KS3

SCIENCE
NOW
Learn and
Practice Book
Tracey Baxter, Amanda Clegg,
Karen Collins and Ed Walsh

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 William Collins’ dream of knowledge for all began with the publication of his first book in 1819.
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Authors: Tracey Baxter, Amanda Clegg, Karen Collins and Ed Walsh

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 Contents

1 Cells and organisation 4

2 Reproduction 30
3 Health and human systems 56
4 Respiration and photosynthesis 84
5 Ecosystems and interdependence 114
6 Inheritance and evolution 138

7 The particulate nature of matter 166

8 Pure and impure substances 188
9 Periodic table 208
10 Chemical reactions 226
11 Materials 252
12 Earth and atmosphere 270

13 Forces 292
14 Energy 318
15 Waves 334
16 Electricity and magnetism 356
17 Matter 374
18 Space physics 388

Answers 402
Acknowledgements 458

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 1 Cells and organisation

1 Cells and organisation road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
1.4
1.3 Studying cells or
• identify microscope parts •r
• describe observing cells •d
• interpret evidence •c

1.2 Comparing
plant and animal
cells
• describe structures
• explain functions
• compare
human skeleton and muscles
1.1 Organisation
human circulatory
r system
ry
of multicellular
classification of organisms organisms
• define terms
human digestive system • explain organisational
adaptation and evolution structure
• compare strengths
and weaknesses

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

1.4 Unicellular
organisms
ts • recognise organisms
• describe differences
• compare adaptations 1.5 Specialised cells
• classify specialised cells
• describe examples eukaryotes
y and prokaryotes
p y
• explain link between animal and plant cells
structure and function
cell specialisation
1.6 Movement in and microscopy
out of cells: diffusion
• define processes
• describe examples
• explain factors affecting
KS4
diffusion

Maths and practical skills

describing the development of scientific methods and theories over time, including
publishing results and peer review
carrying out scientific enquiries to test predictions
observing and measuring, including the evaluation of repeatability
interpreting observations and data
presenting reasoned explanations
using SI units and chemical names
deriving and using simple equations

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 1 Cells and organisation

1 Cells and organisation

All living organisms are made of cells – they are the building blocks of life.
Cells cannot be seen except under a microscope; this is why it took so long
to discover them. Some organisms are made of only one cell; most are
made of millions of cells working together.

How many cells?

Look at these living organisms. Do you think they are made from one
cell or more? Which do you think are the most complex?

bacterium sponge

moss human

Seeing cells
Have you ever been to hospital? Think about the ways doctors and scientists can
explore what is happening inside our bodies.

Micrographs of viruses (left) and red blood cells (right)

The development of microscopes has meant that we can see individual cells.
The most powerful microscopes can even see viruses. What differences would it
make to our lives if we did not have this technology?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a pathologist?

You make accurate decisions technology to study cells, tissues
while being thorough because and diseases. This means that
your advice could save lives. you need to recognise what a
Doctors, nurses and surgeons wide range of cells and their
rely on your judgements and parts should look like so that
advice in treating patients with you can identify quickly and
cancer and other diseases. reliably when things are not
Strength and resilience are normal. You also need to be of patients. Pathologists also
needed because there will be able to link cell structure to play a critical role in researching
times when, sadly, the team function to help with making and developing more accurate
cannot cure the patient. a diagnosis. You are part of a diagnoses and treatments,
Being a pathologist means team of dedicated professionals, improving lives not only now
working with the latest all working to improve the lives but also in the future.

Pharmaceutical researchers study the

effects of drugs on cells and organisms.
Researchers need to understand how well
drugs diffuse in and out of cells as this affects
how well they work as medicines. This
research is a hugely important step in the
process of licensing medicines for human use.

Microbiologists study
microorganisms such as Zoologists study animals, their behaviour
bacteria, viruses and fungi. and their interactions with their surroundings.
Some study diseases caused by This allows us to understand how animals
microbes while others study are adapted to their environment, which is
how we can use microbes to key to wildlife conservation. This helps us to
help us. They work all around learn how organisms have adapted to their
the world studying how environment. Some zoologists work in the
microbes help us in medicine outdoors, all over the world, whereas others
and food production. work in a laboratory or a zoo.

Botanists are plant Ophthalmic laboratory

biologists. Some study plant technicians make lenses for
structures to try and find glasses and contact lenses and also
useful chemicals produced for equipment such as microscopes
by plants. Lots of medicines Fertility scientists may and telescopes. Microscopes are
originally came from plants, study sperm cells to try vital to allow us to study cells
such as aspirin and morphine. and help people who and microorganisms. Laboratory
Others may study plant would like to have a baby. technicians usually learn
genetics and Microscopes are used to these skills on the
development check whether enough job as they use
to improve sperm cells are produced, very precise and
crop yield and and to look at the sperm high-technology
agriculture. cells in detail to observe machinery in
any abnormalities. their work.

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a
Cells
1 and
Cells Organisation
and organisation

Knowledge organiser
‘Multi’ means many; ‘uni’ means one. A light microscope is used to magnify objects that
Multicellular organisms contain many are too small to see with the unaided eye. With a light
cells; unicellular organisms are made of microscope, we can observe microscopic organisms, such as
only one or a single cell. bacteria, and inside cells to see the cell parts and organelles.

eyepiece lens –
Organelles are parts of lens that you look
through; it magnifies
cells that have specific
the image of the sample
functions (jobs). objective lens –
magnifies the image of the
sample further; a microscope
usually has more than one
objective lens, to provide a
Cells are the building choice of magnifications
blocks of living things.

stage –
Groups of similar cells holds the slide
form a tissue.
focusing wheel –
moves the stage so
you can bring the
sample in and out
Different tissues work of focus
together to make up
an organ.

slide –
Organs work thin piece of glass that holds light source or mirror –
together to make the sample; a coloured stain illuminates the sample so
is sometimes added to make you can see it
an organ system. it easier to see details of the
sample

Organ systems work Electron microscopes allow much greater magnification

together to form than light microscopes. They are bigger and more expensive
organisms. than light microscopes. They use a beam of electrons to
form a very detailed image of a sample.

Organisms can be classed into two groups based on how their genetic material is stored.
Prokaryotes: Eukaryotes:
• thought to be the first organisms on Earth • usually bigger and more complex than
• all are unicellular prokaryotes
• don’t have a nucleus • some are unicellular, most are multicellular
• have very few organelles • genetic material is stored in a nucleus
• example: bacteria. • have other organelles, such as mitochondria
• examples: animals, plants, fungi, amoeba.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Unicellular organisms are simply a Key vocabulary

cell with organelles working together.
algae a unicellular organism that has a nucleus and
Unicellular organisms are adapted in
contains chloroplasts for photosynthesis
different ways. Examples are:
• bacteria – there are many bacterium a simple unicellular organism; some bacteria
types of bacteria but all have no can cause illness
nucleus capsule structure that covers the outer layer of the
• algae – these are plant-like and cell wall of a bacterium
contain chloroplasts to make cell the ‘building block’ that all living things are
their own food made from
• yeasts – these are fungus-like
and absorb nutrients from their cell membrane the layer around a cell that controls
surroundings. substances entering and leaving the cell
Bacterium cell wall the tough outer layer of a plant cell
capsule
cell membrane chloroplast a structure in plant cells where
photosynthesis takes place
cell wall
cytoplasm the main component of a cell; the place
genetic where reactions take place
material
electron an instrument that produces a magnified,
microscope detailed image of a sample using a beam of
electrons
eukaryote an organism whose cells store genetic
material in a nucleus
genetic material that transmits information from one
material generation to the next during reproduction
Animal cells and plant cells have light an optical device used to see magnified
some cell parts or organelles in microscope images of tiny objects and structures
common but some differences too.
This is because the cells have magnify to make something look bigger
different functions. mitochondria the structures in a cell that produce energy
mitochondria (by respiration)
cell
membrane multicellular cellmade
wall of many cells
cytoplasm
nucleus the part of a cell that contains the genetic
nucleus cell membrane
material
chloroplasts
organ a collection of tissues that work together to
vacuole perform a function
organelle a structure in a cell with a specific function (job)
cytoplasm
nucleus
organism a living thing
dria Animal cell Plant cell
cell organ system organs that coordinate with one another in
membrane cell wall body processes
prokaryote a unicellular organism that has no nucleus
nucleus cell membrane
tissue a collection of body cells that work together
chloroplasts
to carry out a task
vacuole
unicellular made of one cell

nucleus
cytoplasm vacuole a bubble of water and nutrients in a plant cell

al cell Plant cell yeast a unicellular fungus

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 Cells
1 and
Cells Organisation
and organisation

Cells in any organism start out exactly Movement of substances in and out of cells:
the same: these are called stem cells. • controlled by the cell membrane
These cells then grow and change their
• substances such as glucose and oxygen pass into cells
structure to adapt to a certain function.
We say the cells become adapted and • waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea pass
specialised. out of cells
• only some substances allowed through the cell
membrane, so it is a semi-permeable membrane.

How quickly diffusion happens depends on several factors Diffusion is the movement of
or variables: substances (in the form of liquid or
• temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster the gas particles) from an area of high
rate of diffusion concentration to an area of lower
concentration, until the concentration
• concentration of particles – the greater the difference
is equal throughout. For cells, diffusion
in concentration between the two sides of the cell
occurs across the cell membrane when
membrane, the faster the rate of diffusion
the concentration of a substance inside
• surface area-to-volume ratio – the higher the ratio for the cell is different to the concentration
a cell, the faster the rate of diffusion. of that substance outside the cell.

The smaller cube has the highest surface area-to-volume ratio; this
means that diffusion can happen at a faster rate across smaller cells
than larger cells.
low high
surface area of a cube = area of one side × number of faces concentration cell concentration
membrane
volume of a cube = length × breadth × height
surface area-to-volume ratio = surface area ÷ volume overall movement of particles

Specialised animal cells include sperm cells, muscle cells, nerve cells, red blood
cells and egg cells. All these cells have a nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm,
but they look very different.

Sperm cells have a tail to Nerve cells have long extensions Muscle cells are made of
move them and a large head of cytoplasm that allow them protein fibres that can expand
containing a nucleus to transmit impulses around the and contract and have lots of
(this contains the whole body. mitochondria to provide energy
genetic material). for movement.

10

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Specialised plant cells include upper leaf cells, Key vocabulary

root hair cells and guard cells. adapted having special features that help
Each is adapted to its function (job). with a specific function (job)
concentration the amount of something per
unit volume, for example,
sugar dissolved in water
diffusion particle movement that causes
particles in a liquid or gas to
chloroplasts spread out
egg cell the female sex cell in animals
guard cell a specialised leaf cell, found on
either side of a stoma (pore),
that controls the opening and
Leaf cells contain chloroplasts to absorb energy closing of the stoma
transferred from sunlight for photosynthesis.
leaf cell a specialised cell within a
leaf; some are specialised for
photosynthesis, for example
root hair
muscle cell a specialised body cell that
makes up muscle tissue
nerve cell a specialised body cell that
transmits information around
the body in the nervous system
red blood cell a specialised cell in the blood
that carries oxygen
root hair cell a specialised plant cell found
Root hair cells have long extensions, called root on plant roots
hairs, that absorb water into the roots. They
do not have chloroplasts, because chloroplasts semi-permeable a membrane that allows some,
are needed to absorb energy transferred from membrane but not all, particles to pass
sunlight and these cells are not exposed to through
sunlight. specialised cell a cell that has features that help
with a specific function (job)
sperm cell the male reproductive cell of
stoma open stoma closed
an animal
stem cell an unspecialised body cell
that can develop into another,
specialised cell
stoma the pores on the underside of a
leaf, surrounded by guard cells
stoma
surface area area of the outer surface of an
object
Guard cells can change shape to open a space to variable something that increases or
allow gas to pass into and out of the leaf. decreases over time or has
a different value in different
situations
volume amount of space an object
takes up

11

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 1 Cells and organisation

1.1 Organisation of multicellular

organisms
You are learning to:
• define the terms cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism
• explain the organisational structure in multicellular organisms
• compare the strengths and weaknesses of unicellular and multicellular
organisms.

1 Name the building blocks that all organisms are made from.

2 A group of similar specialised cells working together are called               .

3 What is the name given to a group of different tissues working together?

4 Match each organ to the system it is part of.

heart digestive system
brain nervous system
stomach breathing (respiratory) system
lungs circulatory system

5 Match each organ to its function.

heart controls many functions of the body
brain pumps blood around the body
kidneys transfer gases between the blood and air
stomach filter waste from the blood
lungs digests some foods

6 a Describe what ‘unicellular’ means as in ‘a bacterium is a unicellular organism’.

b Apart from bacteria, name two other examples of unicellular organisms.

Worked example
Using the nervous system as an example of a human organ system, name an example of:
a a cell b a tissue c an organ
that form part of that system.
This is asking for one example of each type of structure and all from the nervous system. Think
about what makes up the nervous system.
a brain cells b brain tissue c brain
The nervous system includes the brain; the brain is made of brain tissue; brain tissue is made of
brain cells.

12

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 Questions

7 Using the human circulatory system as an example, name one example of each of the
following involved with this system:
a a cell
b a tissue
c an organ
d an organ system
e an organism.

8 Unicellular organisms are very successful and make up most life on Earth. Suggest why they
are so successful.

Worked example
Multicellular organisms have organs such as a brain and heart. Explain why unicellular organisms do
not have organ systems.
This question asks you to explain. The first step when answering an explain question is to state
a fact.
Unicellular organisms are made of only one cell.
Then explain why that fact means that unicellular organisms do not have organ systems.
Therefore, cells do not work together as tissues, there are no tissues to form an organ and no organs to form
an organ system.

9 Multicellular organisms are able to carry out more complex processes than
unicellular organisms. Explain why.

10 The earliest organisms were unicellular. Some of these gradually evolved into multicellular
organisms, with tissues and organs. Describe how this may have happened.

Worked example
Yeast is a unicellular organism used in making bread. Bakers need to allow time for the yeast
cells to reproduce during the process. Yeast can multiply every 90 minutes.
How long does it take for the number of yeast cells to increase to 8 times the original number?
Assume you are starting with one yeast cell, and calculate how many cells would exist after
each 90 minutes.
1 to 2 cells after 90 minutes
2 to 4 cells after 180 minutes (90 + 90)
4 to 8 cells after 270 minutes (90 + 90 + 90)
Therefore, after 270 minutes, there are 8 times as many yeast cells.

11 Some bacteria can reproduce as rapidly as every 20 minutes. Starting from one single
bacterium, calculate how many bacteria would exist after 2 hours.

13

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 1 Cells and organisation

1.2 Comparing plant and animal cells

You are learning to:
• describe the structures found in plant and animal cells
• explain the functions of structures in plant and animal cells
• compare plant and animal cells.

1 To observe cells in a classroom, we need to use a piece of equipment called

a               .

2 Choose three parts of a cell that are found in both animal cells and plant cells:
cell wall
cell membrane
nucleus
chloroplast
cytoplasm

3 On the diagram below of an animal cell, choose from the words to identify the labels a, b and c:
b
cytoplasm

nucleus

a
c
cell membrane

4 On the diagram below of a plant cell, identify the labels a, b, c, d and e.

d
b

e
c

5 Describe the function of each of these parts of a cell:

a nucleus
b cell membrane
c chloroplast.

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 Questions

6 All cells contain cytoplasm. Explain why.

7 This light microscope image shows cells from

inside the cheek of an animal.
a Identify the cell parts i, ii and iii.
ii
b Name another organelle present in
these cells that we cannot see in this iii
i
image because it is too small.

8 Describe the key difference between red

blood cells and other animal cells.

Worked example
Charlotte and Abel are trying to decide what type of cell they are looking at.
Charlotte says this must be an animal cell because it
doesn’t have any chloroplasts and animal cells do not cell wall
have chloroplasts. vacuole
Abel says it must be a plant cell because it has a cell
wall and a cell membrane.
Suggest who is correct and explain why.
It is important in questions where two or more nucleus
opinions are given, that you explore each statement cell membrane
thoroughly. There is not usually a completely correct or
completely incorrect opinion.
Abel is correct that this is a plant cell as it has a cell wall.
However, both plant and animal cells have cell membranes, so this feature does not help us to decide.
Charlotte is correct that animal cells do not have chloroplasts.
However, some plant cells do not contain chloroplasts either: only those cells where photosynthesis takes
place contain chloroplasts (as these contain chlorophyll).

9 Dev says that plant cells hold their shape because of their cell wall. Kristi says that it is the
vacuole that supports the plant cell, and the cell wall controls what moves in and out of
the cell. Suggest who is correct and explain why.

10 In a condition called anaemia, patients have a lack of red blood cells. Doctors take blood
samples and the ‘red blood cell count’ is measured.
The normal range for a red blood cell count 6
is between 4.1 and 5.5 million/microlitre.
red cell count (millions / microlitre)

The graph shows the red blood cell count for 5

a patient being treated for a low red blood
cell count. 4
Use the graph to calculate:
3
a the red blood cell count at the start of
the treatment 2
b how long after treatment began that the
patient reached the normal range for red 1
blood cell count.
0
0 2 4 6 8
months

15

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 1 Cells and organisation

1.3 Studying cells

You are learning to:
• identify the parts of a light microscope
• describe how we observe cells using a light microscope
• interpret evidence from microscopes.

1 How do microscopes help us to observe cells?

2 Select one advantage of an electron microscope over a light microscope.

a An electron microscope is cheaper than a light microscope.
b An electron microscope is more portable than a light microscope.
c An electron microscope allows us to see smaller objects.
d An electron microscope is easier to use.

3 Select the correct name for each part of the microscope labelled a, b, c and d.
objective lens    stage    focusing wheel    eyepiece lens
b

slide c

light source
or mirror

4 The image below shows a bacterium as seen with an electron microscope. Explain why we can
see more detail than when a bacterium is observed with a light microscope.

5 A hospital laboratory technician examines cells under the microscope to screen for
cervical cancer. Why does the technician add a stain to the sample on the slide?

6 Explain the functions of the following parts of a light microscope:

a bulb or mirror
b stage.

16

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 Questions

7 Sami and Aya are learning to use a light microscope. They are looking at samples at
different magnifications.
The total magnification of a microscope is calculated using the equation:

total magnification = magnification of eyepiece lens × magnification of objective lens

Calculate the missing numbers a, b and c in the table below.

Magnification of Magnification of Total magnification
eyepiece lens objective lens
×10 ×4 a
×10 ×10 b
×10 ×40 c

8 A scientist studied how well plant cells survived at different temperatures. They heated cell
samples to different temperatures: 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C, and then observed
them under a microscope. They concluded that the cells looked normal at 40 °C but were
destroyed at 50 °C.
a How could the scientist test whether these results are repeatable?
b How could the scientist get a more accurate result of the exact temperature at which the
cells are destroyed?

9 Keesha observed onion cells under the microscope and made a drawing in pen as shown in
the image.
a Suggest three improvements to make the drawing more scientifically accurate.
b Identify three cell structures that Keesha could label.

Worked example
There are 1000 µm in 1 mm.
Convert the values in mm into µm.
mm µm
  1 (1 × 1000) = 1000
10 (10 × 1000) = 10 000
250 (250 × 1000) = 250 000
    0.1 (0.1 × 1000) = 100

10 a How many times smaller than a mm is a µm?

b An animal cell has a diameter of 10 µm. Write this diameter in mm.
c A bacterial cell is 1 the size of the animal cell. What size is the bacterial cell in:
10
i µm ii mm?
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 1 Cells and organisation

1.4 Unicellular organisms

You are learning to:
• recognise different types of unicellular organisms
• describe differences in a range of unicellular organisms
• compare adaptations of unicellular organisms.

1 Name one characteristic that all unicellular organisms have in common.

2 Identify which of these organisms are unicellular:

bacterium     cactus     seahorse     yeast

3 Unicellular organisms vary a lot in their size and structure but can be classed as either
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Which class is believed to have existed on Earth first?

4 One key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms is how they
store their genetic material. Describe how each stores its genetic material.

5 Of the two unicellular organisms shown below, suggest which one existed first. Justify
your answer.
aa b flagellum chloroplast
cell membrane

cell wall

genetic material

nucleus

flagellum mitochondria

cell membrane

6 A microbiologist (a scientist who studies microorganisms) has discovered a type of

bacterium that lives in hot springs close to volcanoes, up to temperatures of 90 ºC.
Why might the microbiologist not be concerned about getting infected by the bacterium?
mitochondria
7 The diagram shows a paramecium, which is a eukaryotic
unicellular organism.
Explain how cilia are important in feeding for this organism.
cilia

vacuole

nucleus

food

cell membrane
cytoplasm

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 Questions

8 The image shows a newly discovered unicellular organism. One scientist

describes it as having plant-like features. Another says that it also has
animal-like features. Choose one feature that makes this organism: flagellum

a plant-like
cell membrane
b animal-like.
cytoplasm chloroplasts

nucleus

mitochondria

Worked example
Two students are studying images of cells. One cell has no nucleus or other organelles.
Tom says that this must be a bacterial cell as they don’t have a nucleus. Oran says that this cannot
be a bacterial cell because bacterial cells contain chloroplasts.
Discuss which student is correct and why.
In questions where students are giving their opinion, each opinion must be considered carefully. It is
often the case that although there is one best answer, the other ideas are partly correct.
Bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus, so Tom is correct.
However, Oran is correct that some bacterial cells do contain chloroplasts, although not all do.

