Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is the world's largest landlocked country and

the ninth-largest country in the world by area. Located primarily in Central Asia, with a smaller
portion west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe, it boasts a diverse landscape and a history
shaped by nomadic cultures, empires, and Soviet rule.

Geography
●​ Location: Kazakhstan is located in Central Asia, bordering Russia to the north, China to
the east, and Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan to the south. It also has a
significant coastline on the Caspian Sea to the southwest.
●​ Size: Covering approximately 2.7 million square kilometers (1.05 million square miles),
it's larger than Western Europe.
●​ Topography: The country's topography is vast and varied, including:
○​ Steppes: The Great Kazakh Steppe (Saryarka) covers almost one-third of the
country, forming the largest steppe plain in the world.
○​ Deserts and Semi-deserts: About 44% of the land is desert and 14%
semi-desert, featuring sand dunes in areas like the Kyzylkum and Muyunkum
deserts.
○​ Mountains: The south and southeast feature impressive mountain ranges,
including parts of the Tien Shan and Altai Mountains. Khan Tengri Peak, at 7,010
meters (22,999 ft) with its ice cap, is the highest point in the country.
○​ Lowlands: The Karagiye depression, at 132 meters (433 ft) below sea level, is
the lowest point in Kazakhstan and one of the lowest elevations on Earth.
●​ Water Bodies: Major bodies of water include parts of the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea
(though much of the Aral Sea has receded). It also has thousands of natural lakes, such
as Lake Balkhash (partially fresh, partially saline), Lake Zaysan, and Lake Alakol, and
numerous rivers like the Ural and Syr Darya.
●​ Mineral Resources: Kazakhstan is exceptionally rich in natural resources, including
vast reserves of oil and gas, uranium (second-largest reserves globally), chromium, lead,
zinc, copper, titanium, bauxite, gold, silver, and phosphates.

Climate
Kazakhstan experiences an extreme continental climate, characterized by:
●​ Long, hot summers: Average temperatures in July can range from 20°C in the north to
29°C in the south.
●​ Cold, snowy winters: Winter temperatures are extremely cold, with national averages
between -9°C and -12°C, and can drop to -52°C in the north (e.g., Astana).
●​ Large temperature fluctuations: There are significant daily and annual temperature
variations due to its distance from oceans.
●​ Low precipitation: Precipitation is generally low throughout the year, especially in
desert areas (100-200 mm annually), while mountains receive more (500-1,600 mm).
Spring floods from snowmelt are not uncommon in the northern and central regions.
History of Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan's history is a long narrative of nomadic empires, trade routes, and geopolitical
shifts.
●​ Prehistory (Paleolithic to Bronze Age): Human activity in the region dates back nearly
a million years. The area was home to prehistoric Bronze Age cultures like the
Andronovo and Begazy-Dandybay, known for farming, cattle-breeding, and early
metallurgy. Archaeological evidence suggests Kazakhstan is a cradle of horse
domestication.
●​ Early Nomadic Tribes (Iron Age onwards): From the 1st millennium BCE, the territory
was inhabited by various nomadic tribes, notably the Saka (known as Scythians by the
Greeks), who were expert horsemen and established early state formations in the
6th-2nd centuries BCE. Their "animal-styled art" is world-renowned.
●​ Turkic Migrations and States (6th-13th Centuries CE): The mid-first millennium CE
saw the rise of Turkic tribes as dominant forces. Various Turkic states, including the
West-Turkic, Tyurgesh, Karluk Kaganates, and the states of the Oghuz, Karakhanids,
Kimeks, and Kipchaks, successively controlled the region. The Great Silk Road passed
through Kazakhstan, fostering cultural and economic exchange, and facilitating the
spread of various religions, with Islam becoming predominant from the 8th century.
●​ Mongol Invasion and Golden Horde (13th-15th Centuries): In the early 13th century,
Kazakhstan was conquered by the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan. The territory
became part of the Golden Horde, one of the successor states of the Mongol Empire.
●​ Kazakh Khanate (15th-19th Centuries): After the decline of the Golden Horde, the
Kazakh Khanate emerged in 1465. It gained sovereignty around 1500 and expanded
considerably under leaders like Kasym Khan, who also established the first Kazakh code
of laws. The Khanate was divided into three "hordes" (Juzes) – the Great, Middle, and
Lesser Hordes – which sometimes acted independently. The 17th and 18th centuries
saw prolonged conflicts with the Dzungar Mongols, leading to a period of unity under
Ablai Khan.
●​ Russian Imperial Rule (18th-20th Centuries): Starting in the 18th century, the Russian
Empire gradually annexed Kazakh lands, beginning with the Lesser and Middle Hordes
signing treaties of protection. By the mid-19th century, most of modern Kazakhstan was
under Russian control. Russian colonization led to significant demographic shifts and
aroused resentment due to disruptions to the traditional nomadic lifestyle.
●​ Soviet Era (1917-1991): After the Russian Revolution, a brief period of Kazakh
autonomy (Alash Orda) was suppressed. In 1920, Kazakhstan became an autonomous
republic within Soviet Russia, and in 1936, it was elevated to a full Soviet republic
(Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic). This period saw forced collectivization,
industrialization, and mass migrations (including the resettlement of various ethnic
groups to Kazakhstan), leading to immense suffering and demographic changes.
Kazakhstan also became a key site for Soviet space programs (Baikonur Cosmodrome)
and nuclear testing (Semipalatinsk Test Site).
●​ Independence (1991-Present): With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan
declared its independence on December 16, 1991. Nursultan Nazarbayev, who had
 been the Communist Party leader, became the first president. The capital was moved
from Almaty to Astana (now known as Astana again after being briefly renamed
Nur-Sultan) in 1997. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued economic reforms,
attracted significant foreign investment, particularly in its energy sector, and sought to
establish itself as a stable and influential player in Central Asia. The country has
undertaken reforms to improve human rights and the rule of law, though challenges
remain.

