquired directly in the target language.

The Audiolingual Approach focuses on habit formation through mechanical and repetitive oral drills,
focusing on accurate imitation and memorisation of sentences or dialogues.

From the 1970s, other approaches emerged, such as Total Physical Response, The Silent Way,
Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach. However, it is important to recognize that all these
approaches have included useful teaching elements. The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
approach, introduced in the 1970s and 1980s, is still gaining strength.

An approach to language teaching is a theoretical view of language and its learning process, which is
then translated into methods that teach language items through classroom activities or techniques. The
Communicative Approach is the most popular and current method, with Task-based teaching being
associated with it.

Some of the most popular methods include Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP), Audiolingual
Method, Lexical Method, Task-Based Method, Principled Eclecticism Method, and Communicative
Method.

Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)=

Introducing the grammar points in presentation. Teacher talking time is high.

PPP involves the teacher presenting a new language item, practicing it through exercises or controlled
activities, and then using it in a communicative and less controlled way.

Audiolingual Method=
Teach the language using a pattern. a bit like Monkey-see Monkey-do.

Lexical Approach=

using real world things/ examples to teach the language.

Audiolingual Method focuses on habit formation through repetitive drilling, while Lexical Method
focuses on vocabulary and grammar areas together.

Task-Based Learning=

Using tasks to naturally learn the language.

Task-Based Learning is designed around authentic tasks that give learners the experience of using the
language in real-world situations outside the classroom.

The Principled Eclecticism Method=

The nutshell seems to be doing teaching using multiple methods and theories so as to not cause bias. As
well as teaching language holistically with the different disciplines being taught as a package rather than
individually.

The Principled Eclecticism Method combines various language learning activities to ensure learning does
not become mechanical.

Communicative Method =

It's basically roleplay to practice the language.

The Communicative Method focuses on authentic, meaningful communication, rather than structure.
Learners accomplish tasks using language, rather than studying the language.

The syllabus focuses on functions rather than grammatical/structural development. Fluency and
communication are more important than accuracy.

The class becomes more learner-centered, with learners accomplishing tasks with other learners, with
the teacher playing a facilitator/observer role.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, is a widely
practiced language teaching approach in second language learning classrooms. It emphasizes
communicative competence, making meaningful communication and language use the focus of all
classroom activities. The main principles of CLT include communication, meaning and use, context,
fluency, creativity, functions, form, teacher role, individual learning preferences, real English, and
structured drills.

Communicative competence aims to enable learners to communicate knowledge and opinions

The classroom work focuses on helping learners reach an effective standard of communication outside
the classroom, with accuracy in grammar and pronunciation being less important than the ability to
communicate meaningfully in real life. Lessons can include reading and writing, depending on school
policy and learner needs.

Fluency is assumed to result from a combination of formal learning of rules and holistic acquisition.

Creativity is encouraged, and learners should be encouraged to try out language items in a supportive
classroom environment.

Functions involve learners going beyond the learning of the grammatical structure of a language and into
the functions or areas and ways such utterances are used in communication in the real world.

Form is only part of the whole picture of language acquisition, and learners must be able to choose the
most appropriate form for a situation.

In summary, to obtain communicative competence via the communicative approach, lessons need to
integrate situations/context, functions, form, meaning and use, grammar, and notions.

The teacher's role is to facilitate, help, and advise learners in English, focusing on communication rather
than teaching. The classroom should be learner-centered or learning-centered, with activities taking
place in pairs or groups, monitored, and unobtrusively facilitated by the teacher.

Learners will have different learning needs and preferences, so the teacher may discuss grammar rules if
necessary. Real English will be exposed in some parts of lessons, while in others, learners will be exposed
to rough-tuned input. Drilling, which involves repetition, is a way for learners to practice new language
skills in a controlled setting.

To obtain communicative competence, lessons should integrate situations, functions, form, meaning and
use, grammar, and notes. Lesson planning should adapt these competencies to learner needs, such as
choosing a situation, presenting language functions, form, grammar, and communicative activities. The
goal is to enable learners to communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a topic in the target
language, English.

L1 refers to a learner's first language (L1), while L2 refers to the additional language learned after the
first language is established. L1 learners have a non-English language (L1), like Mandarin, while L2
learners learn English (L2). Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the process of teaching a second
language after the first language is established. It is crucial to reflect on the key differences between L1
and L2 learners.

The key influences on L2 learning include the degree of intellect, age, learning preference, motivation,
language proficiency in L1, and awareness of L2. Some learners are brighter and more motivated to
learn, while others may struggle with the acquisition of a second language due to various factors.

Learning preferences can be influenced by the learner's preferred approach, such as visuals, audio,
discussions, or activities. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic, and it is crucial to maintain motivation
throughout the learning process.

Language proficiency in L1 is essential for a learner's success in learning an L2. Awareness of L2 can also
help a learner gain a head start. Autonomy can encourage learners to take responsibility for their
education and be more interested in school.