9 Two students are learning about the variety of life on Earth. Ben says that all unicellular
organisms are very simple. Layla disagrees and says that some unicellular organisms
are complex.
a Explain why Layla is correct.
b Suggest why Ben might assume that all unicellular organisms are simple.

10 Compare the structures of these unicellular organisms and suggest what their structures tell us
about how they live.
a mitochondria b flagellum chloroplast

eye spot

cilia

vacuole
nucleus
nucleus

food vacuole
mitochondria
cell membrane
cell membrane cytoplasm
cytoplasm

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 1 Cells and organisation

1.5 Specialised cells

You are learning to:
• classify specialised cells as animal or plant cells
• describe examples of specialised animal and plant cells
• explain how structure is linked to function in specialised cells.

1 Specialised cells have features that help them to carry out a certain function. We say that cells
are to the function. Choose the missing word.
chosen adapted forced created

2 Explain why it is important that all living things have specialised cells.

3 All new cells start out as stem cells. What is a stem cell? Select the best definition.
a A specialised plant cell.
b A cell that can develop into any specialised cell.
c A specialised cell in an animal.
d A nerve cell.

4 Match each of the specialised cells in the images to its name.

a b c d

Name of cell Image

red blood cell
nerve cell
muscle cell
leaf cell

5 Look at specialised cells a and b. Identify whether each is an animal cell or plant cell. Give at
least two reasons for each decision.
a a b b
nucleus nucleus

vacuole
vacuole
cell wall

cell wall

cell membrane cell membrane

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 Questions

6 For each of the specialised cells in the table, describe its function and explain one way it is
adapted to its function.

Name of cell Function of cell One way the cell is adapted to its function
red blood cell
nerve cell
muscle cell
leaf cell

Worked example
Smooth muscle is found in many parts of the body, such as blood vessels and organs.
mitochondria nucleus

smooth muscle is made of protein fibres

Explain how the structure of these muscle cells helps with the functions of:
a contracting to create movement
b releasing energy.
This question asks you to ‘explain’. The first step when answering an explain question is to state
a fact.
a The muscle cells are made from protein fibres.
Then explain why that fact is useful.
This allows the cells to rapidly expand and contract to create movement.
b The muscle cells contain lots of mitochondria. Energy is released in mitochondria.

7 Sperm cells are specialised cells adapted to carry genetic material to the egg cell.
For each of the adaptations of sperm cells listed, explain how the adaptation helps the sperm
cell to perform a specific function:

nucleus

mitochondria

cell membrane

a tail
b large head
c lots of mitochondria.

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 1 Cells and organisation

8 Anaemia is a deficiency disease that affects the number of heathy red blood cells. Sickle cell
disease is an inherited condition that affects the quality of the red blood cells.

With sickle cell disease, some of

the red blood cells have a
different shape to the usual disc
shape.

normal blood anaemia sickle cell disease

normal red blood cell sickle cell disease

Use what you know about the structure of red blood cells and how they are adapted to their
function to answer these questions.
a Explain why a patient with anaemia might feel tired.
b Suggest whether a patient with sickle cell disease is likely to feel tired. Explain your answer.

9 These images both show muscle cells but from different parts of the human body.
a Compare the structures of the two cells.
b Describe the function of each part of the cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
and mitochondria.
c Which of these images do you think shows heart muscle? Explain your answer.
i ii
nucleus nucleus

cytoplasm

mitochondria

cell membrane

Worked example
Red blood cells have the function of carrying oxygen from the lungs to all body cells.
They have a shape like a doughnut but without the hole, with a dip in the centre.
A haematologist (blood scientist) is researching whether red blood cells having this
shape, rather than being spherical, might help in their function.
The haematologist’s estimates of the surface area and volume of the two shapes are shown in Table 1.
Surface area Volume Surface area-to-
volume ratio
dipped shape 136 90
spherical shape 120 150

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 Questions

a Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for each shape of cell.

Dipped shape: surface area-to-volume ratio = 136 = 1.5

90
(This can also be written as a ratio 1.5 : 1)

120
Spherical shape: surface area-to-volume ratio =
= 0.8
150
(This can also be written as a ratio 0.8 : 1)
b Suggest whether the dipped shape of a red blood cell makes it better adapted to its
function than a spherical cell.
The dipped shape of a red blood cell does make it better adapted for carrying oxygen as it has
a larger surface area-to-volume ratio than a spherical shape. This means that it can carry more
oxygen per cell.

10 Root hair cells are specialised cells adapted to absorb water and minerals from the soil. Many
other plant cells are adapted to carry out photosynthesis.

large
vacuole

cytoplasm

root hair

a Describe how the cytoplasm and vacuole of a root hair cell are adapted to absorb water
but not to carry out photosynthesis.
b Botanists (plant scientists) need to decide which of three types of plant will best survive in
dry soil. They have calculated the surface area and volume of a sample of 20 root hairs
from each plant and calculated a mean for each.
Mean surface area Mean volume of a Surface area-to-
of a root hair (mm2) root hair (mm3) volume ratio
Plant 1 12 12
Plant 2 12 18
Plant 3 24 48

i Suggest why the botanists measured 20 root hairs and calculated a mean.
ii Complete the table to show the surface area-to-volume ratio for each of the plants.
iii Suggest which plant is most likely to absorb more water and will be best suited to the
dry soil.

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 Cells
1 and
Cells Organisation
and organisation

1.6 Movement in and out of cells:

diffusion
You are learning to:
• define the process of diffusion
• describe examples of diffusion in living things
• explain how different factors affect the rate of diffusion.

1 Complete the sentence using the words below:

higher particles lower
Diffusion is the spreading of           from where there is a          
concentration to where there is a           concentration.

2 Which type of substances can diffusion occur in? Select all that apply.
solids liquids gases

3 Maryam adds two teaspoons of sugar to her tea. Lydia adds three teaspoons of sugar to
her tea. If they have the same volume of tea, who has the higher concentration of sugar
solution, Maryam or Lydia?

4 Choose the correct statement about the diagram.

a particles move from right to left
b particles move from left to right
c no particles move
d equal numbers of particles move from left to right as from right
to left.
low high
concentration cell concentration
5 Which substances diffuse into a single-celled animal, such as an membrane
amoeba cell, and which diffuse out?
Substance In or out?
carbon dioxide
nutrients
urea
oxygen

6 Hakim is investigating diffusion in different liquids. Part of his method is:

• Add 5 ml of coloured liquid to a well in the centre of an agar jelly plate.
• Start the timer.
• Measure the distance travelled by the coloured liquid every 30 s for 4 min.
• Repeat using other coloured liquids.
a Suggest why the liquid needs to be coloured.
b Hakim selects from a range of measuring cylinders to measure the liquid (10 ml, 100 ml
and 250 ml). He chooses the 10 ml measuring cylinder. What did Hakim improve by
choosing the 10 ml measuring cylinder rather than one of the larger ones? Choose from
the words below:
repeatability     prediction     accuracy     control

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 Questions

7 We can use an everyday example of diffusion as a model to help us to understand how

diffusion happens inside living things.
Carmine sprays an air freshener at one end of a room.

Tom Monty Anya Ali

a Carmine asks each student to raise their hand when they can smell the air freshener.
Suggest the order you would expect them to raise their hands.
b Explain why everyone in the room smells the air freshener eventually.
c Considering this model, suggest one way it is similar to oxygen diffusing into a cell and
one way it is different.

8 Cells of bigger volume need more substances to pass in and out of the cell than smaller cells.
As substances move and in and out by diffusion, the size of a cell is important. Using a model
of cells as cubes, we can compare how effective diffusion might be.
a Calculate the surface area, volume and surface area-to-volume ratio for each cube in
the table.
Length, breadth, Surface area Volume (cm3) Surface area-to-
height of cube (cm) (cm2) volume ratio
1, 1, 1
2, 2, 2
3, 3, 3

b If each of these cubes were a cell, such as an amoeba, which would have the biggest
challenge in ensuring it transported enough oxygen and nutrients into the cell?
Explain your answer.

9 Some unicellular organisms make food by photosynthesis; others feed by taking in nutrients
from the environment. All unicellular organisms rely on diffusion to survive.
a Explain why diffusion is so important to these organisms.
b Most unicellular organisms are microscopic so can only be seen with a microscope.
Considering the way that they feed, suggest why it is beneficial for unicellular organisms
to be small, rather than increasing to the size of a multicellular organism.

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 1 Cells and organisation

Maths and practical skills

1 Choose the most appropriate piece of equipment to measure a volume of 10 ml.
a b c d

2 Arrange the units in order from smallest to largest:

metres (m) millimetres (mm) micrometres (µm) kilometres (km)

3 Identify the parts a, b, c and d of the light microscope using the words provided.
light source objective lens stage eyepiece lens
a

slide
focusing wheel

Worked example
Yua investigates whether temperature affects the number of stomata (pores) that are open on
the underside of a leaf.
She keeps plants at different temperatures for a fixed time and then counts the number of
open stomata in a fixed area of leaf for each plant. She repeats this three times.
Explain why she repeats the observations.
When carrying out investigations, we often repeat our measurements two or three times. Think
about what it tells you if all three repeat readings are similar; what if one is very different?
Carrying out repeat measurements checks the repeatability of the measuring method. If the results
are similar each time, Yua can trust them. If any of the results are not similar, Yua can choose to repeat
that reading again or ignore it.

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 Questions

4 Jed compares the number of chloroplasts in different plant cells. Using a microscope, he
estimates the number of chloroplasts in one palisade (upper leaf) cell, one guard (lower leaf)
cell and one root hair cell. He concludes that palisade cells contain the most chloroplasts.
a Suggest how Jed could improve the repeatability of his experiment.
b Explain why Jed is probably correct that there are more chloroplasts in palisade cells than
the other cells.

5 Charlotte is looking at skin cells under a microscope. She uses the method below:
• Place the skin sample on a slide and add a drop of dye.
• Cover the sample with a glass cover slip.
• Place the sample on the microscope stage.
• Focus the microscope to see the cells.
Explain why:
a dye is added to the sample
b a glass cover slip is placed over the sample.

6 a Complete the table by converting the units.

m mm µm
0.1   100 i
2.6 ii   2600 000
iii 24 000 24 000 000

b An even smaller unit of measurement is the nanometre. 1 µm = 1000 nm. How many nm
are there in:
i 1 mm
ii 1 m?

7 Chen is investigating the effect of temperature on diffusion. He follows the method below:
• Remove a small disc from the centre of the agar plate.
• Measure 50 ml of water and heat until it reaches 50 °C.
• Add this to a bowl and place the agar plate in the bowl for 5 minutes.
• Use another pipette and fill the hole in the agar with undiluted food colouring.
• Measure and record how far the food colouring spreads in 30 seconds.
• Repeat at a range of other temperatures.
a In this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii  the dependent variable.
b Chen next decides to change the independent variable to concentration of
food colouring. Write the question that Chen is investigating.

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 1 Cells and organisation

Worked example
A student is asked a question by their teacher: Do plant cells get bigger when the plant is given more
water? Design an investigation to answer the question.
The question asked gives you clues as to what will change and what will be measured in an
investigation.
You can see from the question that the factor that changes is the volume of water. This is the
independent variable.
Also from the question, you can see that what is being measured is the size of the plant cells. This is
the dependent variable.
Then consider any factors that may need to be controlled; these are called the ‘control variables’.
So that they can compare cells, the student will need to use the same type of plant. This is one
control variable.
When designing a method, there is often not just one correct answer, many methods could be valid.
One suggested answer is:
Water plants of the same type with different volumes of water, for example: 50 ml, 100 ml, 150 ml, 200 ml,
250 ml, 300 ml.
Leave each plant for the same length of time.
Using a microscope, observe cells from three samples of each plant. Prepare samples from the same part of
each plant, for example, the leaf.
Take measurements of the leaf size plus any observations of how they might be different.

8 Sally notices that when she eats salt and vinegar crisps, her lips feel wrinkly. She wonders
whether the salt or the vinegar in the crisps is affecting her cells. Her teacher gives her a
cotton bud to collect cells from inside her cheek and a light microscope.
Design an investigation for Sally to answer the question: Does salt or vinegar affect the cells in
my mouth?

9 Stelios observes a water flea under a microscope using an eyepiece lens of ×10 and an
objective lens of ×10.
a Calculate the total magnification of the microscope.
b Use the equation:
image size = actual size × magnification
to calculate the actual size of the flea if the image is 20 mm.
c Express this answer in µm.

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 Questions

10 Peter investigated the effect of changing concentration on the rate of diffusion. He used a
range of concentrations of glucose solution and timed how long it took for the solution to
travel through an agar block.
a Peter added a dye to the glucose solution. Suggest why.
His results are shown in the table.
Concentration of glucose Time taken to travel Rate of diffusion =
solution (g/l) through the agar (s) 1/time (1/s)
0.5 10.0 0.10
1.0 i 0.25
1.5 5.0 0.20
2.0 ii 0.50
2.5 1.6 0.62
3.0 1.4 0.69

b 
Two results have been deleted from Peter’s results table. Rate is calculated by 1/time,
where the time is measured in seconds. Using the rate value, calculate the time
taken to travel through the agar at a concentration of 1.0 g/l and 2.0 g/l (i and ii in
the table).
The graph of Peter’s results is below.

0.7

0.6

0.5
rate of diffusion (1/s)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
concentration of glucose (g/l)

c State which of the results (which concentration of glucose) is anomalous (doesn’t fit the
pattern).
d Write a conclusion for Peter.

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 2 Reproduction

2 Reproduction road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
2.3 Reproduction
in humans 2.4 P
• identify organs • des
• describe fertilisation • des
2.2 Seed dispersal • explain roles of organs • app
• describe methods • compare plants and
• explain importance humans
and adaptations
• describe how fruits are used
• analyse data and methods

changes as humans age

reproduction in some 2.1 Plant reproduction
plants and animals • identify parts
• describe processes
functions of parts of
• compare features
flowering plants • analyse and present data
the role of flowers • explain factors
affecting growth

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

tion
2.4 Puberty and the menstrual cycle
• describe and explain changes hormones in human reproduction
ation • describe the menstrual cycle
contraception
organs • apply the menstrual cycle to infertility
s and use of hormones to treat infertility
2.5 Development of a foetus
and the effect of lifestyle sexual and asexual reproduction
• describe foetus development
advantages and disadvantages of sexual
• explain role of the mother
• discuss factors affecting and asexual reproduction
development meiosis

KS4

Maths and practical skills

carrying out scientific enquiries to test predictions

planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
observing and measuring, including the evaluation of repeatability
interpreting observations and data
suggesting improvements to practical work
calculating results and converting between different units
presenting reasoned explanations
writing scientific questions

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 2 Reproduction

2 Reproduction
Without reproduction, no new organisms would exist. Animals and
plants both have to grow and mature to be able to reproduce. There are
similarities and differences in how reproduction happens in animals and
plants. For example, both animals and plants need male sex cells and female
sex cells to produce new offspring. However, a lot of animals move to find a
mate, whereas flowering plants reproduce without moving.

Do you recognise any of these seeds?

Spreading of seeds is important for plant survival. Suggest how these seeds might be spread.
What are the clues?

dandelion tomato catchweed

What signs of growing up can you see?

Think about how our bodies change as we reach teenage years. What causes these changes and why
do you think our bodies go through changes?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a horticulturist?

You grow and sell plants for to see the results of breeding
food or for display. You are an techniques. Resilience is
expert in how plants reproduce needed: some growth factors
and how to maximise growth are out of your control, such as
to avoid food scarcity, for pests or the weather. You may
example by knowing the best sell directly to the public, for
conditions for wind and insect example at markets, or to shops
pollination. You need patience and restaurants, so you need a Imagine how rewarding it would
to experiment with growing business brain to follow market be to grow the food that ends
unusual or exotic plants and trends and to make a profit. up on our tables in a restaurant.

Midwives support women Conservation zoologists ensure animals

and their families through do not become extinct. They may work
pregnancy and when with animals in captivity or in the wild.
their babies are young. They understand how
They need to be experts the animals reproduce
in healthy pregnancy and and develop and help
how a foetus develops so to make sure offspring
they can spot the signs when development is not are produced. They tend
progressing as it should. These health professionals to focus on one species
are compassionate and caring as they support because they need to
families through very personal and important times. have deep knowledge.

Fertility nurses (or Gardeners carry out a

reproductive nurses) wide range of activities.
work with couples A skilled gardener
and individuals who produces plants from
have problems getting seeds and ensures the
pregnant. These patients best conditions are
may be undergoing created to support
treatment to help them to get pregnant or may pollination by wind and
need to have counselling to help them to cope insects. They have a love of the outdoors and
with their problems. Fertility nurses need to be for providing the best natural environment
adaptable, approachable and knowledgeable. within the gardens they care for.

Animal breeders produce animals for a range Fertility counsellors

of purposes, for example for shows, sport or pets. work with individuals
They need good knowledge of the animals they or families who are
work with and how they reproduce. They must having difficulty
ensure the health and getting pregnant to
safety of the breeding allow them to explore
animals before and during their emotions and to
pregnancy, and monitor help them to cope better. They could help
the health of the offspring people to decide whether to have treatments
during pregnancy and or to come to terms with not having children,
after birth. for example.

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 2 Reproduction

Knowledge organiser
Reproduction is the production of pollination
offspring.
In sexual reproduction, the male sex cells growth
fertilisation
fertilise the female sex cells. Sex cells are also of new plants
called gametes.
In flowering plants, the male gamete is a Life cycle of a
pollen cell and the female gamete is an flowering plant
ovule. seed and fruit
germination
In humans, the male sex cell is a sperm and formation
the female gamete is an ovum.
Fertilisation is the joining of the nucleus of
a male gamete and the nucleus of a female
seed dispersal
gamete.

Most flowers have male and female parts. Methods of seed dispersal can be
investigated and compared. For
stigma
MALE part: anther FEMALE part: example, the distance travelled
stamen style
carpel by seeds dispersed by different
ovary
filament
ovule
methods can be measured. Here, the
independent variable is the method
of dispersal; the dependent variable is
the distance travelled.

Seed dispersal can happen by:

• wind
petal
sepal

• explosion – pods explode on touch

• water
Following fertilisation, each fertilised ovule becomes a seed,
and the ovary develops into a fruit. The fruit protects the
seeds until they are ripe and ready to form a new plant.

tomato flower sepals wither away

ovary develops
into fruit

• animals – they eat the fruit and

tomato
carry the seeds inside them.

style
stigma

ovules develop into seeds

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Pollination is when pollen produced in the Key vocabulary

anther is transferred to the stigma of a different
anther the pollen-producing part of
plant of the same type. Pollen can be transferred
the stamen of a flower
by wind or insects.
carpel the female part of a flower
Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated fertilisation the joining of the nucleus of a
plants plants male sex cell with the nucleus
of a female sex cell
have brightly coloured have long anthers that
flowers to attract hang outside the filament the ‘stalk’ of the stamen that
insects flowers, so pollen is supports the anther
caught on the wind fruit the ovary of a plant after
have sweet smells to produce huge fertilisation; the fruit contains
attract insects amounts of pollen to the seeds
increase chances of
gametes sex cells
pollination
germination the stage when a seed begins
produce nectar inside have long, feathery
to grow into a plant
the flower to attract stigmas that hang
insects inside or near outside flowers so insect pollination caused by insects
the pollen pollen can stick to pollination carrying and transferring the
them pollen
produce sticky or often have no scent or ovary the organ in female plants
spiky pollen to stick to bright colours as don’t that contains ovules, and in
insects need to attract insects animals that makes egg cells
ovule the female sex cell (egg) of a
plant
Following pollination, the nucleus of the male
pollen cell moves to the ovary, where it joins with pollination the process of transferring
the nucleus of the ovule. This is called fertilisation. pollen from the anther of
stigma pollen
a flower to the stigma of a
pollen cell flower on another plant of the
style nucleus
same type
tube
reproduction the production of offspring
seed the ovule of a plant after
fertilisation
seed dispersal the spreading of seeds from a
plant to a new area
stamen the male part of a flower
stigma the pollen-receiving part of a
flower
ovary
style the female part of a flower
ovule
through which pollen travels
ovule nucleus to fertilise an ovule
wind pollination caused by wind
pollination carrying and transferring the
pollen

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 2 Reproduction

Structure and function of the male human Structure and function of the female human
reproductive system: reproductive system:
sperm duct: tube that
carries sperm from testes uterus: cavity where the
to prostate gland developing baby grows
prostate gland: makes
oviduct: tube that carries
semen (the liquid that
the egg from the ovary
sperm is carried in, to the uterus
provides nutrients)
urethra: tube leading ovary: where egg cells are
from the prostate gland made and then released into
along the penis the oviduct
scrotal sac: holds the cervix: narrow opening from
testes outside the body the vagina to the uterus with
where temperature is thick walls that can extend
best for sperm production wide enough for a baby to
pass through
testis (plural testes):
makes sperm cells vagina: muscular tube that
extends up to the cervix and
penis: movement of the can stetch to allow a baby to
penis releases sperm be born; the penis enters here
during sexual intercourse during sexual intercourse

Puberty is the period of

Changes at puberty for girls Changes at puberty for boys
physical changes that enable
a person to reproduce. In widening of the hips shoulders broaden
humans, puberty takes place menstrual cycle begins voice deepens
between 8 and 16 years old.
It is controlled by breasts become bigger penis and testes grow
hormones. sperm is produced
height spurt
hair develops in armpits and around reproductive organs

The menstrual
cycle in females lasts
1 Day 1 – blood loss as uterus
for about 28 days. lining breaks down 2 Day 5 – egg ripens in the ovary
Exact timings of each (menstruation)
stage vary between
individuals.