Culture
Kazakh culture is a vibrant synthesis of its nomadic Turkic heritage, Islamic traditions, and more
recent Russian and European influences.
●​ Nomadic Roots: The traditional nomadic lifestyle, centered around animal husbandry
(especially horses, sheep, and camels), deeply shaped Kazakh customs, music,
clothing, and oral literature. The yurt, a portable felt-covered dwelling, is a powerful
symbol of Kazakh identity and is depicted on the national emblem.
●​ Hospitality: Kazakhs are renowned for their hospitality (konakasy), welcoming guests
with elaborate meals and entertainment.
●​ Horse Culture: Horse games (Kokpar, Alaman Baiga, Kyz Kuu) are integral to Kazakh
culture, showcasing the historical importance of horsemanship.
●​ Music and Literature: Kazakh music is traditionally folklore-based and improvisational,
often featuring the dombra, a plucked two-string instrument. The kui is a unique genre
of instrumental storytelling. Ancient epics and legends like "Korkyt-ata" and "Oguznam"
are central to their literary heritage.
●​ Crafts: Traditional crafts include woodworking, felt production (for yurts and clothing),
leatherwork, and intricate jewelry, reflecting the practical needs and artistic expression of
a nomadic people.
●​ Religion: The majority of Kazakhs identify as Muslim (Sunni Islam), which gained
prominence from the 8th century onwards. There is also a significant Orthodox Christian
minority, and religious tolerance is generally practiced.
●​ Languages: Kazakh is the national language and a Turkic language. Russian is also
widely spoken and used for administrative and technical purposes.

Economy
Kazakhstan has the largest economy in Central Asia, primarily driven by its vast natural
resources.
●​ Natural Resources: The economy is heavily reliant on the export of raw materials,
especially crude oil, natural gas, metals, and minerals. Kazakhstan ranks among the top
global exporters of oil and uranium.
●​ Economic Diversification: While historically dependent on oil and gas, Kazakhstan is
actively working towards diversifying its economy, with increasing contributions from:
○​ Services: Including finance, technology, and trade.
 ○​ Agriculture: With vast steppe lands, it has significant potential for livestock and
grain production.
○​ Industry: Including manufacturing, food processing, and chemicals.
○​ Construction and Transportation.
●​ Foreign Investment: Since independence, Kazakhstan has attracted substantial foreign
investment, exceeding US$370 billion.
●​ Trade Partners: Key export destinations include Italy, China, Russia, and the
Netherlands. Major import partners are Russia, China, Germany, and the USA.
●​ Challenges: The economy faces challenges such as over-reliance on oil exports
(making it vulnerable to price fluctuations), income inequality, and the need for ongoing
structural reforms.

Political System
Kazakhstan is a unitary state with a presidential system of government (a presidential
republic).
●​ President: The President is the head of state and holds significant executive power,
elected by direct popular vote.
●​ Parliament: The Parliament is bicameral, consisting of:
○​ Senate (Upper House): Members are appointed by the President or elected by
regional representative bodies.
○​ Majilis (Lower House): Members are popularly elected.
●​ Prime Minister: The Prime Minister is the head of government, appointed by the
President.
●​ Political Landscape: The political system has historically been dominated by a strong
executive and a ruling party. Kazakhstan has made efforts towards improving human
rights and rule of law, and is active in various international organizations.