Learners may bring expectations regarding teacher relationships, behavior, and approaches to learning
from their home countries. For example, some learners may expect formal and authoritarian behavior
during classes, while others may prefer informal instructional styles. It is important to understand how
learners have learned before and how they would prefer to learn in the classroom.
The pattern of classroom activity can also impact learners' expectations, and failure to conform to these
ideals may give them the impression of lazy or inadequate class preparation. Teachers also bring their
expectations regarding teacher behavior, including views on appropriate behavior within society and in
the classroom. Conflicting expectations and evaluations of behavior between teachers and learners can
lead to conflicting expectations and evaluations.

Gender plays a role in learning, as learners may expect different behaviors from male and female
teachers due to their native cultural constraints. Female participation may be challenging in mixed-sex
settings, but it is essential to reflect on this point continuously.

Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is appropriate to talk about may also
affect the kinds of topics learners are willing to pursue in class and their motivation to learn. Cultural and
personal sensitivity is vital in knowing when, when, and how to introduce inappropriate topics or
lessons.

Current classroom participation can vary depending on the learner's preferences. A communicative
classroom creates a lively environment, but it may not be suitable for learners who prefer working alone
or those who prefer group participation.

In summary, understanding the factors that influence L2 learning and adapting teaching methods can
greatly improve the learning experience for both learners and teachers.

Communication styles are patterns of expression and interaction that reflect a culture's norms and
values. Understanding these styles can lead to confusion, anxiety, and conflict, which can reduce
learning.

Two main communication styles are direct and indirect. Direct style involves straight, straightforward
talking, respect for others, and avoiding ambiguity. Indirect style conveys meaning through subtle
means, stories, and implication, while indirectness means politeness and respect.

Idea-focused style separates ideas and people, allowing open disagreement and not seeing
disagreement as personal attacks. Person-focused style emphasizes the importance of feelings and
handling disagreement carefully.
This can lead to conflicting ways of looking at communication, which can affect learning. It is the
teacher's role to find a balance between these styles, rather than trying to change people's cultural ways
of working.

In conclusion, understanding communication styles can help teachers and learners navigate their
interactions and improve their learning experiences.

Language learning strategies are conscious steps or behaviors used by language learners to enhance the
acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information.

More proficient learners use strategies that are appropriate to the material, task, and their goals, needs,
and stage of learning. Techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations, and surveys can
be used by more proficient learners.

More proficient learners tend to use a broader range of strategies in a significant number of situations
than less skilled learners. They employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in
improved proficiency or achievement overall or in specific skill areas.

They also tend to use strategies that work well together and are tailored to the requirements of the
language task. Metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other strategies, such as
planning and organizing, often have more impact than relying on a single strategy.

Learners may have created their own strategies or picked up some from teachers, parents, siblings,
friends, or libraries or internet searches. There are many different and preferred strategies that some
learners may use. Some commonly-used types of strategies include circumlocution, avoidance, word
coinage, language switching, and clarification and comprehension checks.

Circumlocution involves using different words or phrases to express the intended meaning, while
avoidance involves avoiding topics for which they lack necessary lexis or other language skills. Word
coinage involves creating new words or phrases for words they do not know, while language switching
involves using a word with the same meaning from their first language to hope that their communication
partner will understand.

____________________________________________

The text outlines the strategies used by more proficient learners to improve their fluency in English.
These strategies include non-verbal communication, approximation, all-purpose words, minimal
responses, recognition of scripts/patterns opportunities, fillers and hesitation devices, and SMART goals.

More proficient learners understand that many communication situations are associated with
predictable spoken exchanges, such as greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations, and other
functions influenced by social and cultural norms. They also use fillers and hesitation devices to fill
pauses and gain time to think.

To achieve fluency, more proficient learners set SMART goals, which are specific, measurable, achievable,
realistic, and time-based. They also listen to teachers' advice that the best route to fluency is through
consuming lots of authentic material and practicing in real-life situations with native speakers.

Self-monitoring is another important skill for more proficient learners. They assess their capabilities
frequently by taking relevant external proficiency tests and quizzes, which helps them determine what
areas they need to develop. They also think through what they feel most comfortable with when
communicating with a native speaker, and choose the option that is their strongest skill.

The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, and reading) are essential for fluency success. Listening
involves strategies like elaboration, inference, selective attention, and self-monitoring. Speaking
demands risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. Writing benefits
from planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and substitution. Reading benefits from reading aloud,
guessing, deduction, and summarising.

To help learners develop and enhance their learning strategies, it is crucial to help them become
independent learners with the ability to use robust strategies in various contexts.

SMART goals

More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:

Specific

Measurable

Achievable

Realistic
 Time-based

1.8. Effective Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by language learners to enhance
the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information.

The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task, and
their own goals, needs, and stage of learning.

For example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations, and
surveys.

More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a significant number of situations
than less skilled learners. For example, more proficient learners:

employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in improved proficiency or
achievement overall or in specific skill areas.

tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the requirements of the
language task. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them.

use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other strategies, such as planning
and organising. Using combinations of strategies often has more impact than relying on a single strategy.

use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular language skills or tasks.