3 Day 14 – egg is released into

4 Day 21 – the egg reaches the oviduct (ovulation); the
the uterus; if it is not uterus lining is thick and
fertilised, it dies pregnancy is most likely
to happen

Alcohol Higher rate of stillbirth, lower birth weight, lower IQ; baby slower to
move and think, more likely to be dependent on alcohol in adulthood.
Smoking – nicotine Much higher risk of stillbirth, premature delivery and low birth weight
and carbon resulting in poor development; greater likelihood of developing
monoxide asthma.
Drugs – marijuana, Higher rate of stillbirth, premature birth, low birth weight, learning
cocaine difficulties and likely addiction to the drug.
Nutrition – folic Good for the development of the brain and spinal cord; supplements
acid should be taken as soon as pregnancy is recognised.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Sexual intercourse transfers Key vocabulary

the male sex cells (sperm) into amniotic fluid the liquid that surrounds the foetus to protect it
the female body. The penis is
inserted into the vagina and its birth the process of a baby leaving the mother’s body
movement stimulates release naturally through the vagina
of sperm. The sperm cells then cell division the process of a cell dividing
travel to the uterus, where cervix the opening between the uterus and the vagina
they might meet an egg and embryo young foetus before its main organs are formed
fertilisation can take place. fertility the ability to reproduce
foetus the developing baby during pregnancy
The ability to reproduce is gestation the process where the foetus develops in the uterus,
called fertility. People who also known as pregnancy
cannot reproduce are said to hormones chemicals made in the body and carried in the blood
be infertile. There are many as chemical messengers to help to control organs
reasons for infertility, such as and processes
problems with the menstrual infertility being unable to reproduce
cycle in females or lack of menstrual the cycle in which the lining of the uterus is
healthy sperm production cycle prepared for pregnancy, but if no fertilised egg is
in males. implanted the lining is shed (menstruation)
menstruation the monthly breakdown of the uterus lining leading
to bleeding from the vagina (a period)
Following fertilisation of an egg
ovary the female organ where egg cells are made
cell, cell division takes place.
oviduct the tube in a female animal that carries the egg cell
• The cell divides to two cells, from the ovary to the uterus and where fertilisation
these cells then divide to happens
make four cells, and so on ovulation the release of an egg cell from the ovary during the
to form a ball of cells. menstrual cycle
• Within the first few weeks, penis the sex organ of a male animal which carries sperm
these cells are stem cells, so out of the body
they are not yet specialised. placenta the organ that provides the foetus with oxygen and
• Once the ball of cells is big nutrients and removes waste substances
enough, the cells begin to pregnancy the process where the foetus develops in the female
differentiate and become uterus, also known as gestation
specialised. At this stage, the prostate the gland where semen is made and added to sperm
ball of cells is then called an gland
embryo. puberty changes that occur in boys and girls as they become
• At approximately 8 weeks human adults
when most of the organs reproductive the organs in a male or female organism involved in
are formed, the embryo system reproduction
becomes a foetus. scrotal sac the sac that contains the testes, outside the body for
temperature control
sperm duct the tube through which sperm travels from the testes
A human foetus develops
stem cells unspecialised body cells that can develop into other,
for about 38 weeks during
specialised cells
pregnancy. Pregnancy is
testis the organ of a male animal where sperm are made
also known as gestation.
During this time, the foetus is umbilical the tissue that attaches the foetus to the mother’s
cord placenta
supported by the following:
urethra in a male, the tube in the penis through which
• placenta sperm travels
• umbilical cord uterus the part of the woman’s body where a foetus
• amniotic fluid. develops
At the end of the pregnancy, vagina the part of the female body where the penis enters
the baby is born. This is during sexual intercourse and that stretches during
called birth. birth

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 2 Reproduction

2.1 Plant reproduction

You are learning to:
• identify the parts of a flowering plant involved in reproduction
• describe the process of reproduction in flowering plants
• compare the features of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated plants
• analyse and present data on the growth of pollen tubes
• explain factors that affect the growth of pollen tubes.

1 Identify the parts of a flowering plant, choosing from the words provided.
ovule stigma ovary
anther filament style
C
MALE part: B FEMALE part:
stamen D
carpel
E
A
F

petal
sepal

2 Match each of the words with its definition.

a male sex cells landing on the stigma fertilisation
b the nucleus of the male sex cell joining with the pollination
nucleus of the female sex cell
c spreading of pollen, for example by wind or insects dispersal

3 a Name the male sex cells of a flowering plant.

b Name the part of the plant that contains the female sex cells.

4 Match each flowering plant part to its function.

Function Part
a produces pollen stigma
b sticky to collect pollen from the wind or insects anther
c contains the ovules which grow into seeds filament
d colourful to attract insects ovary
e supports the anther petal

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 Questions

5 Some flowering plants produce nectar deep inside the flower. Explain how this helps
with pollination.

6 Describe the role of pollen tubes in plant reproduction.

7 Explain why in some plants the stigma produces a chemical to prevent pollen tube growth if
its own pollen grain lands on it.

8 Antonia says that the main stage of plant reproduction is pollination.

Akeeb says that fertilisation is more important than pollination.
Comment on these statements and explain why both pollination and fertilisation are needed
for plant reproduction.

9 Image a shows a flowering plant that has long styles.

Image b shows a flowering plant with long, feathery stigmas.

a b

i Identify which of these is the wind-pollinated plant and which is the insect-pollinated
plant.
ii Explain how the design of the stigma and style benefits each type of plant.
iii Using the images, compare two other features that would help to identify how each plant
is pollinated.

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 2 Reproduction

Worked example
F or pollination to lead to fertilisation, a pollen tube grows from the pollen through the style. A
student believes that the growth of these pollen tubes may be affected by the temperature of
the surroundings.
a The student carries out the investigation by adding sugar solutions of different
temperatures to pollen grains and measuring how long each grows in 6 hours.
For this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable
iii two control variables.
The independent variable is what is changed in an investigation.
The dependent variable is what you measure in an investigation.
The control variables are factors that could affect the outcome that you try to control or keep
the same during an investigation.
a i temperature
ii length of pollen tubes
iii type of pollen (same plant); concentration of sugar solution.
b Write a title for the investigation.
An investigation title should include the independent variable and dependent variable, e.g.
‘An investigation into the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable’.
b Investigation into the effect of temperature on growth of pollen tubes.
c One factor that was kept the same during the investigation was concentration of the
sugar solution.
i What type of variable is sugar concentration?
The sugar concentration used was 40 g sugar per 100 ml of distilled water. This is also
represented as 40%.
ii The technician only has 20 g of sugar. Explain how a 40% sugar solution can be
made using 20 g of sugar.
Remember the control variable definition from above.
‘%’ or ‘per cent’ means ‘per 100’.
So, 40 g of sugar in 100 ml would be the same as 80 g in 200 ml. Think about the proportions
of each substance when you work out your answer.
c i control variable
ii 20 g sugar and 50 ml water

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 Questions

10 
Following pollination, the stigma releases a substance that includes sugar, and this causes a
pollen tube to grow from the pollen grain. Thomas wants to investigate the effect of the
concentration of sugar on how long a pollen tube grows.
a For this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable
iii two control variables.
b Thomas repeats his experiment three times. The average results are shown below.
Concentration of sugar (%) 0 5 10 15 20 25
Average length of pollen tube (mm) 0 25 32 42 27 22

i Suggest what Thomas should do next to find the optimum (best) glucose
concentration for growth of pollen tubes for this pollen.
ii Suggest why Thomas calculated an average length of pollen tube for each
concentration.
iii Concentration is shown here as %, meaning g/100 ml. If Thomas wanted to use a
solution of 30%, what mass of glucose and volume of water should be used?
c Thomas uses a light microscope to observe and measure the pollen tubes, with an
eyepiece lens magnification of ×4 and an objective lens magnification of ×40.
i What is the total magnification of the microscope?
ii He measures the image as 32 mm. Calculate the actual (real) length of the pollen tube.
Show your answer as µm.

A bee pollinating a lily flower Lily pollen tubes

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 2 Reproduction

2.2 Seed dispersal

You are learning to:
• describe different methods of seed dispersal
• explain why seed dispersal is important and how seeds are adapted to
different methods of dispersal
• describe how fruits are used in seed dispersal
• analyse experimental data and methods for seed dispersal mechanisms.

1 Following fertilisation, changes take place in each part of the flower. Choose from the phrases
to complete each sentence (use each phrase either once/more than once/not at all):

Plant part Choose from:

… falls off.
… becomes a seed.
… becomes a fruit.
a The fertilised ovule …
b The ovary …
c Each petal …
d Each sepal …

2 State three ways in which seeds may be dispersed (spread out).

Worked example
 eeds released from exploding pods, such as witch hazel, do not travel far from the parent
S
plant. Seeds carried by water, such as coconut, travel much further.
In one investigation, witch hazel seeds travelled 8 m and coconut seeds travelled 120 km.
How many times further than the witch hazel did the coconut seed travel?
Witch hazel seeds travelled 8 m.
Coconut travelled 120 km = 120 000 m.
The coconut travelled 120 000 = 15 000 times further.
8

3 The distance travelled by different seeds was recorded. The table below shows how far some
seeds dispersed from the parent plant.
Seed Average distance travelled Average distance travelled by
by seeds (m) seeds (km)
dandelion 100 000
maple    4000

a Show the distance travelled for each seed in km.

b The measurements were repeated with seeds dispersed during a storm. Suggest how the
distance travelled by the seeds would change in a storm.

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 Questions

4 Complete the paragraph using the words below.

grow    temperature    nutrients    germination
Seeds are packed with           .
These help the new plant to           .
Once the conditions such as water and            are suitable, the seed grows into
a new plant.
This process of a seed growing into a new plant is called           .

5 Dispersal of seeds means that new plants grow far away from the parent plants. Explain why
this is helpful for growth of new plants.

6 Describe the stages involved from a pollen cell fertilising an egg cell in another tomato plant
to new tomato plants growing.

7 Pea pods and courgettes are often classed as vegetables, not fruits.
a Define ‘fruit’.
b Explain why pea pods and courgettes are both actually fruits rather than vegetables.

pea pod courgette

8 The images show a coconut, dispersed by water, and sycamore seeds, dispersed by wind.

coconut sycamore seeds

Explain how the coconut is adapted to travel by water and how the sycamore seed is adapted
to travel by wind.

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 2 Reproduction

Worked example
 n investigation was carried out to investigate the effect of wind speed on distance travelled
A
by sycamore seeds. The graph below shows the results.

30

Distance travelled
25

by seed (m)
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Wind speed (m/s)

Which of these statements is true? Choose two answers.

A For any wind speed, the distance travelled by a sycamore seed may vary.
B The trend is, the stronger the wind, the larger the distance that sycamore seeds travel.
C If a sycamore seed lands 5 metres from the tree, the wind speed was approximately 6 m/s.
D Sycamore seeds always behave in the same way.
 he dots on the graph show the results for individual sycamore seeds. Take an example, such
T
as a wind speed of 8 m/s: at this speed, different seeds travel different distances, e.g. 12 m
and 20 m.
The graph also shows a trend: consider whether the overall picture is of distance increasing as
wind speed increases.
Check each statement carefully.
A and B

9 An investigation was carried out to investigate the effect of wind speed on distance travelled
by sycamore seeds. The graph below shows the results.

30
Distance travelled

25
by seed (m)

20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Wind speed (m/s)

a Estimate the average distance travelled by a sycamore seed when the wind speed is 8 m/s.
Choose the best answer.
A 13–16 metres
B 20–25 metres
C more than 30 metres
D less than 10 metres
b Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in this investigation.
c Write a conclusion about the effect of wind speed on distance travelled by the seeds.

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 Questions

10 
Garden centres must be certain that the seeds they sell are likely to germinate and produce
new plants for their customers.

To be certain of selling the best seeds, botanists can calculate the ‘germination percentage’.
seeds germinated
germination percentage = × 100
total number of seeds
A botanist uses the following method.
• Count out 200 seeds from seed sample A and place on an absorbent material inside a tray.
• Carefully saturate the absorbent material.
• For each of 10 days, check to see that the absorbent material remains moist.
• After 10 days, count the number of germinated seeds.
• Repeat the procedure another two times for seed sample A.
• Repeat the whole procedure for seed sample B.
The table below shows the results for two different seed samples.

Seed sample Number of germinated Average number of Germination

seeds after 10 days germinated seeds percentage
1 2 3
A 160 176 156
B 184 179 189

a Suggest why the absorbent material was kept moist during the experiment.
b Calculate the average number of germinated seeds for both samples, A and B.
c Calculate the germination percentage for both samples, A and B.
d A good germination percentage is said to be 80%. Which of these seed samples would
you recommend that the botanist should sell?
e The botanist wonders whether they could sell more seeds if they can advertise that the
seeds germinate just as well in less than 10 days. Suggest how they could test whether the
seeds reach a germination rate of 80% in less than 10 days.

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 2 Reproduction

2.3 Reproduction in humans

You are learning to:
• identify the organs of the male and female reproductive systems
• describe fertilisation in humans
• explain the roles of each of the organs in reproduction
• compare reproduction in flowering plants and humans.

1 Complete the sentences using the words below.

sperm reproductive eggs
The job of the human           system is to produce offspring.
The male system makes           and the female system makes          .

2 Fertilisation is an essential part of reproduction. Define what fertilisation in humans is.

3 Identify the parts of the female human reproductive system

by choosing from the words below.
A
cervix  vagina  uterus  ovary  oviduct
B

4 Identify the parts of the male human reproductive system

by choosing from the words below.
A
prostate gland   sperm duct   urethra
testis   scrotal sac   penis B

5 What role does semen play in reproduction? C

Choose one answer.
a produces sperm D
b provides sperm with nutrients
c guides sperm to the vagina
d warms sperm up E

6 Match each part of the male reproductive system to its role. F

Part Role
a sperm duct producing sperm
b testis passing sperm to the prostate gland
c scrotal sac passing sperm into the vagina
d penis controlling the temperature of the testes

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 Questions

7 Explain the function of each of the following parts of the female human reproductive system:
a oviduct c vagina
b ovary d uterus.
8 Explain why an egg moves from where it is made to the uterus.

9 For each of the parts of the human reproductive system below, identify what performs the
same role in flowering plants:
a sperm c testis
b egg d ovary.
10 A
 fertility laboratory technician is analysing samples to check the quality and quantity of sperm
cells in patient samples.
a Name the piece of equipment that the technician would use to observe and count the
sperm cell samples.
The sperm cell count is measured for three patients.
Patient Sperm cell count (per ml)
A 15 million
B 8 million
C 200 million
Remember: there are 1000 µl in 1 ml.
b Convert the sperm count for each patient into µl.
A count below 12 million cells per ml is said to be a low sperm count.
c Another patient shares his results as 9400 sperm per µl.
i Show this result as per ml.
ii Would this patient be diagnosed as having a low sperm count?
d If a patient does not have a low sperm count, suggest one problem their sperm may have
that could cause the patient to be infertile.

11 a Explain what is meant by ‘ovulation’.

b Describe the stages of human reproduction from ovulation to fertilisation. Structure your
answer in a logical order.

Worked example
Compare the structure and function of a human egg cell and sperm cell.
When comparing, both the similarities and differences should be described, with both the egg cell
and sperm cell mentioned for each feature.
Both the egg cell and the sperm cell contain a nucleus, containing genetic material.
Both the egg cell and the sperm cell move; the egg from the ovary to the uterus, and the sperm from the
testis to the prostate gland (and to the vagina via the penis during intercourse).
However, whereas the sperm cell can move itself with its tail, the egg cell cannot move itself but is moved
along by hairs in the oviduct.
An egg cell is larger than a sperm cell (as it contains a food source).
More sperm are produced than eggs. Only one egg is released from the ovary each month, whereas
millions of sperm cells are released via the penis during ejaculation.

12 Compare reproduction and the reproductive systems in humans and flowering plants.

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 2 Reproduction

2.4 Puberty and the menstrual

cycle
You are learning to:
• describe and explain some of the changes in the male and female body
during puberty
• describe the process and function of the menstrual cycle
• apply the menstrual cycle to causes of infertility.

1 Fill the gaps using the words below.

hormones     reproduce     puberty
Between the ages of 8 and 16 years, human bodies change. This period of time is
called       .
The physical changes happen to allow a person to         .
These changes are controlled by chemicals called         .

2 Between which ages does puberty usually happen?

A between 4 and 12 years C between 16 and 24 years
B between 8 and 16 years D between 20 and 28 years

3 For each of the changes during puberty listed below, identify whether they take place in
males, females or both:
a testes grow c height growth spurt
b hips widen d menstruation starts.

4 How long is the menstrual cycle on average?

a 8–15 days c 34–42 days
b 24–35 days d 50–60 days

5 Blood is lost during menstruation. Where does this blood originate from?
vagina     ovary     uterus     egg

6 Choose one possible reason for infertility:

a releasing two eggs in one menstrual cycle
b having a menstrual cycle lasting for less than 28 days
c not releasing any eggs during the menstrual cycle
d slow breakdown of the uterus lining
7 The age for the start of menstruation ranges by five years.
a If the youngest age to start menstruation is approximately 10.5 years, what is the
approximate oldest age to start?
b If a girl has her first menstrual period at age 14 years, at what age could she become
pregnant?
8 Explain the reason for each of the changes caused by puberty:
a hips widen in girls c penis grows in boys
b breasts become bigger in girls d sperm is produced in boys.

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 Questions

9 Some changes in puberty are not directly linked to the physical process of reproduction. Other
changes in males include broadening of the shoulders, deepening of the voice and growth of
facial hair. Explain how these changes in males may help to support reproduction in humans.

10 Match the approximate days in the diagram to each stage of the menstrual cycle:

Day 5
Day 1

Day 14
Day 21

Approximate day Stage

1 a The lining of the uterus begins to build up and an egg
ripens in the ovary.
5 b The egg is released by the ovary. The uterus lining is ready
to receive a fertilised egg.
14 c The period (menstrual bleeding begins).
21 d The egg passes into the uterus. If it is unfertilised, it will die.

11 Dora and Karla are discussing pregnancy. Dora says that menstruation continues during
pregnancy. Karla says that periods stop when you are pregnant. State who is correct and
explain your answer.

12 a Describe the sequence from an egg ripening to it being fertilised. Link each step to days in
the menstrual cycle, assuming a cycle of 28 days.
b Explain why we can only estimate the date that an egg is fertilised.
c For a female who starts her periods on her 15th birthday, estimate how many eggs she has
released by the time she becomes pregnant at age 23 if her cycle is usually 28 days.
13 a A fertility consultant is working with a patient who has been trying to become pregnant
without success. For each of the following medical issues the consultant speaks to the
patient about, suggest how they could cause infertility:
i lack of ovulation
ii blockage in the oviduct
iii cysts growing around the ovary (endometriosis).
b Some fertility drugs increase the number of eggs that are produced each month.
i Suggest what type of chemical these drugs contain.
ii Suggest which of the conditions in part a could be treated with these drugs. Explain
your answer.

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 2 Reproduction

2.5 Development of a foetus and

the effect of lifestyle
You are learning to:
• describe the stages in the development of a foetus
• explain the role of the mother in supporting and protecting the developing
foetus
• discuss the factors affecting a developing foetus during pregnancy.

1 Arrange the following terms in order of development from least to most developed:
baby     fertilised egg     embryo     foetus

2 From the list below, choose three substances that pass across the placenta from the mother
to the foetus:
carbon dioxide     oxygen     glucose     urea     vitamins

3 What is so special about stem cells? Choose the best statement.

a They are the first cells to develop after fertilisation.
b They can develop into any specialised cells.
c They are larger than normal cells.
d They can perform special tasks. iv

4 Identify the parts using the

labels below. amnion
i
amniotic fluid
placenta
vagina ii cervix
umbilical cord
uterus wall
iii
mucus plug

5 A pregnant woman is having a scan of her developing foetus.

Gestation 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
(weeks)
Size (length) of 40 100 140 190 230 270 300 340 380
foetus (mm)

a The foetus measures 150 mm. What is the likely number of weeks of gestation? Give your
answer as a range.
b Suggest why we can only estimate the gestation of a foetus.
c Suggest one factor that might cause the foetus to be smaller than average.

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 Questions

6 Match each of the structures supporting the developing foetus with its role:
Structure Role
a umbilical cord i where nutrients, oxygen and waste products exchange between
the mother’s blood and the foetus’s blood
b placenta ii attaches the foetus to the placenta and contains blood vessels
c mucus plug iii protects the foetus from infections, bumps and knocks
d amniotic fluid iv prevents infections reaching the uterus

7 Explain how nicotine in a cigarette reaches the developing foetus of a mother as she smokes.
Give your answer as a logical sequence.

8 Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of the placenta allowing some substances to
pass across it.

9 In vitro fertilisation (IVF) can be used to help couples with fertility issues to have a baby.
During IVF, eggs may be collected from the female and mixed with sperm in a laboratory. The
fertilised eggs are grown in the laboratory for 6 days before being transferred into the uterus
of the female.
On average, cell division takes 18 hours.
a Why do we say ‘on average’ rather than an exact length of time?
b Estimate how many cells are present 6 days after the single egg is fertilised.

10 A study was carried out to investigate the effect of

smoking on the birth weight of babies. Data was 3600 Non-smokers
collected from 32 pregnant women, some non-smokers Smokers
and some smokers. 3400
a Decide whether each of these statements is ‘true’,
3200
‘false’ or ‘needs more information’.
Birth weight (g)

i For both smoking and non-smoking mothers, 3000

the general trend is that the longer the pregnancy,
the higher the baby’s birth weight. 2800

ii This study shows that women who do not smoke

2600
have babies with higher birth weights than the
babies of women that do smoke.
2400
iii In this study, the baby with the highest birth
weight was born at 40 weeks. 2200
32 34 36 38 40 42
iv Mothers who smoke a lot have a greater effect on Length of pregnancy (weeks)
birth weight than mothers who only smoke a little.
v For any length of pregnancy, non-smoking mothers always have babies with higher
birth weights than the babies of smoking mothers.
b Using the graph, comment on whether this data supports medical advice about smoking
while pregnant.
c Suggest one way that this research could be improved:
i to increase repeatability
ii to explore whether how much a pregnant mother smokes affects the birth weight.

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 2 Reproduction

Maths and practical skills

1 Aki has made a paper model of a seed dispersed by the wind. He measures how long the
model stays in the air for. Select the unit he should use for time taken:
minutes     days     hours     seconds

2 Match each word linked with practical investigations to its definition.

a This is a statement about what you think will happen. validity
b This means that the investigation is designed to collect evidence that prediction
can answer the question.
c We can improve this by repeating our experiment or by using a bigger repeatability
sample size.

3 A sonographer is carrying out an ultrasound scan of a foetus. The image on the screen
measures 27 cm. The magnification is ×3.
What is the actual size of the foetus? Show your answer in mm.

4 The table below shows data for the volume and number of pollen grains produced by wind-
pollinated and insect-pollinated plants.
Type of pollination Average volume of pollen Average number of pollen
grains (µm3) grains per flower
wind 490 14 000
insect 675 7000

Write a conclusion for this investigation about the pollen produced by wind-pollinated and
insect-pollinated plants.

5 The diameter of a human egg cell is measured to be 0.1 mm. The diameter of a human sperm
cell is measured to be 5.1 µm.
How much bigger is the egg cell than the sperm cell?

6 The table below shows the results of an investigation into the effect of sugar concentration on
pollen tube growth.
Concentration of 0 5 10 15 20 25
sugar (%)
Average length of 0 25 32 42 27 22
pollen tube (mm)

a Write a question that this investigation is designed to answer. Start the question with:
‘Does changing…’.
b Identify the range of sugar concentrations used in this investigation.
c The experiment at 0% concentration used pure water. Explain why this sample was
included in the investigation.

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 Questions

7 A team of researchers want to study the effect of age on amount of sperm produced. They
want to make sure that the investigation is valid.
a What does ‘valid’ mean?
b What data should they collect to ensure that the evidence is valid?
c In this investigation, name:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.

8 James and Lia carry out an investigation into the effect of the mass of a seed on how far
it travels. They make model seeds as shown in the diagram below:

rotor

rotor
cut

leg

weight

a Identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.
b Suggest how James and Lia could change the mass of their model seeds.
c Suggest suitable units in this investigation to measure:
i mass
ii distance.
d Part way through their experiment, James got hot and opened a window. Suggest why
this might affect the validity of their results.
e James and Lia predict that as the mass of the seeds is increased they will not travel as far.
Sketch a graph to show the trend that they might see in their results if their prediction is
correct.

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 2 Reproduction

Worked example
The graph below shows the effect of female age on the chance of becoming pregnant.
100
95
90
85
80
75
Chance of getting pregnant (%)
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 50+
Age of female (years)

a In this investigation, identify:

i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.
The independent variable is what we change.
The dependent variable is what we measure.
i age of female
ii chance of getting pregnant
b i Write a conclusion for this investigation.
ii Identify whether there are any anomalous results.
The conclusion must be linked to the title or aim of the investigation. Remember that this
question is about the effect of age on chances of getting pregnant. What is the trend shown
in the graph?
Do all the results fit the same pattern?
i As age increases, the chance of getting pregnant decreases.
ii There are no anomalous results, all fit the same pattern.
c Explain why it is important that a large sample was used in this investigation.
Think about whether all females are the same; would it be likely that all 20–24 year olds had
the same chance of getting pregnant?
Females within any age group will vary; by investigating a large sample it makes it more likely that
the result represents the average.

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 Questions

9 A study was carried out to investigate the effect of smoking on fertility in men. The following
chart shows the results.

Smoker
100

Sperm concentration
Non-smoker
90

(million/ml)
80
70
60
50
40
1 2 3 4 5
Groups

a In this investigation, identify:

i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.
b Controlling other factors can be challenging when working with humans, but suggest
one factor that you might want to keep the same between all the men studied.
c Explain why several (five) groups of men were studied.
d i Identify which group had an anomalous result.
ii Describe how an anomalous result should be treated when making conclusions.
e Write a conclusion for this investigation based on the data.

10 The histogram shows birth weight data for 188 babies.

115 were born to mothers who smoked and 73 to mothers who did not smoke.
Smoker
Non-smoker
30
Number of babies

25
20
15
10
5
0
15 0– 99
20 0– 99
25 0– 99
30 0– 99
35 0– 99
40 0– 99
45 0– 99
–4 99
9
99
0 –9
0 14
0 19
0 24
0 29
0 34
0 39
00 44
10 00
5

Birth weight (g)

a The researcher who collected the data predicted that the babies of non-smokers would
have higher birth weights than the babies of smokers.
i Provide two pieces of evidence from the graph that suggest the prediction was
incorrect.
ii Provide two pieces of evidence from the graph that suggest that smoking does cause
lower birth weight of babies.
b The researcher decides to collect further data and increases the sample size. Explain how
this will affect the repeatability of the data.
c In many investigations that we carry out, we control some variables.
i Explain why this is not possible in a study of this kind.
ii Apart from smoking, suggest one other factor that may affect the birth weight of
babies in this sample.

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 3 Health and human systems

3 Health and human systems

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

3.3 Effects
how animals get nutrition of recreational drugs
from what they eat • describe drug classification
• describe and explain effects
basic parts of the human • discuss impact of drug misuse
digestive system
3.2 Human digestive system
types of human teeth and • describe and explain
their functions digestion
how water and nutrients • explain role of organs
are transported within animals • explain roles of enzymes
and bacteria
the functions of the skeleton
and muscles
3.1 Healthy diet
the impact of diet, exercise, • describe components
drugs and lifestyle on • explain food group
the human body importance
• compare energy
needs

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

the human digestive system

metabolism
3.4 Human skeleton, joints and muscles
• identify bones health issues
s
on • describe and explain functions the effect of lifestyle on some
• describe the role of joints
cts non-communicable diseases
misuse • explain antagonistic muscles
• state forces exerted by muscles infection and response
3.5 Human respiration
breathing system
• identify parts the heart and blood vessels
• explain breathing in response to exercise
humans
• explain adaptations for
gas exchange
• explain importance of KS4
air pressure
• describe lung volume
measurement
• describe and explain impact
of disease and lifestyle

Maths and practical skills

making scientific predictions

present reasoned explanations
planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
calculating results and converting between different units
presenting data using tables and graphs
analysing data and identifying anomalous results
using equations to calculate answers

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 3 Health and human systems

3 Health and human

systems
The human body carries out a large number of processes without us even
thinking about them, such as moving, breathing and digesting our food.
Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, for example through eating a healthy diet
and avoiding recreational drugs, is essential to support these systems to
work effectively.

Why is what we eat important?

Each of the people below is using energy in different ways. Energy comes from the food we eat.
Suggest why an athlete, such as the swimmer, might have to strictly control their diet. List some
healthy foods that they might eat.

swimming running keeping warm

Why do people do harmful things to their bodies?

The images below show people smoking cigarettes. Explain why this can be harmful to the individual
smoker, a crowd around them and an unborn baby. If most people know that smoking is harmful,
suggest why so many people still do it.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a sports scientist?

You use your extensive ensures maximum strength
knowledge of how the human and efficient movement. You
body works to help people understand good nutrition and
improve their sporting ability. how best to meet energy needs
You work with individuals during different activities. You
or whole sports teams, so solve problems, for example
have good people skills and determining the best way to
can support and motivate recover from injuries, and are
others. Your understanding willing to learn about new sports coaches, dieticians and doctors,
of body systems, such as and their demands. as well as athletes, all with
the skeletal system, muscles As a sports scientist, you work as the same goal of maximising
and the breathing system, part of a team, for example with performance safely.

Physiotherapists treat
patients with injury or illness
that affects their movement.
They use manual therapy of
the body and also advise on
exercise to improve mobility
and to manage pain of the
patient. Personal trainers develop
Dieticians study information exercise routines to increase
about food and nutrition and the fitness, strength and
provide practical advice and mobility of clients. They ensure
guidance on a suitable diet for that exercises are suited to the
their patients. This could be individual and are carried out
to treat health problems or to using correct techniques to
prevent disease. minimise the risk of injury.

Occupational therapists
support patients who struggle
to carry out activities that
they previously managed, for
example due to old age or
illness leading to decreased
mobility. They ensure
that appropriate support
Prosthetists design and equipment is provided, such as Sports engineers design
fit prosthetic limbs to walking frames and rails, and equipment for the sports
patients, following guidance that equipment is used safely. industry. This is a wide-ranging
from doctors. They must role that involves research
understand the specific need and development of improved
of each patient and what will technologies, for example,
support their movement best, exercise bikes, running shoes
for example matching to the or technology to improve
real limb or being designed the measurement of lung
for a particular sport. capacity.

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 Cells
3 Health
and and
Organisation
human systems

Knowledge organiser
Food provides us with nutrients Food labels tell us about Energy in food is usually
and energy. Food contains chemical ingredients and energy. These measured in kilojoules (kJ)
energy. We need energy: help us to make informed but is sometimes shown as
• to grow • to move choices about what we eat. calories (cal). The amount of
energy we need varies.
• to repair • to keep warm.

A healthy human diet (balanced diet) contains The human digestive system contains many organs
seven food groups: of the body. Physical digestion and chemical
digestion take place here.
Food group Uses in the body 0 hours
carbohydrates Two types: starches and Food enters the mouth where it is chewed by the teeth, rolled
sugars. Provide energy. into a ball by the tongue and moistened by saliva ready
for swallowing.
proteins Important for growth
1 hour
and repair.
Food is swallowed and passes into the oesophagus which
lipids (fats Stored as a reserve carries the food to the stomach.
and oils) energy supply. A layer of
2 hours
fat under the skin The stomach breaks down food physically by muscle contraction
provides insulation and chemically by enzymes. The acid conditions kill bacteria
against cold. and help the enzymes to work.
minerals e.g. iron for red blood 6 hours Physical and chemical
cells and calcium for The small intestine digests the
digestion (by saliva)
mouth
bones. food further using different teeth
enzymes and absorbs it into tongue
vitamins e.g. vitamin C for repair the blood. oesophagus
of the skin and vitamin
10 hours Physical and
D for taking up calcium. chemical digestion
In the large intestine water is stomach
dietary fibre Needed to keep the absorbed to make the waste pancreas
large intestine working (faeces) more solid. Chemical digestion
small
well. 16–24 hours intestine

water Needed to stop a person The faeces are passed out

large
intestine
becoming dehydrated. through the anus. appendix
anus

Condition starvation obesity deficiency diseases

Cause not taking in taking in too lack of certain nutrients in the diet, such as
enough energy much energy vitamins and minerals
from food over a from food over
long period a long period
Possible weight loss, muscle heart disease, lack of vitamin C – scurvy
problems loss, dry hair and joint problems, lack of vitamin D – deformities such as rickets
skin, fatigue, death diabetes
lack of iron – anaemia (pale, severe exhaustion)

A drug is any substance that affects the way the body functions. Use of recreational drugs
Some drugs can be bought legally at a pharmacy (e.g. caffeine, nicotine, can lead to addiction.
alcohol, paracetamol). Legal drugs have been tested to check they are safe. This means that a person
finds it very difficult to
Other drugs are illegal (e.g. cannabis and heroin). Illegal drugs have not
stop using it. Examples
usually been checked for safety.
of addictive drugs
Prescription drugs are prescribed by a doctor to treat medical conditions. are nicotine, alcohol,
Any drugs not used for medical reasons are called recreational drugs. cocaine and heroin.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Organ How it is adapted to its function

oesophagus Contains rings of muscle that contract behind the bolus to move the food along.
stomach Contains muscles to squeeze the food. Secretes acid to kill bacteria. Contains an
enzyme to digest protein.
pancreas Releases enzymes that digest carbohydrates, protein and fats.
small Contains muscles to move the food along the tube and enzymes to complete digestion.
intestine Has thin walls and a good blood supply to help absorption of nutrients into blood.

Enzymes are ‘biological catalysts’: they speed up reactions without being used up themselves.

Food group Carbohydrate (starch) Proteins Fats

Product of digestion glucose amino acids fatty acids + glycerol
Enzyme involved amylase protease lipase
Where the enzyme is found mouth and small intestine stomach and small intestine
small intestine

Key vocabulary
addiction physical or psychological dependence on a substance
anus the opening at the end of the digestive tract, where faeces leave the body
calories the unit of energy in food, shown on food packaging labels
carbohydrates the food group that includes starches and sugars
chemical digestion the breakdown of food by enzymes
deficiency disease an illness caused by a lack of a certain nutrient
dietary fibre the food group needed to move food along the large intestine
digestion the breakdown of food from larger to smaller molecules (to use to release energy)
drug any chemical that affects the way that the body works
enzyme a substance that speeds up reactions in the body; biological catalyst
faeces the solid waste released through the anus
kilojoule (kJ) a unit of energy, 1000 joules
large intestine the organ of the digestive system where water is absorbed into the body
lipids (fats) the food group that is important for energy stores
minerals elements such as iron and calcium needed in the diet
nutrient a substance in food that we need to eat to stay healthy
obesity a medical condition in which the amount of body fat is so high that it harms
health
oesophagus the tube within the digestive system from the mouth to the stomach
pancreas the organ of the digestive system that produces enzymes
physical digestion mechanical digestion of food
proteins the food group important for growth and repair
recreational drug any drug, legal or illegal, used for its effects rather than any medical reason
saliva the liquid produced in the mouth that helps swallowing and digestion
small intestine the organ of the digestive system where food is digested and molecules absorbed
into the blood
stomach the organ of the digestive system where most food breakdown takes place
vitamins important nutrients needed in very small quantities in our diet

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 Cells
3 Health
and and
Organisation
human systems

The human skeleton has four main roles: The human skeleton cranium
• it supports the body is made of jaw
206 bones. Some clavicle
• it protects the organs (e.g. cranium
are very small. scapula
protects the brain) sternum
Vertebrate animals ribs
• it allows movement (at joints)
have a backbone; humerus
• it produces blood cells the scientific name vertebrae

(in bone marrow). for the bones in the

radius
ulna
back is vertebrae. pelvis

Joints occur where bones meet.

tendons attach ligaments attach femur

muscles to bones bones to bones

muscle
tendon ligaments tibia

bone fibula
joint joint capsule

The human breathing system is There are four types of joint in the human skeleton:
within the chest cavity. 1 ball and socket 2 hinge joint, as in 3 pivot joint, as 4 fixed joint, such as
joint, as in the elbow in the neck those in the cranium,
the hip do not allow
movement
trachea
(or windpipe)
bronchus
bronchiole
alveoli
left lung
ribcage
diaphragm
Changes in volume in the chest
Breathing is brought about by space during breathing in and During breathing
in, muscles in the
movements of the ribcage and breathing out causes changes in ribcage contract, breathing in
moving the ribcage
diaphragm. pressure in the lungs. up and out. The
diaphragm
contracts and chest expands
• When the chest volume is flattens. This
increases the
Skeletal muscles can only contract high, the air pressure inside volume in the
sternum
lungs and air
(pull), they cannot push. the chest space is low. rushes into
ribs

the lungs. lung

When a muscle pulls (contracts), • When the chest volume is diaphragm
it gets shorter; when it relaxes, it low, the air pressure inside contracts

returns to its original length. the chest space is high.

Most muscles work as antagonistic • Just before breathing
pairs: when one of the pair in, pressure in the lungs
During breathing
out, muscles in the
breathing out
contracts, the other relaxes. falls below atmospheric
ribcage relax and
the ribcage moves
down and in. The
lower arm moves up lower arm moves down pressure, so air rushes into diaphragm relaxes
and moves up. This chest contracts
the lungs. decreases the
volume in the
relaxed
biceps muscle • Just before breathing out, lungs and air
rushes out of
pressure in the lungs rises the lungs.
diaphragm
contracting
triceps muscle
above atmospheric pressure, relaxes

so air rushes out of the lungs.

contracting Pressure is measured in pascals, Pa.
biceps muscle
relaxed
triceps muscle
1L Lung volume can be measured in the
Exercising muscles makes them breathe
2L
out classroom by displacing water. As you
stronger. The strength of muscles can 3L
breathe out strongly through the tube,
be measured in newtons, N.
4L
hose water is displaced. The volume of water
5L

displaced is equal to your lung volume.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Gases are exchanged between air inside the Key vocabulary

alveoli and our blood in capillaries outside
alveoli (singular where gas exchange happens in the
the alveoli. This happens by diffusion.
alveolus) lungs
Oxygen (for respiration) moves from the
alveoli to blood; carbon dioxide (from antagonistic pair of muscles that work together
respiration) moves from the blood to alveoli. pair to move bones at a joint; as one
(of muscles) contracts, the other relaxes
air in, air out,
oxygen rich carbon dioxide rich
atmospheric the pressure exerted by the
pressure surrounding air
alveoli in
the lungs biceps the muscle in the front of the upper
arm
oxygen carried by
red blood cells bone marrow a soft substance at the centre of large
bones, where blood cells are made
cells in bronchioles passageways that carry air from the
the body bronchus to the alveoli
carbon dioxide carried, bronchus the tube that carries air between the
dissolved in blood trachea and the lungs
Alveoli are adapted to their function by capillary a small blood vessel
having:
contract to become shorter; when a muscle
• a large surface area for gases to pass across shortens in makes a pulling motion
• a thin lining
diaphragm the muscular layer at the base of the
• a good supply of capillaries to bring and chest cavity
take away blood.
joint the place where two bones meet;
Some behaviours and diseases can affect our allows movement
breathing system:
ligament connects one bone to another bone;
Factor Impact Effect made of stretchy fibres
exercise positive increases lung volume lung one of two bag-like organs that are
as the muscles in the main breathing structures
between the ribs are
lung volume the volume of air that can be
strengthened
breathed out following a big breath in
asthma negative decreases volume of
air moved in and out muscle a tissue of the body that can contract
of lungs due to and relax to produce motion; consists
narrowing of of long cells
bronchioles as they pascal (Pa) unit of pressure
become inflamed
relax lengthening of a muscle, to return to
smoking negative tar: may cause lung its original length
cancer; damages tiny
hairs in bronchioles skeleton the framework made of bone that
meaning smoke and supports the soft tissues of the body
dirt can enter the and protects the internal organs
lungs, causes smokers’ tendon connects muscle to bone; made of
cough stretchy fibres
carbon monoxide: trachea (or the tube that connects the mouth to
decreases the amount windpipe) the bronchi in the lungs
of oxygen that blood
can carry triceps the muscle in the back of the upper
arm
vertebrate an organism having a backbone

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 3 Health and human systems

3.1 Healthy diet

You are learning to:
• describe the components of a healthy diet
• explain the importance of each food group within the body and some of
the deficiencies caused by a lack of specific nutrients
• compare energy needs of different people and suggest healthy ways of
meeting these needs.