Learners may have created their own strategies or may have picked up some strategies from their
teachers, their parents or siblings, or their friends. They may also have gained some useful strategies
from a library or internet search.

There are many different and preferred strategies that learners may use. The following list is not
definitive but it will give you a good idea of the commonly-used types of strategies that some learners
use. Note that no definitive list of strategies has been agreed on by language researchers.

Anyhow, you can pass on some of these ideas to those of your learners who have no concrete strategies
for learning and studying.

Circumlocution

This is best explained via an example. The more proficient learner doesn’t know the word ‘nephew’ but
she doesn’t give up. So, she uses different words or phrases to express the intended meaning, e.g. my
brother’s son.

Avoidance

Avoidance is where a more proficient learner may learn to avoid talking about topics for which she lacks
the necessary lexis or other language skills. She may also come to a halt mid-utterance once she realises
she does not have the language resources needed to complete her communication.

Word coinage

This is the term for more proficient learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not
know. For example, the learner doesn’t know the word freezer and she constructs and uses a new word
ice cabinet instead.

Language switching or code switching

This is where a more proficient learner doesn’t know a word and uses a word with the same meaning
from her first language, hoping that her communication partner will understand. For example: My aunt
and uncle are coming for Christmas. They will be staying chez nous.
 Clarification and comprehension checks

Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not understand the other
speaker. More proficient learners, however, use clarification and comprehension checks. For example:

For clarification check:

Do you mean …?

Could you explain what you mean by …?

Could you give me an example, please?

For comprehension check:

Sorry, I don’t understand.

Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.

Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.

Note that this appeal for assistance may also be done indirectly via a puzzled expression, raising
eyebrows, etc.

Non-verbal strategies

This refers to strategies such as the use of body language, gestures, mime, facial expressions, sound
imitation to support or replace verbal communication.

Approximation
This is where the more proficient learner uses an alternative term that approximates the meaning of the
target word or phrase as closely as possible. For example, she may say ship instead of (the more difficult)
word yacht.

Use of all-purpose words

When the more proficient learner lacks a specific word in a conversation, she may use a general, empty
lexical word or phrase to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.

Using minimal responses

More proficient learners build up a stock of minimal responses, to help them engage.

Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding,
agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that
so? That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.

These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other participant is saying,
without having to plan a reply simultaneously.

Recognising scripts/patterns opportunities

More proficient learners understand that many communication situations are associated with a
predictable set of spoken exchanges. For example, greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations, and
other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow scripts or patterns. For
example:

Can I help you?

It’s the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase.
In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker’s turn and the one that follows it can often be
anticipated.

Fillers and hesitation devices

This is where the more proficient learner uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain a bit
of time to think.

Fillers:

em …

er …

mm …

uh …

As a matter of fact, …

Well, …

Actually, …

To be honest/frank, …

Hesitation Devices/Stalling For Time To Think

Let’s see, …
Wow, that’s a difficult one.

Now, let me think.

Now, just a minute.

That’s a good question.

I’ll have to think about that for a moment.

What I’m trying to say is… How shall I put it?

How can I best explain this?

Let’s put it this way.

Where should I start?

SMART goals

More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:

Specific

Measurable

Achievable
 Realistic

Time-based

Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus and plan for surging ahead. The more proficient learner also
knows and understands what it is to be too ambitious. It will take lots of practice and lots of time before
she can consider how fluent she is. But it will all be worth it in the end.

Using authentic material and practising in authentic situations

The more proficient learner listens to the teacher’s advice that the best route to fluency is through
consuming lots of authentic material. What is learned and practised in the classroom is not enough.
Consuming lots of authentic material outside the classroom, in different formats, is vital for fluency
success. As is practising the language in real-life situations with native speakers.

Self-monitoring

The more proficient learner does not just rely on teacher comments and the institution’s assessments to
tell her how she is doing. She assesses her own capabilities frequently by taking relevant, external
proficiency tests and quizzes. This helps her to further determine what areas she needs to develop.

She knows that another way to assess her own skills without a proficiency test/quiz is to think through
what she’s most comfortable with. If she had to communicate with a native speaker, would she feel more
comfortable with:

Listening to the native speaker, then responding in speech

Speaking with the native speaker and responding in speech

Writing to the native speaker

Reading about the native speaker and then responding to some questions

It’s likely that the option she chooses is her strongest skill and, thus, she knows what other skills she
needs to focus on.

The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, reading)

Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient learner will likely demonstrate a cocktail of
some of these strategies:

Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inference, selective attention, and self-
monitoring.

Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution,

Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and
summarising.

The correct term for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives in their different grammatical
forms from the choices you provided is inflexion.

Inflexion refers to the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories, such as tense,
number, case, or gender, often by adding suffixes (e.g., "walk" becomes "walked" for past tense).

The correct statement is:

"L1 and L2 learners learn language differently."

Explanation:

L1 (First Language) learners acquire language naturally through immersion, without explicit
instruction.

L2 (Second Language) learners often learn in more structured environments, with formal instruction
and conscious effort.