1 Choose the correct sentence ending.

A healthy diet is a diet that:
a does not contain any fat.
b contains the same amount of fat and protein.
c contains all the food groups in different amounts.
d contains carbohydrate, protein, minerals and vitamins.

2 A healthy diet contains seven food groups. Complete the list using the first letter given for
each group:
carbohydrates
fats and oils
water
a p________
b v________
c m________
d f________

3 Match the use in the body to the correct food group.

a enables growth and repair i water
b stores energy ii carbohydrate
c keeps the body hydrated, which is important for iii protein
many body processes
d provides energy iv fat

4 Find the best match between each food group and a food that supplies it.
a protein i pasta
b fibre ii vegetables
c water iii fish
d carbohydrate iv herbal tea

5 Three patients have each been diagnosed with a different deficiency disease, but their notes
have been mixed up.
a Identify which of the patients is likely to have anaemia, rickets or scurvy.
Patient Deficiency detected Disease
i iron ___________
ii vitamin D ___________
iii vitamin C ___________

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 Questions

b For each condition, suggest one symptom that the patient may have:
i rickets
ii scurvy.
c The medical notes for one patient say that they should eat lots of spinach, liver, beans and
pulses. Suggest which condition this patient has.

Worked example
A student has been given two samples of food and asked to decide which is milk powder
and which is fruit juice. He tests each for protein. The table below shows the test for protein.
Food group Chemical used to test Positive result
protein biuret solution colour change from blue to mauve
The results are: a Which of the sample(s) contains protein?
b Which of the samples is likely to be milk powder? Explain your
answer.
c Name a food group that the fruit juice contains that could be
tested for.
a B
b B, because milk contains protein and fruit juice does not.
c sugar (carbohydrate)
A B

6 Food tests are used to work out the food types that food samples contain. The table below
shows the tests for two carbohydrates: starch and sugar.
Food group Chemical used in test Positive result
starch iodine colour change from orange to blue/black
sugar Benedict’s solution colour change from blue to orange

The diagrams show the results for two food samples for each test.
Test for starch Test for sugar

sample A sample B

sample A sample B

a Write a conclusion for each sample.

b One of the samples was bread and the other was honey. Suggest which was A and which
was B.

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 3 Health and human systems

7 a Some people believe a Mediterranean diet is linked to good health and a lowered risk of
heart disease. It includes fats from healthy sources.
Choose one of the fats that you would recommend to someone wanting to eat a
Mediterranean diet.
i olive oil
ii butter
iii fried chicken
iv chocolate bar
b A TV programme gives the message that to be healthy you need to remove fats from your
diet. Explain why this message is incorrect and why it is often believed that fat is not
good for us.

Worked example
The image shows the nutritional information on a food label.
a Name the two units of energy shown in this label.
These are listed under the ‘energy’ headings.
kilojoules and kilocalories
The traffic light system indicates whether foods contain low,
medium or high amounts of any of the food groups, compared
to the recommended daily amount.

b Name which food type this food contains in:

i high amounts __________
ii low amounts __________.
Red shows ‘high’ and green shows ‘low.’
i sugars
ii fat (or saturated fat)

One portion of this food contains 0.9 g of salt. This is 15% of the daily recommended amount.
c Calculate the total daily recommended amount of salt.
If 0.9 g is 15%, what would 100% be?
15% of the daily recommended amount = 0.9 g

1% of the daily recommended amount = 0.9 g

15
0.9
100% of the daily recommended amount = ( ) × 100 = 6 g
15

8 A tin of pasta in tomato sauce has a label with nutritional information.

a Explain two reasons why it is important that foods are labelled accurately with both the
ingredients and the nutritional information.
b The energy in the food is shown in calories. A portion contains 180 calories and the tin
contains three portions. Calculate how many calories there are in this whole tin.
c In a portion of this food, there are 1210 mg of sodium. Convert this to show how many
grams one portion contains.
d A portion contains 15 mg of cholesterol, which is 5% of the daily recommended amount.
Calculate the total daily recommended amount of cholesterol.

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 Questions

sta
9 A dietician is advising a patient on how to eat more

rc rea
healthily. The image shows an ‘eat well plate’,

hy
b
es

f o , pa
designed to help people to eat the different food

bl

od sta
ta

ss
types in the recommended proportions.

ge

uc
ve

h
d
a Using the ‘eat well plate’, list the food types in

as
an
its
order of the relative amounts that should make up

fru
an average meal for the patient, from most to
least.
b Based on the ‘eat well plate’, approximately what
fraction of a meal should be made up of dairy
s
products? Choose from the fractions below: ct

pr
u
od

ot
pr

ein
1 1 1 1 ry
ai

s
2 4 6 10 foods high d
c For each food named below, name two of the in fat and
food groups that each fits into: sugar

i cheese
ii butter
iii doughnut
d The guidance for the ‘eat well plate’ states that ‘this shows the proportion of each type of
food that should be included in an average meal.’ Suggest why the word ‘average’ is used.

10 Daniel and Tamara are both obese and are seeking advice to
help them to lose weight. The average man is thought to need BREAD Nutrition
approximately 10 500 kJ of energy per day. The average woman Typical values 1 2 Each slice
100g (typically 44g %
is thought to need approximately 8400 kJ of energy per day. contains contains) RI*
Energy 985kJ 435kJ
235kcal 105kcal 5%
a Describe three ways that losing weight might benefit Fat 1.5g 0.7g 1%
of which saturates 0.3g 0.1g 1%
Daniel and Tamara. Carbohydrate 45.5g 20.0g
of which sugars 3.8g 1.7g 2%

b E xplain why the energy needs per day for a man and Fibre
Protein
2.8g
7.7g
.2g
3.4g

woman are described as ‘average’. Salt 1.0g 0.4g 7%

The food labels on the right show the nutrition information

labels from bread and butter. BUTTER
c i Tamara loves buttered toast and is quite fussy about Nutrition Facts
other foods. Calculate how many slices of buttered toast Serving size 1 Tbsp (14 g)
Servings per container 32
Tamara could eat per day to stay within her 8400 kJ
target. Amount per serving
Calories 100 kJ 420kJ
ii Tamara decides that she can eat just toast and lose % Daily values
weight by staying under her 8400 kJ target. Total Fat 11g 17%
Saturated Fat 7g 35%
Provide advice to Tamara explaining why she should not Trans Fat 0g
Cholesterol 30mg 10%
just eat buttered toast. Suggest some other food groups Sodium 0mg 0%
that would be good to introduce into her diet, and Total Carbohydrate 0g 0%
Protein 0g 0%
explain why.
Vitamin A 8%
 ome food labels show the energy content of food in calories as
S Not a significant source of dietary fibre, sugars,
vitamin C, calcium and iron.
well as, or instead of, kilojoules.
1 calorie = 4.2 kJ
d Calculate the energy needs per day in calories of:
i an average man
ii an average woman.

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 3 Health and human systems

3.2 Human digestive system

You are learning to:
• describe and explain the process of digestion
• explain the roles of the organs of the digestive system and how they are
adapted to function
• explain the roles of enzymes and bacteria in digestion.

1 Choose one sentence ending.

The role of digestion is to:
a remove waste from the body.
b break down large molecules into smaller ones.
c chew food.
d make us feel full by eating.

2 Name the organ of the digestive system where digestion is completed.

3 Choose the type of energy stored in food.

chemical light sound heat

4 Identify the organ that is involved in digestion but the food does not pass through it.

small intestine   stomach  oesophagus  pancreas

5 On the diagram, identify the part where:

i waste leaves the body
ii products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream d
iii waste (faeces) becomes more solid c
iv food is churned and acid is produced. b

6 Probiotic yogurts contain live microorganisms. They are

a
recommended as a way of supporting digestion. Suggest why.

7 An enzyme that digests proteins is being investigated. Protein solution is mixed with the
enzyme solution at different pHs and the amount of digestion compared.
Results show that the enzyme can only digest proteins when in an acidic solution, and not in a
neutral or alkaline solution.
a Identify the independent variable in this investigation.
b Describe two control variables.
c Suggest which part of the digestive system this enzyme works in naturally. Explain your
answer.
8 a Explain what is meant by:
i physical digestion ii chemical digestion.
b Name a part of the digestive system where:
i only chemical digestion takes place
ii both chemical and physical digestion takes place.
c Do bacteria support us with physical or chemical digestion?

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 Questions

9 Digestion of food is completed in the small intestine. The small intestine has several
adaptations.
a The wall of the small intestine contains muscle. Explain why.
Digested food molecules move through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream.
b Food molecules move from where there is a higher concentration (in the small intestine) to
where there is a lower concentration (in the bloodstream). What is the name of this process?
c Explain how the adaptations labelled i, ii and iii on iii many folds of the small
intestine lining (villi)
the diagram of the wall of the small intestine help the
movement of food molecules. i thin walls

d Digestion is complete by the time the food has

passed through the small intestine, but the waste still ii blood supply
then passes through the large intestine and the anus. close to the
small intestine
Explain the purpose of the:
i large intestine ii anus.

Worked example
a Name two food groups found in steak.
protein and fats
The diagram below shows how proteins are digested.
large protein smaller amino
molecule enzyme cuts acid molecules
bonds

b Name the enzyme that breaks down the protein.

protease
c Name two parts of the digestive system where the protein in the steak could be digested.
stomach and small intestine
d Enzymes are ‘catalysts’. What does this mean?
Enzymes speed up reactions.
e Lipase enzyme breaks down fats. Explain why mixing lipase enzyme with protein does not
result in an increase in amino acids.
First, try to explain why lipase enzymes can break down fats. What is it about enzymes that
means they could not break down a different food?
Enzymes are ‘specific’. This means that they can only catalyse one type of reaction. This is due to the
shape of the enzyme and the molecules that they break down.

10 A boy eats a meal of pasta.

a Identify the main food group of pasta.
Enzymes will help to digest the pasta.
b Explain why the pasta needs to be digested.
c Name the enzyme that will digest the pasta and the products of digestion.
d Enzymes are ‘specific’. What does this mean?
e The boy has a rare condition where his body does not make enough enzyme to digest the
food molecules in pasta. Suggest why this might lead to him feeling tired.
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 3 Health and human systems

3.3 Effects of recreational drugs

You are learning to:
• describe how we can classify drugs and give examples
• describe and explain the effects of some recreational drugs
• discuss the impact of drug misuse on health and behaviour.

1 Choose one sentence ending.

A drug is:
a any chemical that causes harm. c any chemical that affects the way the body works.
b any chemical that cures disease. d any chemical that you can become addicted to.

2 Drugs can be grouped into similar types. Use the words given below to complete the
statements.
hallucinogens   stimulants   painkillers   depressants
a _________ relieve pain. c _________ slow down body systems.
b _________ speed up body systems. d _________ cause us to see things that do not exist.

3 Match the drug types to the examples.

a painkiller i alcohol
b stimulant ii nicotine
c depressant iii LSD
d hallucinogen iv paracetamol

4 a Explain what is meant by ‘recreational drugs’.

b Why might people take recreational drugs?
5 Drugs affect systems of the body both positively and negatively. The drugs below can all be
addictive. For each of the drugs below, select the effect it may have on the body.

a codeine i brain activity and alertness increased, temporary energy increased

b heroin ii nervous system slowed down, relaxed feelings
c cocaine iii brain chemicals affected, see or believe things that are not real
d psilocybin mushrooms iv pain messages are blocked, feel less or no pain

e Explain why drugs having the effects of both ii and iv might be used when someone is
having an operation.
6 Drugs such as tranquillisers (sleeping tablets) can lead to addiction over time and can cause
harmful side-effects.
Explain why drugs such as these are prescribed, despite having harmful side-effects.

7 Most drugs cause side-effects.

a Explain what is meant by ‘side-effect’.
b Painkillers are used to help treat the painful condition of the joints called arthritis.
Painkillers can cause problems in the gut, such as nausea, vomiting and constipation. Why
do doctors still prescribe these painkillers with the risk of causing these gut problems?

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 Questions

c A group of university students are studying for exams and decide to drink lots of strong
coffee to help them to stay awake to revise.
i Name the drug that coffee contains that could keep them awake.
ii Describe and explain the side-effects of the drug to the students, to persuade them
that it would not be a good idea to continue this for a long time.

8 A research scientist is investigating the potential side-effects of a new energy drink. They ask
volunteers to drink a small amount every day for 2 weeks and to record any effects that they
experience from a list, e.g. headache, more energy, increased hunger.
a Explain why it is important to include a large sample size.
b Which of the following does increasing the sample size improve?
i repeatability  ii accuracy  iii precision  iv range
c The trial also includes a group of volunteers who do not sample the drink at all. Explain the
purpose of this group.
An improvement is suggested to include ‘blind trials.’ This means that some volunteers would
drink the energy drink whereas others would drink a different drink. None of the volunteers
would know which drink they had.
d Suggest why this would be a good improvement to the investigation.

9 Cannabis is illegal in the UK. It is used as a recreational drug by smoking it.

In some parts of the world, it is legal to use cannabis. Some patients with conditions that
cause long-term pain claim that cannabis eases their pain.
Cannabis falls into two drug categories: depressant and hallucinogen.
a Explain the possible side-effects of cannabis.
Some people believe that cannabis should be legalised and so be freely available. Others
believe that it should not be legalised.
b Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using cannabis and of making cannabis
available legally.

10 a L ong-term recreational drug use can lead to addiction. For example, heroin use may lead
to heroin addiction. Discuss how this heroin addiction can be damaging to:
i the drug user’s health   ii the drug user’s family   iii society more widely.
b Like heroin, alcohol is also a depressant drug that is addictive. Some people argue that
alcohol is damaging to the health of more people than heroin. Suggest why they might
think this.

11 The data below shows the number of deaths caused by drugs in 2011 in England.
ecstasy plus cocaine plus heroin plus 255
other drugs other drugs 122 other drugs
20
6 17 130

ecstasy cocaine heroin

a Using evidence from the data, write a conclusion about which drug causes the most
deaths by itself.
b Using evidence from the data, comment on the risk of death from taking more than
one drug.
c The cost of all three of these drugs has decreased since 2011. Suggest what effect this
might have on the numbers of deaths.

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 3 Health and human systems

3.4 Human skeleton, joints and

muscles
You are learning to:
• identify bones of the human skeleton
• describe and explain the function of the human skeleton and muscles
• describe the role of joints and the movement that each allows
• explain how antagonistic muscles work together to bring about movement
at joints
• state that the force exerted by muscles can be measured.

1 The skeleton supports the body and produces blood cells. Choose two other functions from
this list:
a allows movement
b makes the body rigid
c protects the organs
d produces egg cells.

2 How can you increase the strength of your muscles?

a eat more protein
b rest the muscles
c exercise the muscles
d eat less fat

3 Name the part of the body that each part of the skeleton protects.
a cranium i reproductive organs
b ribs ii spinal cord
c pelvis iii brain
d backbone iv lungs

4 Match the names of the bones to the labels, A–D: A

i fibula
ii radius
B
iii pelvis
C
iv clavicle.

5 The hand has 27 bones. What is the benefit of

having so many bones?
a to make it strong D
b so that there is less chance of breaking a bone
c to allow us to rotate our fingers
d to increase flexibility

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 Questions

6 Match the scientific name to the common name of each bone.

a sternum i thigh bone
b humerus ii skull
c femur iii breast bone
d cranium iv upper arm bone

7 Bones are made of different substances, as shown in the the spongy layer allows
diagram. the outside of the
bones to bend slightly and
gives the bone lower mass
bone is made of hard than a solid bone would be
a Why is it important for the outside of bones to be minerals, such as
hard? calcium

b i Why is it helpful for the spongy layer to allow the

bones to bend slightly?
ii How does the lower mass affect how well we at the centre of
move? large bones is
soft marrow
c What is made in the bone marrow?
d Many bird bones have a larger proportion of spongy
layer than human bones. Suggest why.

8 In the human skeleton, joints are either fixed or moveable. We have three types of moveable
joint: hinge, pivot, and ball and socket.
a Define a ‘joint’ in the skeleton.
b Which type of joint is each of the following?:
i cranium
ii hip
iii elbow
iv neck
c Explain why it is important to have:
i fixed joints
ii different types of moveable joints.

9 Human bone remains can be used to find out information about the person that they came
from.
The length of a femur can be used to predict the height of the person, using the equation:

height (cm) = (length of femur (cm) × 2.6) + 0.65

a A human femur is found at an archaeological dig. The femur is 43.5 cm long.

i Predict the height of the person rounded to the nearest cm.
ii Show your answer in m.
b Other evidence suggests that the remains are most likely of a teenage boy. Explain why
the estimate of height may not be accurate.

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 3 Health and human systems

10 Most muscles work in pairs, in which case they are called antagonistic muscles.
a Explain what is meant by ‘antagonistic muscles’.
To lift the upper leg up, the quadriceps (thigh) muscle contracts.
hamstring quadriceps

b Describe what happens to the following when the quadriceps contracts:
i the length and breadth of the quadriceps
ii the quadriceps’ antagonistic muscle (the hamstring).
c Once the upper leg is lifted (as in 10a), describe and explain how the upper leg then
lowers again, using the following words in your answer:
quadriceps hamstring contracts relaxes shortens and fattens

Worked example
An investigation was carried out to find out whether a person’s mass affects the strength of their leg
muscles.
The mass of weights that could be pushed with the legs was measured for 6 males and a force
calculated for each. The results are shown below.
Mass of male (kg) Force exerted by leg muscles (N)
59 290
72 440
76 80
64 380
88 600
82 520

a Redraw the results table in a way that makes it easier to draw conclusions about how mass
affects the force exerted by muscles.
Sometimes, reordering the results makes it easier to look for a pattern. As this investigation
focuses on the effect of mass, we should order the masses logically.
Mass of male (kg) Force exerted by leg muscles (N)
59 290
64 380
72 440
76 80
82 520
88 600

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 Questions

b i Identify the anomalous result in the data.

ii When analysing these results to make a conclusion, what would you do about this anomalous
result?
Spotting an anomalous result is important. Just as important is deciding how to treat anomalous
results.
It is worth considering whether you think there may have been an error in taking the reading.
b i The result for the 76 kg man.
ii Either repeat the reading in case there was an error or ignore that result when making a conclusion.

c What conclusion can you make from this investigation?

As the mass of a male increases, the force exerted by the leg muscles increases.

11 A group of scientists collect data about muscle strength in people of different ages.
For each age, they test 10 people and then calculate the average upper body strength. The
table below shows the results.

Gender Age Force exerted by

upper body (N)
Female child 10 14
Female child 15 26
Female 30 38
Female 45 26
Male child 10 17
Male child 15 30
Male 32 68
Male 45 68

a What does ‘N’ represent in the final column?

b i 
Explain why the average force of 10 people is shown rather than just the result from
one person.
ii Within the 10 repeat readings from one age group, describe what the tester should do
if one result is anomalous (doesn’t fit with the other results).
c Decide which two are supported by the data.
i Children have less upper body strength than adults.
ii As adult males age, they lose upper body strength.
iii Males have greater upper body strength than females.
iv As adult females age, they lose upper body strength.

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 3 Health and human systems

3.5 Human breathing system

You are learning to:
• identify the parts of the human breathing system
• explain how breathing takes place in humans
• explain how the breathing system is adapted for gas exchange
• explain the importance of air pressure in bringing about breathing
• describe how lung volume can be measured
• describe and explain the impact of disease and lifestyle on the breathing system.

1 Choose the correct sequence to describe the movement of air into the body.

a trachea; bronchus; bronchioles; alveoli; blood
b trachea; bronchioles; bronchus; alveoli; blood
c trachea; bronchioles; alveoli; bronchus; blood
d bronchus; trachea; bronchioles; alveoli; blood

2 Which of the following has a positive effect on breathing?

a cancer
b exercise
c asthma
d smoking

3 Arrange the following in order of estimated lung size, from smallest to biggest.
A adult male
B adult female
C baby
D 10-year-old child

4 Complete the sentences to show how we breathe in.

a The ribs move _________ (up and out / down and in).
b The diaphragm moves _________ (up / down).
c The volume of the chest _________ (increases / decreases).
d Air rushes _________ (into / out of) the lungs.

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 Questions

5 Name the process by which gases move between the alveoli and blood.
a breathing
b respiration
c excretion
d diffusion

6 The diagram shows a model of the breathing system.

bung
glass tubing

A
bell jar

balloons

elastic
membrane

a In this model, what represents:

i the lungs?
ii the diaphragm?
iii the trachea?
b When thinking how breathing takes place, this model does not represent the ribcage well.
Suggest one reason why.

7 a Match each change in volume to the effect on pressure by choosing the correct word in
each statement.
i Increased volume in the lungs leads to (increased/decreased) pressure.
ii Decreased volume in the lungs leads to (increased/decreased) pressure.
b What is the unit of measurement for atmospheric pressure?

8 An investigation was carried out to compare the lung volumes of men of different ages.
The results are shown in the table below.
Age (years) 25 30 35 40
Lung volume 1 (l) 6.0 5.7 6.3 6.2
Lung volume 2 (l) 5.6 5.8 6.1 6.0
Lung volume 3 (l) 5.8 5.6 6.5 3.4
Average lung
A B C (see part b)
volume (l)

a Calculate the missing values A, B and C.

b In the results for the male aged 40 years, one of the results is anomalous.
i State which result is anomalous.
ii Calculate the average lung volume result for the male aged 40 years (decide what to
do with the anomalous result).
c Suggest one other factor about these men that may have affected their lung volume.

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 3 Health and human systems

Worked example
The effect of smoking on fitness was investigated. Fitness levels of people who had smoked for
different lengths of time were compared.
Volunteers were grouped as below:
• smoked 0–2 years
• smoked 2–5 years
• smoked 6–10 years
• smoked more than 10 years
A control group was also created.
a In the investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
length of time as a smoker
ii the dependent variable.
fitness level
b i Apart from length of time smoking, name three other factors that could affect results.
Any three factors from: age; gender; current physical activity; number of cigarettes smoked per day.
ii Suggest how you could ensure that any one of the factors does not affect the investigation.
If there are other factors that could vary within a group and could affect the results you
should try to control them (note this is not always keeping them the same).
For example, choose volunteers who have:
similar ages
same gender
similar levels of activity in everyday life
similar numbers of cigarettes smoked per day
c Suggest what the control group should contain.
A control group is included as a way of ensuring that any differences measured are due to the
factor being investigated.
The control group should contain non-smokers.

a
9  What is meant by ‘lung volume’?
b When measuring lung volume, explain why you should take a deep breath in before the
breath out.
c Researchers carried out a long-term investigation into the effect of exercise on lung
volume. Lung volume was measured at the start of the investigation and then every 3
months, for each of two groups of people.
• Group 1 carried out regular aerobic exercise (such as running) over a year.
• Group 2 carried out no additional exercise.
i Explain why it was important that this investigation was carried out over a long time
(one year).
ii Why was lung volume measured at the start of the investigation for Group 1?
iii Group 2 is a ‘control group’. Explain why it is important to include a control group in
this investigation.
Average results showed that Group 1 increased lung volume whereas Group 2 did not.
iv Write a conclusion for this investigation.
v Explain what changes occur in the breathing system with regular exercise that increases
lung volume.
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 Questions

10 Once air enters into alveoli, oxygen passes across into the bloodstream. Alveoli have
adaptations.
a Explain how each adaptation supports gas exchange:
i large surface area
ii thin surface
iii surrounded by many blood capillaries.
b The diagram shows the ‘bumpy’ surface produced by the alveoli. If the surface was
smooth instead, which of the adaptations listed in part a (i, ii or iii) would be affected?

alveoli in
the lungs

cells in the
body

c i Name the gas that passes from the blood into the alveoli.
ii What is the name of the process that uses the oxygen and produces the carbon dioxide?
11 Breathing is brought about by differences between the pressure of the air in the lungs and the
pressure of the air around us (atmospheric pressure). Change of pressure in the lungs is caused
by a change in volume of the lungs.
a Explain what happens to the following just before we breathe in:
i the volume of the lungs
ii the pressure inside the lungs
iii the pressure inside the lungs compared to the pressure of the air around us
iv the movement of air in or out of the lungs.
b The pressure in the lungs for one man is recorded as a minimum of 3.8 kPa and a
maximum of 9.5 kPa.
i Calculate the overall change in pressure during breathing in and out for this man.
Show your answer in Pa.
ii Which of these two values would occur just before the man breathes out?
c Predict the overall movement of air if the pressure inside the chest is equal to atmospheric
pressure.

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 3 Health and human systems

Maths and practical skills

1 What is a lung volume of 3.9 l in ml?
a 0.0039 ml
b 39 ml
c 390 ml
d 3900 ml

2 Using the food label below, calculate the energy in 300 g of beef liver.

BEEF LIVER NUTRITIONAL VALUE PER 100 G

ENERGY
127 KCAL

PROTEIN
17.9 G

CARBOHYDRATES
5.3 G

FAT
3.7 G

VITAMINS
A, B1, B2, B4, B5,
B6, B9, B12, C, D, E, H, K, PP

MINERALS
K, CA, MG, NA, S, P, CL, FE, I, CO,
MN, CU, MO, NI, SE, F, CR, ZN

3 In an investigation into the effect of temperature on the time taken for an enzyme reaction,
which two units of measurement would be used?
a N and s
b °C and ml
c g and ml
d °C and s

4 The graph shows the rate at which an enzyme works

at different temperatures. At what temperature
Rate of enzyme digestion

does this enzyme work best?

a 12 °C
b 20 °C
c 37 °C
d 60 °C

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (°C)

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 Questions

Worked example
Some students are investigating the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. They mix an enzyme
solution with full-fat milk and measure the time taken for the fats to be broken down.
a What is the name of the enzyme used in this reaction?
lipase
b In the investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
The independent variable is what is changed.
temperature
ii the dependent variable
The dependent variable is what is measured.
time taken
iii two control variables.
Control variables are those that you monitor or try to keep the same as they could affect the
results.
concentration of enzyme solution; volume of milk

5 In an investigation to study the effect of different types of exercise on breathing rate, identify:
a the independent variable
b the dependent variable.

6 A girl uses the apparatus below to measure her lung volume.

breathe 1l
out
2l

3l

hose 4l

5l

water

a What is the lung volume of the girl?

b How would the result be affected if the girl took a bigger breath in before repeating the
measurement?

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 3 Health and human systems

7 Foods are being tested to determine which food groups they contain. The following shows the
positive test results to look for:
starch – iodine changes from orange to blue/black
sugar – Benedict’s solution changes from blue to orange
protein – Biuret solution changes from blue to mauve
The table below shows the results for some unknown samples.
Food sample Starch test Sugar test Protein test
observation observation observation
A blue/black blue blue
B orange orange blue
C orange blue mauve

a List the food groups contained within samples A, B and C.

b Identify which of the samples is most likely to be:
i honey
ii egg white
iii pasta.
c Ethanol is used to test for fat. Why is a water bath needed to heat the solution?
i ethanol is an irritant
ii ethanol is flammable
iii ethanol is poisonous
iv ethanol needs to be diluted

8 The image below shows an old advert for cigarettes. When this advert was made, the dangers
of cigarettes were not understood.
a Cigarettes contain nicotine. What type of drug is
nicotine?
b Explain how thinking has changed since this advert
about the possible harmful effects of nicotine.
c Many cigarette companies used doctors, nurses
and dentists on their adverts. Suggest why they
believed that this would help to sell more of their
cigarettes.
In the 1950s, research suggested that smoking was
linked with cancer. Some of the cigarette companies
then funded research to try and show that this was not
true.
d Explain why it could be an issue that the cigarette
companies funded this research.

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 Questions

9 A class is using a model to investigate how

start after 5 min
oxygen passes from the alveoli in the lungs
into the bloodstream by diffusion.
They soaked a piece of agar gel (jelly-like solid)
in red food colouring. They put the piece of
agar gel into a beaker of water and observed it
every 5 minutes for 20 minutes.
a In this model, what represents:
i the alveoli?
ii oxygen? agar gel +
food colouring
iii blood?
b Predict what the students would see after 15 minutes.
c Explain why the red food colouring diffused into the water. Use the word ‘concentration’
in your answer.

10 Students were shown a model of digestion in the

small intestine. The starch represents food that we
eat.
a What is represented by:
i the Visking tubing? starch and
ii the water? amylase enzyme
As soon as the starch and amylase were mixed, the
tube was incubated at 30 °C for 30 minutes. After 30
minutes, glucose was detected in the liquid inside Visking tubing
the tubing and the water around the tubing.
b i Explain why glucose was present inside the
tubing after 30 minutes.
water
ii Why did the water around the Visking tubing
also contain glucose after 30 minutes?
iii Starch was not present in the water
surrounding the tubing. Explain why.
boiling tube
The students want to investigate whether glucose
would be detected after incubating at different
temperatures: 20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C.
c For this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable
iii two control variables
iv the range of values of temperature.

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

4 Respiration and photosynthesis

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
4.3 The importance of respiration
• compare aerobic and anaerobic
how animals get nutrition • describe links with plants and animals
from what they eat • explain animal and plant dependence
basic parts of the human
4.2 Anaerobic respiration
circulatory system
• recall and describe the equation
how water and nutrients are • explain oxygen debt
transported within animals • describe organism examples
• describe fermentation
basic parts of the human • explain uses of fermentation
digestive system
functions of parts of flowering 4.1 Aerobic
plants respiration
• recall and describe
requirements of plants for life the equation
and growth • describe where it
how water is transported takes place
• explain
within plants
mitochondria
adaptations
• describe and
explain
KS2 evidence

KS3

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 Road map

ation

als 4.4 Photosynthesis

ce • explain importance
• recall the equation
• identify affecting factors
• interpret data 4.5 Adaptations of plants
for photosynthesis respiration
• describe leaf adaptations
animal and plant cells
• explain gas exchange
• explain water and mineral transport in cells
movement
• describe importance photosynthesis
of minerals

KS4

Maths and practical skills

observing and measuring, including the evaluation of repeatability and accuracy

making scientific predictions
carrying out scientific enquiries to test predictions
carrying out practical work safely
calculating results and converting between different units
presenting data using tables and graphs
analysing data and identifying anomalous results
presenting reasoned explanations
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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

4 Respiration and photosynthesis

Animals and plants need energy to grow, repair tissues and reproduce; animals also need energy to move.
This energy is released from glucose by a chemical reaction in all living cells called respiration.
In animals, that glucose comes from digestion of the food they eat. Plants, however, need to make their
own glucose by a chemical reaction in some plant cells called photosynthesis.

What links breathing and digestion?

We know that digestion and breathing are essential processes. But why are they so important for the
activities shown below?

dog running human hurdling human cycling

Why are plants so important to us?

Look at the images of plants below. How are these plants useful to us? (Some have
several uses.)

Now think back to the previous question about digestion and breathing. How can
plants help us to get the energy that we need?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a bakery food technologist?

You modify recipes and excellent knowledge of the
baking methods for existing chemical reactions that occur
bakery products to make sure when baking and use this to,
that they are safe and that for example, tweak ingredients,
customers like them. You also baking techniques and
develop new products by temperatures. You have a good
trialling new recipes and new understanding of food nutrition
ways of baking. and how to reduce calories,
You split your time between reduce additives, etc. exciting but sensible suggestions
a bakery and a science lab, As a bakery technologist, you that will sell. You have roles as
carrying out research and then work alongside other bakers both scientist and baker, and use
scaling up and putting your and a wider manufacturing your creativity to make delicious
ideas into practice. You have team that relies on you to make products.

Winemakers oversee the

entire wine production process
from grape harvesting to
grape crushing, fermentation
and bottling. They use their
scientific understanding of
fermentation to alter a wine’s
composition and taste.
Technical brewers oversee
the brewing process,
Forestry technicians including monitoring and
maintain forests, grasslands tweaking the ingredients and
and even mountain the conditions for making
environments. They use beer. They understand the
knowledge of the conditions chemical reactions taking
and nutrients that plants place in brewing and use their
need to ensure that the plant creativity with this knowledge
species continue to grow. to develop new products.

Exercise physiologists investigate how clients Mitochondria research scientists carry

respond and adapt to muscle activity. They work out research into one or more of the many
with a whole range of people, from athletes to conditions that affect mitochondria. Symptoms
hospital patients. They use extensive knowledge of mitochondrial diseases are extremely wide
of respiration, ranging, and include tiredness, seizures,
breathing, the diabetes, learning difficulties and hearing and
circulatory system, vision problems.
the nervous system Researchers work
and the skeletal to understand what
system to improve causes the issues and
performance and to develop treatments
fitness or to help to prevent, cure or
prevent disease or treat some of these
illness. diseases.

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

Knowledge organiser
Respiration happens in every Animals need energy: Plants need energy:
living cell. It is the chemical
reaction that releases energy from to grow and repair tissues to grow and repair tissues
glucose. All living things – to reproduce to reproduce
animals, plants and microbes
(microorganisms) – need energy. to keep the body at a suitable and to transport water
Some uses are given on the right. fairly constant temperature
to contract muscles in order to move to absorb nutrients

Aerobic respiration uses oxygen:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
Animals get glucose from Animals get oxygen from In animals, the waste carbon dioxide
digestion of food. Glucose breathing. Oxygen is and water are carried by the blood The energy
is carried by the blood carried by the blood from released is
from the cells to the lungs, where it is
from the small intestine to the alveoli in the lungs to breathed out. needed for
all cells of the body. all cells of the body. many life
processes
Plants make glucose by the Plants get oxygen by In plants, the waste carbon dioxide in animals
process of photosynthesis. diffusion from the air or and water diffuse from the leaves into and plants.
by photosynthesis. the air or are used in photosynthesis.

Anaerobic respiration takes place when there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respiration or
when energy is needed to be released quickly. In animals, for example, aerobic respiration (in
mitochondria) switches to anaerobic respiration (in the cytoplasm) during vigorous exercise. Even while
there is still some oxygen left in your body, anaerobic respiration may begin, as it releases energy quickly.
The process differs in animals and plants and microbes.
In animals: glucose lactic (+ energy) oxygen needed to get rid of the
acid lactic acid is the ‘oxygen debt’
In plants and glucose ethanol + carbon (+ energy) this is called fermentation
microbes: dioxide

Comparing aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

Location Reactants Products Energy generated
aerobic mitochondria glucose carbon dioxide and water more energy than
respiration and anaerobic but not
oxygen generated as quickly
anaerobic cytoplasm glucose animals – lactic acid less energy than
respiration plants and microbes (fermentation) aerobic but generated
– ethanol and carbon dioxide more quickly

Fermentation (anaerobic respiration) by yeast is useful to humans.

• brewing – in beer and wine making, ethanol is the useful product. The type of drink made depends on
the source of sugar, for example, grapes for wine, hops and barley for beer.
• baking – in bread making, carbon dioxide is the useful product as it causes the bread to rise.
In brewing and baking, water is first added to dried yeast to activate it. Sugar is then added as the reactant for
respiration.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Glucose and oxygen are the reactants. Key vocabulary

Carbon dioxide and water are the products. aerobic respiration involving oxygen
respiration
anaerobic respiration without using oxygen
Aerobic respiration takes place in cell organelles
respiration
called mitochondria. These are sausage-shaped
and found in most animal and plant cells. Their baking cooking with dry heat, for
structure is adapted to carry out their function. example, in an oven as is done
with bread and pastries
outer membrane
inner membrane brewing the production of beer using
fermentation
matrix
cristae the folds of the inner membrane
of a mitochondrion where
respiration takes place
ethanol an alcohol produced during
anaerobic respiration in plants
and microbes
cristae – respiration
takes place on these fermentation a type of anaerobic respiration
folds; folds increase the taking place in plants and some
surface area to maxim-
ise respiration
this liquid contains microbes
enzymes needed for
respiration glucose a simple organic sugar molecule,
used in respiration
glycogen organic glucose molecules
We can use experiments to show that animals linked in a long chain; a storage
and plants produce water and carbon dioxide, molecule
the products of respiration. lactic acid the substance produced in
• Water – when we breathe onto a cold mirror anaerobic respiration in animals
or window, water vapour condenses onto the limewater a solution used to test for the
cold surface. If a plant is grown in a plastic presence of carbon dioxide
bag, water vapour condenses inside the bag.
matrix the liquid inside a mitochondrion
• Carbon dioxide – in the set-up below, soda
which contains the enzymes
lime absorbs carbon dioxide, limewater
needed for respiration
tests for carbon dioxide. B stays clear showing
no carbon dioxide; D turns cloudy showing mitochondria an organelle found in most
carbon dioxide has been produced. animal and plant cells where
respiration is carried out
air to aspirator
oxygen debt the oxygen needed to break
down lactic acid produced as a
result of vigorous exercise
germinating
soda lime limewater seeds or insects limewater products substances that are produced by a
A B C D
chemical process or reaction
reactants substances that react in a
chemical process
Glucose can be stored in organisms. It can then be
used to release energy as and when needed. respiration the process in living things in
In the animal and human body, glucose is stored: which energy is released from
glucose
• as glycogen in muscles and the liver
• as fat. soda lime a chemical that absorbs carbon
In plants, glucose is stored as starch. dioxide

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

Life on Earth and human activities are dependent Comparing photosynthesis and respiration.
on plants for many reasons: • Photosynthesis takes place in green plants;
• food (green plants are at the start of all respiration takes place in both plants and
feeding relationships) animals.
• raw materials for fabrics and building • The products of photosynthesis (glucose and
• fuel oxygen) are the reactants of aerobic respiration.
• medicines • The products of aerobic respiration (carbon
dioxide and water) are the reactants of
• decorating homes, gardens, parks
photosynthesis.
• green plants help to maintain the balance of
• Photosynthesis requires energy (from light);
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.
respiration releases energy.

Photosynthesis takes place in green leaves. Chlorophyll is a

green pigment and is found in organelles called chloroplasts
in some plant cells. Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis. chloroplasts
cuticle
Adaptation Function upper epidermis
waxy and waterproof cuticle prevents water loss cells

transparent layer below cuticle allows light through palisade cells

palisade cells packed with increase photosynthesis

chloroplasts
stomata on underside open and close to control spongy cells
gas exchange
lower epidermis
air spaces allow gases to move inside stoma cells
the leaf

Photosynthesis is the reaction used by green plants to Glucose from photosynthesis is stored as
make the carbohydrate glucose using light energy. starch. Testing leaves for starch with iodine
shows whether or not a plant has been
carbon dioxide + water light glucose + oxygen
photosynthesising. The experimental steps
reactants products are shown below.
leaf boiling water
Stomata are opened and closed by specialised guard cells. ethanol
Through the stomata: hot
• gas exchange happens – gases pass in and out of the leaf water
• water can be lost.
Stomata close when water levels are low and at night (as heat
there is no sunlight for photosynthesis).
heat
Stoma open Stoma closed
guard cells (swollen) guard cells (shrunken)
warm water starch test with
chloroplast
iodine solution

cell wall

leaf is washed
stoma

vacuole blue–black colour

nucleus if starch is present

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Water and minerals move into a plant through Key vocabulary

the roots from the soil. Root hair cells do
chlorophyll the green pigment in plants that
not contain chloroplasts because they are not
traps sunlight for photosynthesis
exposed to light. The cells are adapted to their
function by having extensions called root hairs, chloroplasts organelles within some plant cells
to increase the surface area for absorption. that contain chlorophyll
cuticle the waxy, waterproof outer layer
of a leaf
root hair cell
guard cells cells that open and close the
stomata
iodine a chemical used to test for the
presence of starch
minerals elements such as iron and
calcium needed to keep living
soil things healthy
palisade cell a plant leaf cell that is long
and narrow and packed with
chloroplasts
phloem a tissue made up of long tubes
that transport glucose made in
the leaves to other parts of the
Some minerals are essential nutrients to keep plant
plants healthy. If they are missing or deficient the
plant’s health is affected. photosynthesis a process carried out by green
plants; light energy, carbon
Mineral Effect of deficiency dioxide and water react to
nitrates (contain poor growth and produce glucose and oxygen
nitrogen) yellow leaves rate of the measure of how much
magnesium cannot make photosynthesis photosynthesis takes place in a
chlorophyll set time
phosphates poor root growth spongy cells plant leaf cells that have large
(contain spaces around them to allow gas
phosphorus) exchange
starch a large molecule made by plants
as a way to store food (glucose)
Plants have tissues that are specialised to
transport substances. stomata a minute pore in the lower
(singular: surface of a leaf
1 Water moves up the plant from the roots to
stoma)
the leaves through xylem.
2 Glucose made by photosynthesis moves from root hair cell a specialised cell in roots of
the leaves and around the plant through plants, hair‑like extensions that
phloem. provide a large surface area
transpiration the movement of water in plants
Transpiration is the loss of water from a leaf. as it is taken up through the roots
Most water is lost in hot, dry, windy conditions. and released from the leaves as
Leaves can be adapted to reduce water loss by: water vapour
• having a thick waxy cuticle xylem a tissue made of cells that form
• having narrow, curled or folded leaves to a long tube through the plant
reduce their surface area to transport water and minerals
• closing their stomata. from the roots

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4.1 Aerobic respiration

You are learning to:
• recall the aerobic respiration equation and describe what it shows
• describe where respiration takes place in cells
• explain how mitochondria are adapted for respiration
• describe and explain experimental evidence for respiration.

1 Fill in the gaps using the words below.

muscles     oxygen      energy     temperature
We need energy to contract        and to keep body        constant.
The main purpose of respiration is to release       .
Aerobic respiration uses       _.

2 Complete the equation for aerobic respiration.

     + oxygen carbon dioxide +      (+ energy)

3 What are the products of respiration? Choose two answers.

a energy
b carbon dioxide
c oxygen
d water

4 Where in the cell does aerobic respiration take place? Choose one answer.
a cell wall
b cell membrane
c chloroplast
d mitochondria

5 Match each word with its definition.

a aerobic respiration i released in plant and animal cells by respiration

b breathing ii inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide
c energy iii chemical process that uses oxygen and glucose to release energy
d glucose iv one reactant of respiration

6 Why do marathon runners eat carbohydrate-rich meals, such as pasta, to prepare for a race?
Choose one answer.
a Carbohydrate chains in pasta are broken down into glucose for respiration.
b The race takes a long time and they will not be able to have a meal.
c Carbohydrates in pasta can be built into protein chains.
d Carbohydrate chains in pasta are broken down into energy.

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 Questions

7 Mitochondria are adapted for aerobic respiration. The image below shows a human mitochondrion.
a Label it using these words:
cristae   inner membrane   outer membrane   matrix

A B

C D

b Explain how each of these parts is adapted for respiration:

i the inner membrane
ii the matrix.
c Within the same human, mitochondria like the one below were also seen.

Compare how much respiration could take place in this mitochondrion and the one shown
in part a above. Explain your answer.

Worked example
Carbon dioxide is made during respiration.
Use your knowledge of respiration and breathing to explain how carbon dioxide is made and
removed from the body.
Give your answer in a logical sequence.
When asked to give an answer in a logical sequence, you need to provide a step-by-step answer in
the order that things happen. You can use bullet points. (A good tip is to write the different steps
on sticky notes so that you can then arrange into the correct sequence.)
Glucose and oxygen react in respiration.
Carbon dioxide and water are produced.
Carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream from body cells to the lungs.
Carbon dioxide moves from the bloodstream into the lungs.
The carbon dioxide is breathed out.

8 Breathing and respiration both involve oxygen but are not the same thing. Explain the role of
oxygen in both breathing and respiration, and how the processes are different.

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9 A boy eats a breakfast of brown toast and honey.

Describe the sequence of events in his body from eating the breakfast to the food providing
him with the energy he needs for his PE lesson.
Give your answer in a logical sequence.
In your explanation, include the following key words:
digestion   starch   enzymes   bloodstream   breathing   glucose
oxygen   mitochondria

10 The apparatus looks for evidence that insects and seeds carry out respiration.

air to aspirator

soda lime limewater insects and seeds limewater

A B C D

a What does limewater test for?

b What is the purpose of the soda lime?
c Flask B is a control. Explain why it is used in this investigation.
d The diagram shows the apparatus at the start of the experiment. Describe what would be
seen in flask D after 30 minutes. Explain why.
e One student suggests that the soda lime is in the wrong position and connects flask A
between C and D. Predict what will be seen in Flask D after 30 minutes. Explain your
answer.

Worked example

A scientist studies the rate of respiration of germinating seeds at different temperatures. The
results are shown below.

Temperature (°C) Rate of respiration (bubbles of

carbon dioxide per minute)
20 5
30 20
40 35
50 48
60 29
70 10
a What is the independent variable in this investigation?
The independent variable is what we change.
temperature

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 Questions

b Which type of graph should be used to display these results?

When the independent variable has a whole range of values that could be continuous, we
use a line graph. For example, a graph to show how height varies as age increases.
When the independent variable has distinct values, or categories, we use a bar chart. For
example, a graph to show how many people have blue, green and brown eyes.
line graph
c Draw a sketch graph of the results.
A sketch graph shows the shape of a graph but doesn’t plot the actual points. The axes
should be labelled and units included.
similar graph to below, axes labelled, including units, but points not plotted, shape of graph shown
Rate of respiration
(bubbles/min)

Temperature (°C)

The scientists then compare the rate of respiration in different types of seeds, including
broad been seeds, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds and poppy seeds.
d What is the independent variable in this investigation?
type of seed
e Which type of graph should the scientist use to display these results? Explain your answer.
bar chart, as the independent variable has discrete categories

11 A cell biologist looks at cell images and compares the number of mitochondria in different
human cells. The results are shown below.

Type of cell Estimated number of mitochondria per cell

skin 800
muscle 5500
liver 4200
brain 1800
kidney 3900
a Suggest why the number of mitochondria is ‘estimated’.
b Which type of graph would be the best to use to represent this data?
c Sketch a graph of these results.
d Arrange these cell types in order from those needing the least energy to those needing the
most energy.
Scientists predict that mitochondria take up 15% of the volume of a muscle cell.
e Calculate the volume of the mitochondria in a muscle cell of volume 3500 µm3.

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4.2 Anaerobic respiration

You are learning to:
• recall the anaerobic respiration equation and describe what it shows
• explain what is meant by ‘oxygen debt’
• describe examples of organisms that carry out anaerobic respiration
• describe what is meant by ‘fermentation’
• explain some uses of fermentation.

1 Select ‘true’ or ‘false’ for each statement.

a Plants and animals can carry out anaerobic respiration.
b Anaerobic respiration means ‘without oxygen’.
c In anaerobic respiration, no energy is released.
d Fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration.

2 What are the two products of anaerobic respiration in plants?

a lactic acid
b ethanol
c carbon dioxide
d water

3 Match each keyword to its explanation.

a fermentation i product of anaerobic respiration in animals

b ethanol ii reactant in anaerobic respiration in plants
c glucose iii product of anaerobic respiration in plants
d lactic acid iv anaerobic respiration in plants

4 Which two of these does yeast need to grow and respire?

a water
b oxygen
c sugar
d carbon dioxide

5 Fermentation is used in industry. Match the reactants to the products.

a yeast and grapes i bread

b yeast and flour ii wine
c yeast and hops iii cheese and yoghurt
d milk iv beer

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 Questions

6 Students investigated the effect of temperature on fermentation. The apparatus used is shown
below.

gas tube
rubber bung

beaker of
bubbles of
water
carbon dioxide

yeast,
warm water
and sugar

Explain the purpose of each substance and each item of apparatus:
a warm water
b sugar
c rubber bung and gas tube
d beaker of water.

7 Below is the word equation for fermentation:

glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
a Of the organisms below, select which two can carry out fermentation:
i animals
ii plants
iii microbes.
b Fermentation is used for both brewing and baking. For each of these processes, identify
the most useful product of fermentation:
i brewing
ii baking.
c What causes each of these features in bread and beer?
i air pockets in bread
ii froth on top of beer

  

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8 Consider these stages of a man’s exercise routine:

1 gentle walk to warm up for 100 m
2 slow jog for 200 m
3 fast sprint for 50 m
4 slow jog to cool down for 50 m.
a For each of the stages, identify whether the man was more likely to be using aerobic or
anaerobic respiration.
b Identify the stage(s) when the man was producing lactic acid.
c Describe how, on the next day, the man may be able to tell that he had produced lactic
acid.
d At the start of his cool down, the man breathes very heavily. Explain why this happens,
using the term ‘oxygen debt’.
e Why is it useful to the man to carry out anaerobic respiration rather than just stopping
altogether?

Worked example
  he graph below shows a sketch graph of an investigation into the effect of the mass of
T
carbohydrate eaten on the speed of a runner.
Speed of running (m/s)

Mass of carbohydrate (g)

a Identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.
b 
Describe the relationship between the mass of carbohydrate and the speed of running
shown by the graph.
A graph tells a story and shows the relationship between two variables. We describe this
relationship using the sentence structure below:
As (independent variable) (increases/decreases), the (dependent variable) (increases/
decreases).
Sometimes, graphs have more than one part; any answer must tell the whole story.
This is also sometimes asked as ‘write a conclusion’.
a i mass of carbohydrate
ii speed of running
b I nitially, as the mass of carbohydrate increases, the speed of running increases, but then as the mass
of carbohydrate increases, the speed decreases (back to a similar speed as at the start). Using the
graph, we can see the point where the mass of carbohydrate provides maximum speed of running.

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 Questions

9 Three students investigated the effect of temperature on the number of bubbles of carbon
dioxide produced per minute by yeast cells. The table shows the data they collected.

Temperature (°C) 0 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
Bubbles Student 1 0 3 16 30 23 1 0 0 0 0
released per Student 2 0 4 18 32 27 5 1 0 0 0
minute
Student 3 0 2 15 27 25 1 0 0 0 0

a Write a conclusion for the investigation.

b Draw a sketch graph of the results.
c The three students separately carried out the same investigation in the same way. Explain
why this is better than collecting the results only once.
d i 
What is the range of temperature values used in this investigation?
ii 
The students want to carry out another experiment to find the exact temperature at
which the most carbon dioxide is produced. Suggest what range of temperatures they
should use in this new experiment.

10 A student wants to investigate whether the type of sugar affects the rate of fermentation. They
mix yeast with warm water and sugar and collect the carbon dioxide bubbles. The number of
carbon dioxide bubbles are counted for 30 seconds. The student then repeats the same
method with other types of sugar.
a For this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable
iii two control variables.

The table below shows the results.

Type of sugar Number of bubbles in 30 s Average number of

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 bubbles in 30 s
glucose 20 24 22 A
sucrose 12 2 14 B
sweetener 6 7 8 C

b i Identify one anomalous result.

ii 
Explain what should be done with the anomalous result when calculating average
results.
iii 
Calculate the average number of bubbles for each sugar (A, B and C).
c What type of graph should be used to display these results? Explain your answer.

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4.3 The importance of respiration

You are learning to:
• compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration
• describe some plant and animal systems that are linked with respiration
• explain how animal and plant systems are dependent on respiration.

1 Fill in the gaps using the words below.

breathing    circulatory    digestive    skeletal
In humans, glucose for respiration is provided by the       system.
Oxygen for aerobic respiration is brought into the body by the       system.
Both glucose and oxygen are carried to cells by the       system.
The energy released by respiration is then useful to the       system to allow muscles to
contract and move joints.

2 Where is carbon dioxide transported from and to by the circulatory system in animals? Choose
two answers.
a from lungs to body cells c from muscle cells to lungs
b from body cells to lungs d from lungs to muscle cells
mitochondria
3 In which part of the cell do the following cytoplasm
processes take place?
a aerobic respiration cell membrane

b anaerobic respiration

4 What happens to carbon dioxide produced

during aerobic respiration in plants?
Choose two answers. nucleus

a moves out of the plant through the leaves c is used in photosynthesis

b moves out of the plant through the roots d is used to make water

5 a Look at the images below. For each one decide whether aerobic or anaerobic respiration is
most likely to take place.
i ii

b Select the two situations where aerobic respiration may switch to anaerobic respiration in
humans:
i when there is no oxygen available iii 
when energy is needed to be
released quickly
ii when there is no carbon dioxide available iv when energy is no longer needed

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 Questions

6 Complete the table to compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in animals.

Reactants Products Amount of energy (more/less)

Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration

7 Each of the problems below would reduce the amount of respiration, but for different reasons.
Link each problem to the way it reduces respiration.

a bronchitis (blockage in the bronchi) i too little oxygen transported around the body
b poor carbohydrate digestion ii too little glucose available for respiration
c heart failure (weak heart) iii too little oxygen brought into the body

8 Enzymes are needed for both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Glucose is broken down in
respiration to release energy.
a What effect do enzymes have on reactions?
b If a piece of toast is eaten, which enzyme breaks down the starch in the bread into glucose
for respiration?
c Suggest which uses more enzymes: aerobic or anaerobic respiration. Explain your answer.

9 Glucose can be stored in the body of animals in different ways.

a Explain why it is helpful for animals to be able to store glucose.
b i Describe two parts of the body that store glucose as glycogen.
ii Name one other way that glucose is stored in the body of animals.

10 A problem with the digestive, breathing or circulatory systems has a negative impact on
respiration.
a Explain the importance of respiration. Give at least two examples.
b Explain why a problem in each of the systems causes a decrease in the amount of
respiration:
i digestive system
ii breathing system.
c Suggest why a decrease in respiration affects breathing and digestion.

11 Mitochondrial disease is a group of disorders, all affecting how well the mitochondria work.
Around 1 in 5000 people have mitochondrial disease.
a i 
In a population of 67 million people, calculate the estimated number having
mitochondrial disease.
ii Explain why this is only an estimate.
b Mitochondrial disease has the greatest impact on the heart and muscles. Suggest why.
c Explain why mitochondrial disease causes each of the following outcomes:
i slow growth
ii poor digestion, particularly in the intestines and stomach.

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4.4 Photosynthesis
You are learning to:
• explain the importance of photosynthetic plants to life on Earth
• recall the photosynthesis equation and describe what it shows
• identify factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis
• interpret data from photosynthesis investigations.

1 Complete the equation for photosynthesis, choosing from the words below.
nitrogen    oxygen    starch    water
carbon dioxide +        → glucose +       

2 Plants produce glucose by photosynthesis. Which process uses glucose in plants?

a transpiration
b digestion
c respiration
d combustion

3 How do the mass of soil and the mass of the plant change as a plant grows in a pot? Choose
one correct statement.
a Mass of the soil and plant both increase.
b Mass of the soil and plant both stay the same.
c Mass of the soil stays the same and mass of the plant increases.
d Mass of the soil increases and mass of the plant stays the same.

4 Match each plant to an example of its use.

a tomato i building
b cotton ii medicine
c oak tree iii food
d opium poppy iv fabric

5 What is the source of energy for photosynthesis?

6 a For each of the times below, decide whether photosynthesis, respiration or both take place
in plants:
i day time
ii night time.
b At which time (day or night) would the concentration of carbon dioxide be the highest?
Explain your answer.

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 Questions

7 A teacher wanted to find the best

40
temperature to grow his green

Rate of photosynthesis
(bubbles per minute)
35
bean plants. They measured the
30
rate of photosynthesis at different
25
temperatures. The graph shows 20
the results. 15
a For this investigation, identify: 10
5
i the independent variable
0
ii the dependent variable 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)
iii one control variable.
b What temperature would you suggest the green beans are grown at?

Worked example
 a A student is testing a leaf for starch. Match each step in the process with its purpose.

A place the leaf in boiling water i removes the chlorophyll

B put the leaf in hot ethanol ii kills the cells and removes the waxy layer
C add iodine iii blue/black shows starch present
D look for colour change iv tests for starch

Think back to food tests: iodine was used to test for starch.
A – ii; B – i; C – iv; D – iii
b A plant was kept in the dark for 6 days.
i Would this plant be carrying out respiration, photosynthesis or both?
Think about what each process requires and how the dark would affect each process.
only respiration as photosynthesis needs light energy
ii Would this leaf contain starch?
no starch as no photosynthesis
Remember, glucose is stored as starch in plants.
iii What colour would iodine be after testing this leaf for starch?
orange

8 A student investigated the need of a plant for air. The air

was removed from a container and a green plant was
placed inside and the container kept sealed for 3 days.
a Would photosynthesis take place in this plant?
Explain your answer. plant

b After 3 days, one of the leaves was removed and

tested for starch using iodine. What would the sealed container
colour of the iodine be? Explain your answer.
Carbon dioxide was then pumped into the container. air removed
After 2 days, the air inside the container was tested and
found to contain oxygen.
c Explain why the container contained oxygen.

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

Worked example
The graph below shows the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.
Rate of photosynthesis (volume
of carbon dioxide per minute)

B
D

Temperature (°C)

When you look at a graph, you can sometimes break it into parts, as in A, B, C and D on this graph.
a Where on the graph is the rate of photosynthesis at its maximum?
Where is rate at its highest? (Where is the peak/highest point of the graph?)
C
b Where on the graph is the rate at its lowest but slowly increasing?
As temperature increases, rate increases slowly. (Where is the slope/gradient the least steep but
slowly getting steeper?)
A
c Where on the graph is the rate of photosynthesis increasing quickly?
The graph is steepest where there is a small change in temperature but a big change in rate.
B
d Where on the graph is the rate of photosynthesis decreasing?
The slope is going in the opposite direction (downwards).
D

9 The graph shows the effect of carbon dioxide concentration on

the rate of photosynthesis.
Rate of photosynthesis

a Match each description to the correct letter on the graph.

i With a carbon dioxide concentration of zero, the rate of D
C
photosynthesis is zero.
ii As the carbon dioxide concentration increases further,
B
the rate of photosynthesis remains constant.
iii 
As the carbon dioxide concentration increases further,
the rate of photosynthesis increases only slowly. A
iv As the carbon dioxide concentration increases, the rate Concentration of
of photosynthesis increases quickly. carbon dioxide

 gardener wants to decide which concentration of carbon

A
dioxide to pipe into his greenhouse.
b Considering both the rate of photosynthesis and cost, explain which concentration of
carbon dioxide the gardener should choose (that is, shown at A, B, C or D).

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 Questions

10 a i 
State whether oxygen is a reactant or product of photosynthesis.
ii State whether oxygen is a reactant or product of respiration.
b Explain how the concentration of oxygen in the air above a corn field changes between
sunrise and sunset.
c Choosing between sunrise and sunset, when will the oxygen concentration be at its:
i highest concentration?
ii lowest concentration?

11 The apparatus below was used to investigate the effect of light on photosynthesis. The
number of bubbles per minute was counted as a measure of the rate of photosynthesis.

lamp

oxygen bubbles

ruler pondweed

A student considers a number of different changes that they could make to the set-up.
a Predict and explain the effect of each of the changes below on the number of bubbles
counted per minute.
i Increase intensity of the light bulb.
ii Increase the distance between the light and pondweed.
iii Increase the volume of water.
b After the initial investigation, the student repeats it, but without the pondweed. Explain
why it was a good idea to do this test.
Reading A was recorded as 72 bubbles per minute. Reading B was recorded as 1 bubble every
2 seconds.
c Predict which was closer to the lamp, A or B. Explain your answer.

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4.5 Adaptations of plants for

photosynthesis
You are learning to:
• describe how leaves are adapted for photosynthesis
• explain how stomata control gas exchange in leaves
• explain how water and minerals move through a plant
• describe the importance of minerals to plant growth.

1 Choose the correct words in brackets to complete each sentence.

a Water enters a plant through the (leaves/roots).
b Oxygen leaves a plant through the (leaves/roots).
c Carbon dioxide enters a plant through the (leaves/roots).
d Minerals enter a plant through the (leaves/roots).

2 Choose two correct statements about chlorophyll.

a Chlorophyll speeds up the photosynthesis reaction.
b Chlorophyll makes leaves green.
c Chlorophyll is contained in chloroplasts.
d Chlorophyll is in all parts of plants.

3 Label the diagram using the words below.

nucleus    guard cell    stoma
A

vacuole

cell wall
B

4 Match the descriptions to the type of leaf cell.

a transparent cells at the top of the leaf i palisade cells

b long narrow cells packed with chloroplasts ii spongy cells
c cells with large air spaces between them iii lower epidermis cells
d cells found on the lower layer of the leaf iv upper epidermis cells

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 Questions

5 How are the leaves of the water lily adapted for photosynthesis? Choose two answers.

a They have a large surface area to trap sunlight.
b They float.
c They contain chlorophyll to trap sunlight.
d They have brightly coloured flowers.

6 Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant. Plants need water for photosynthesis and for
support.
a Describe the role of the following in providing plants with water:
i roots
ii xylem.
b Of the following conditions, choose the three that will increase transpiration:
wet   dry   windy   still   hot   cold

7 The image below shows guard cells and stomata viewed through a microscope.

The image is measured as 7.5 mm long when magnified ×150.
a i Calculate the actual length of the guard cells using the equation below:
image size = actual (real) size × magnification
ii Show your answer in µm.
b The stomata in this image are closed. What effect will this have on:
i water loss from the plant?
ii movement of carbon dioxide into the plant?

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8 The image below shows a view of mint plants from above. New leaves form at the top of the plant.

a Mint plants grow in shady areas. Explain why it is important that the leaves are well
adapted to absorb sunlight.
b Suggest how each of the features below helps the plant to carry out photosynthesis.
i 
As new leaves grow, they grow at a different angle to the leaves underneath, rather
than directly over the leaf beneath.
ii 
The leaves at the top of the plant are smaller than those underneath.

Worked example
Investigations were carried out to estimate how many chloroplasts were present in palisade cells
and spongy cells.
A student estimates that there are 615 chloroplasts in a single palisade cell. The student reads that
palisade cells contain four times the number of chloroplasts as spongy cells.
a Suggest why there are more chloroplasts in palisade cells than spongy cells.
Palisade cells are closer to the top of the leaf, closer to light, so have more chloroplasts to absorb light
for photosynthesis.
b Estimate how many chloroplasts there are in a single spongy cell.
Remember that this will need to be a whole number.
154 rounded up ( 615 = 153.75)
4

9 a Explain what moves in and out of stomata.

The number of stomata was counted on leaves from different environments. The results
are shown in the table.
Leaf sample Concentration of stomata
A 20 per cm2
B 12 per cm2
C 63 per cm2
D 31 per cm2
b Predict where each leaf sample was taken by matching it to one of the environments
described below.
i high levels of carbon dioxide in the air
ii medium levels of carbon dioxide in the air
iii low levels of carbon dioxide in the air
iv extremely low levels of carbon dioxide in the air

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 Questions

c Leaf sample C was found to have a total surface area of 10.4 cm2. Estimate the total
number of stomata on this leaf.
d Choose which type of graph you would use to display these results (environment versus
concentration of stomata). Explain your answer.

Worked example
a Describe the function of plant roots.
Remember that there may be more than one function and you should include them all.
Plant roots take in water and minerals from the soil so that they can pass up the plant to the leaves.
Plant roots also anchor the plant into the ground.
b Explain how roots are adapted to each function.
Make sure that each function is considered.
Roots need to reach water and minerals throughout the soil. Therefore, they are long and can spread deep
and wide. They also have root hair cells that have hair-like projections; these increase the surface area of
roots to allow more absorption. Roots spread deep or wide to ensure that the plant is held securely.

10 There are several types of leaf cell. Each is adapted to its own function and to support
photosynthesis.

chloroplasts

cuticle
upper epidermis
cells

palisade cells

spongy cells

lower epidermis
cells
guard cells stoma

a For each of the cells below, explain how the adaptations support photosynthesis:
i upper epidermis cells are transparent
ii 
palisade cells are long and narrow and contain chloroplasts, particularly at the top of
the cell
iii spongy cells have gaps between them and contain chloroplasts
iv guard cells surround a stoma and cause it to open and close.
b Explain why:
i palisade cells are near the top surface of the leaf
ii guard cells are near the bottom surface of the leaf.

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

Maths and practical skills

1 A student uses a microscope to measure leaf cells. Choose the best unit for this measurement.
a km
b m
c µm
d s

2 The guard cells on the image below measure 30 µm.

a If they are magnified ×300, calculate the image size. Show your answer in µm.
b Show your answer in mm.

3 A student changes the distance of the lamp from the pondweed and counts the number of
bubbles per minute.

lamp

oxygen bubbles

ruler
pondweed

In this investigation, identify:
a the dependent variable
b the independent variable.

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 Questions

4 Ashton and Naga are investigating water loss from a plant in different conditions.
Ashton says that he thinks more water will be lost in windy conditions than still conditions.
Select what type of statement this is from the words below:
a prediction
b conclusion
c explanation
d evaluation.

5 A student blows out into limewater.

tube

alveoli in

test tube
containing
limewater

a Which gas does limewater test for?

b How would the limewater change if the result is positive?

6 A new runner does a workout as follows:

walk 5 minutes
gentle jog 3 minutes
sprint 1 minute
gentle jog 2 minutes
sprint 2 minutes
walk 2 minutes
a Calculate the percentage of the exercise for which the runner was most likely respiring
anaerobically.
b Explain why the runner breathes heavily after respiring anaerobically.

7 The image shows an animal body cell.

D
a Which letter shows the site of aerobic respiration?
b Which letter shows the site of anaerobic respiration?
A
c Describe how a muscle cell would compare in terms of the
structure identified in part a.

C B

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 4 Respiration and photosynthesis

8 A group of students is investigating fermentation. They set up the apparatus as below.

delivery tube
rubber bung

water

yeast + water + sugar

They added water to yeast in the conical flask.
They then added sugar to the flask and counted the bubbles of gas released into the beaker of
water.
a What is the purpose of each of the steps below?
i adding water to the yeast
ii adding sugar to the solution
iii attaching the delivery tube
b Which gas was given off as bubbles?
 he students want to investigate whether changing the mass of sugar added produces
T
more bubbles of gas.
c Identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable
iii two control variables.

9 A leaf from the plant shown in the photograph is tested to

see whether the plant has been carrying out photosynthesis.
The student carries out the following steps:
A boil the leaf in ethanol
B rinse the leaf in warm water
C add iodine
a Explain the purpose of:
i boiling in ethanol
ii adding iodine to the leaf.
The result of adding iodine to the leaf is shown in the diagram.
b Explain what the result tells us about:
i where starch is present in the leaf
ii where photosynthesis has taken place.

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 Questions

10 The rate of photosynthesis was measured at different temperatures.

70

60
Number of bubbles per minute

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)

a Using the graph, identify:

i the dependent variable
ii the independent variable.
b What is the optimum temperature for this reaction?
c i Identify the anomalous result on the graph.
ii Suggest a reason for this anomaly.
The student wanted to find the optimum temperature more accurately. They repeated the
investigation focusing on temperatures between 30 °C and 60 °C.
The results are shown below.

Temperature Number of bubbles per minute Average number of

(°C) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 bubbles per minute
30 50 54 51
40 62 58 60
50 44 45 46
60 32 60 34

d i Identify an anomaly in the results table.

ii 
The student realises they used the incorrect temperature for this anomalous result.
Predict whether the temperature they used was higher or lower than 60 °C. Explain
your answer.
iii 
Decide how to treat the anomaly, and calculate the average for each temperature. Give
your answers to one decimal place.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

5 Ecosystems and interdependence

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
5.2 T
• exp
• desc
5.1 Food webs and
• disc
interdependence
• describe food webs and chains
• define interdependence
• explain interdependent
relationships
• predict effect of changing
populations

construct and use food chains

the role of flowers
how environments can change
and affect living things

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

adaptations, interdependence
and competition
5.2 The importance of insects
• explain importance of insects organisation of an ecosystem
• describe food security
5.3 Impact of organisms on trophic levels in an ecosystem
• discuss food security risks
their environment food production
• describe effects of humans
• describe how toxins enter extinction
food chains
biodiversity and the effect of
• explain how toxins accumulate
human interaction on ecosystems
• apply sampling techniques

KS4

Maths and practical skills

observing and measuring, including the evaluation of repeatability

making scientific predictions
planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
suggesting improvements to practical work
using sampling techniques
analysing data and identifying anomalous results
presenting reasoned explanations

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

5 Ecosystems and
interdependence
Organisms are not isolated in their environment. They interact with other
individuals of their own species, with other species and with their physical
environment. The study of organisms and their environment is called
ecology.

What eats what?

Can you draw a food chain to show the feeding relationships of these
organisms? Think about what the arrows show.
Tree frogs also eat mosquitoes; how can you add this information to
your food chain?

Cricket Garter snake

North American tree frog Grass

How do humans affect the environment?

Look at this waterside
environment.
Which organisms might be found
here?
What actions might humans
take that would impact on this
environment? For each action,
think about how it would affect
the organisms living there.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an environmental toxicologist?

You study the effects that and work out why wildlife has
chemicals have on people, been harmed and then suggest
animals, plants and the how the problems could be
environment. You analyse the reversed. Your work could involve
benefits and risks of using these using computer models, carrying
chemicals. out laboratory experiments and
You might work in a variety undertaking fieldwork. Your work could influence
of industries: you could be You will work with scientists whether chemicals are
researching the effects of researching other areas, so you manufactured, altered or
pesticides, waste products from must be able to communicate banned from use, so your
farming, or waste from food or your results thoroughly and decisions help to ensure that
toiletries factories. You might also clearly through writing and environments are safe to
do some detective work to try public speaking. maintain a range of life.

Beekeeping is about so Wildlife population modellers use

much more than just honey. data captured in the wild to predict
Bees can be used for crop future changes in population sizes and
pollination, wax production or to predict the effect of changes, such
collecting pollen. Bee keepers as introducing a new predator. They
(apiarists) raise and care for have knowledge
bees using a variety of skills such as woodwork, honey and experience of
extraction, disease and parasite control and queen techniques used to
rearing, and use their knowledge of the fascinating sample populations,
cycles and interactions that occur within a colony of as well as computer
bees to maintain the health of hives. skills to analyse data.

Organic farmers Veterinary

produce food epidemiologists
without using respond to and
harmful chemicals prevent outbreaks of
and pollutants, using disease in animals.
Nature conservation natural fertilisers and They may research
officers protect thinking about how Rare breed farmers how diseases spread
environments and the farm affects local ensure that rare in different animals,
the living things in wildlife. Organic breed animals do not or monitor data and
them, for example, farming incorporates become endangered make predictions
in woodlands, coastal high standards of or extinct. They about disease spread.
areas or grasslands. animal care and is ensure the animals They will then
Part of the role is a complete system are healthy by provide advice on
to encourage the designed to care managing the how to reduce the
community to use the for the soil, plants, farmland to provide a spread, for example,
areas and to educate animals, natural suitable environment by developing
people about the need environment and and food. These vaccination
for conservation. They climate. farmers must be programmes.
also put plans in place knowledgeable
to maintain the range about the animals
of living things in the and the methods for
environment. breeding them.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

Knowledge organiser
The biological material that makes up the organisms All food chains start with producers and
in a population is known as biomass. This biomass include one or more consumer.
contains chemical energy. • Producers make their own food and are
Some of the biomass is transferred between the source of biomass for food chains.
populations when organisms are eaten. Energy is then They are green plants, so they make their
released. We say energy flows from one organism to food by photosynthesis using light energy.
another when it is eaten. • Primary consumers eat producers.
The amount of energy available at each step decreases • Secondary consumers eat primary
as organisms use energy to move and grow. consumers.
• Tertiary consumers eat secondary
An ecosystem is made up of the community of consumers.
organisms and the physical environment. The organisms
interact with each other and the physical environment.
The levels in a food chain or web are called
The feeding relationships within a community of trophic levels. They show the position of an
organisms can be modelled using food chains. Food organism in the chain.
chains show how biomass (and energy) transfers or flows
from one organism to another and between populations. Food chains connect to form food webs. In
grass rabbit fox the food web, we can see more relationships
A simple food chain – the arrows show the transfer of biomass than the food chain. For example, the fox
feeds on mice as well as rabbits, and mice
Each population of organisms in a food web can affect also feed on the grass.
the others. For example, in the food web on the right:
• a decrease in the amount of grass seed means less fox
tertiary
food for the mice, and so their numbers may decrease consumer
owl
• fewer mice means less food for the owls
• the owls may then eat more shrews, and the
number of shrews may decrease secondary rabbit
consumer shrew
• the number of worms may then increase, as fewer
are eaten by shrews.
primary
Each organism can also be affected by the physical consumer worm mouse
environment.
producer
Predator–prey relationships can be shown on a graph. leaf litter grass seed
as prey numbers as prey numbers have A simple food web
prey increase, there is more decreased, there is less
predator food for predators food for predators and so
and so predator predator numbers decrease
numbers then increase
Different organisms in an ecosystem can
affect each other in many ways.
Population

Competition – organisms within an

ecosystem compete for resources when they
are in short supply. For example, plants may
as predator numbers increase,
compete for water, animals may compete for
more prey are eaten and so
prey numbers decrease
food.
Time Predator–prey relationships – predators
Predators must be adapted to catch enough food to prey on other animals for food; prey are
survive. Prey must be adapted to escape predators to eaten by predators (for example, foxes prey
ensure survival. on rabbits).
A change in the prey population size affects the Symbiosis – a close, long-term relationship
predator population size. This then affects the prey between different organisms. There are
population size, and so on. several types of symbiosis.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Insects are essential for the Key vocabulary

pollination of some plants,
biomass the mass of living organisms; contains
including some food crops
chemical energy
(plants for food). For example,
bees are extremely important commensalism the type of symbiosis where one organism
to human food production, as benefits but the other does not
they pollinate many types of
community populations of two or more different
fruit and vegetable crops.
species occupying the same geographical
Insect populations can be area at the same time
negatively affected by:
competition the struggle between organisms for
• increased predator
resources or survival (for example, food)
populations
• disease consumer an animal that eats other animals or plants
• adverse weather and ecosystem the living things and their non-living
changes in climate – this environment in a given area
may mean that plants flower environment the surroundings, such as air, water,
earlier, before insects are soil, climate and food sources, where an
able to pollinate them, or organism lives
for shorter periods
• pesticides food chain part of a food web, starting with a producer
and ending with a top predator
• a decrease in insect-
pollinated plants, for food security when all people, at all times, have access
example, when wild to enough safe and nutritious food for an
flowering plants are active and healthy life
removed to grow crops. food web more than one food chain interconnected
monoculture a single crop grown in a large space
Food security means that all
people, at all times, have access mutualism the type of symbiosis where both organisms
to enough safe and nutritious benefit
food for an active and healthy
parasitism the type of symbiosis where one organism
life. Any factor that reduces
benefits and the other is harmed
insect populations is a risk to
food security. pesticide a chemical applied to crops to destroy pests
Monoculture is an intensive population a group of the same type of organism living
form of farming where single in the same area
crops are grown over large
areas. This reduces insect predator an animal that preys on other animals
populations as there is not prey an animal that is hunted and killed by other
enough variety of food and animals (predators)
there may not be enough
primary consumer an organism that eats a producer
nutrients for insect health.
A decrease in insect producer the plant at the start of a food chain that
populations due to over use makes its own food (typically a green plant)
of pesticides (for example, a secondary consumer an organism that eats a primary consumer
decrease in wild bees has led
to farmers in China needing symbiosis a relationship between two different types
to hand pollinate fruit and of organism
vegetable crops as a way to tertiary consumer an organism that eats a secondary
increase food security) consumer
trophic level the position of an organism in a food chain
yield the amount of useful product obtained

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

All organism populations in an ecosystem can Global warming has a large impact on the
affect other organism populations, for example, environment. It is caused by greenhouse gases,
through competition or predation. These such as carbon dioxide and methane, trapping too
associations between living things are called much heat around the Earth.
biotic factors. 2 infrared radiation 3 most IR escapes to
(IR) is given off by outer space, allowing
Within an ecosystem, physical factors such as the Earth the Earth to cool

temperature, availability of water, nutrients and

light, carbon dioxide concentration and pH 4 but some IR is absorbed
by greenhouse gases in
of soil, also affect populations. These physical the air (including CO2),
1 sunlight passes keeping the Earth warm
factors are called abiotic factors. through the enough to sustain life
atmosphere
The role that an organism plays within a and warms
community, including all the biotic and abiotic the Earth

factors, is its niche.

5 ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT: increasing levels of
CO2 increase the amount of heat retained, causing
Humans are a major factor in causing changes the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface to heat up

to the environment. As medical treatment has Several human activities add to these greenhouse
improved, humans are living longer. As the gases:
human population increases, the impact on the
environment increases: • burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) – releases
carbon dioxide
• habitats are lost as more land is needed for
farming and building • deforestation – fewer trees to take in carbon dioxide
• pollution increases as we have more factories • landfill waste – waste decomposes releasing
and vehicles and we generate more rubbish methane.
• animals are hunted for food, sport, The effects of global warming are wide-ranging and
medicines, their fur and horns, etc. can lead to loss of habitats for many organisms,
The impact of these actions is a decrease in including humans:
the number and number of types of plants and • increasing land and ocean temperatures
animals. This reduces biodiversity.
• climate change (for example, more frequent
droughts, storms, heat waves)
Ecology is the study of the interactions • melting glaciers
between organisms and the environment. We
• rising sea levels.
study populations of plants and animals by
sampling. Sampling is a scientific survey: the
Here is an example of using a quadrat to estimate
observations are used to make estimates about
the population size of daisies in a field.
whole populations. Random sampling means
we choose areas to sample at random rather 1. Place the quadrat randomly within the area
than selecting them. This removes bias. being studied.
2. Count how many daisies are within the quadrat.
Quadrats are used 3. Repeat the procedure 10 times within the
to sample plants or field. Choose samples randomly, for example,
slow-moving animals. by drawing the entire area as a grid and then
A quadrat is a square frame choosing coordinates at random, as shown below.
(commonly 50 cm × 50 cm). entire field

The quadrat can be used to

areas for sampling grid drawn of
sample in different ways: chosen at random equal areas
• to count the number of a single species, for
example, the number of barnacles
• to count the number of different species;
this is a measure of biodiversity Ensure all squares are of equal size.
• to estimate the percentage of the quadrat 4. Calculate the average number of daisies.
filled by any one species, for example, grass.
5. Multiply the result to estimate the population
size for the entire area (for example, if the area
120 sampled makes up 20% of the entire field,
multiply the average number by 5).

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Critically endangered organisms are Key vocabulary

at risk of becoming extinct. A series of abiotic factors physical factors within an environment
categories are used to describe how at
risk a species is: bias a tendency to favour one thing or
another, rather than being objective
critically endangered bioaccumulation the increase in the concentration of
a chemical as it is passed from one
endangered
organism to another along a food chain
biodiversity the variety of different organisms within
vulnerable
an ecosystem
biotic factor a factor associated with the living things
not threatened
in an environment
Some species are captive breeding the breeding of animals away from the
extinct in the wild wild, for example, in zoos or wildlife
and exist only in reserves, to conserve the species
captivity. climate change the change in climate patterns, such as
temperature and rainfall
This scimitar-horned oryx is an example.
conservation the protection of the Earth’s natural
resources, including organisms and the
Rainforests are an example of a habitat physical environment
affected by human activity. Nearly half of DDT a pesticide used in the 1960s
all animal species live in rainforests. Loss of drought a prolonged period of abnormally low
habitat is the biggest threat to rainforests rainfall, leading to a shortage of water
and the organisms living there. ecology the study of the interactions between
organisms and the environment
endangered when there are so few of a species left
• Primary consumers eat plants
that it could become extinct
containing toxins; secondary extinct when a species dies out and no more
consumers eat the primary consumer; individuals remain
and so on up the food chain. fertiliser a chemical put on the soil to increase its
• Organisms at the lower end of a fertility and support crop growth
food chain may take up only small global warming the gradual increase in the overall
concentrations of toxin. temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere,
• If these organisms are then eaten by caused by greenhouse gases such as
organisms in the next trophic level, carbon dioxide
the toxin gets passed on. greenhouse gas gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane that trap heat around the
• Organisms generally get bigger along
Earth
a food chain, and eat more than
habitat the natural home or environment of an
one of the organisms in the previous
organism
trophic level. This means that the
insecticide a chemical applied to crops to kill
toxin becomes more concentrated as
insects that damage the crops
it passes through the food chain. This niche the role of an organism within its
is known as bioaccumulation. ecosystem
quadrat a square frame used in ecology to
DDT is a pesticide that was used sample populations
in the 1960s. It entered rivers and rainforest dense forest rich in biodiversity, typically
contaminated plants. The plants then found in tropical areas with consistently
entered the food chain. Otters at the heavy rainfall
top of the food chain were killed due to sampling the study of part of a population to
bioaccumulation. then infer a conclusion about a whole
DDT level DDT level DDT level DDT level population
toxin a substance that damages a living
organism
vulnerable when the number of a species drops
the water the fish ate the large fish the otter ate
weed has 3 water weeds ate 3 small 3 large fish but not so low that it is endangered
1 part of DDT so has 3 parts fish so has so has 27 parts
of DDT 9 parts of DDT of DDT

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

5.1 Food webs and

interdependence
You are learning to:
• describe how food webs are made up of a number of food chains
• define examples of interdependence
• explain how different interdependent relationships affect each organism
• predict the effect of changing numbers of populations in a food web.

1 What is always at the start of a food chain?

a producer
b primary consumer
c secondary consumer
d tertiary consumer

2 Where does energy first come from in a food chain?

a food
b plants
c sunlight
d air

3 Fill the gaps using the words below.

web chain energy biomass
The biological material that makes up an organism is also known as the ___________.
A food __________ shows which organisms eat which other organisms in a habitat; more than
one of these linked together is a food __________.

Organisms need to make or take in food so that they can release __________ from it.

4 Grasshoppers eats grass. Rats eat grasshoppers. Choose the correct food chain.
a grass ➝ grasshopper ➝ rat
b grasshopper ➝ grass ➝ rat
c rat ➝ grasshopper ➝ grass
d grass ➝ rat ➝ grasshopper

5 Of the organisms labelled i–iii in the food chain,

identify which is:
a the predator     b the prey     c the producer.
i ii iii

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 Questions

6 For each of the relationships described below, identify the type of interdependence:
a a flea feeding on the blood of a hedgehog
b a suckerfish attaching itself to a shark so that it can be transported and the suckerfish
removing parasites from the shark
c cattle egrets (birds) resting near cattle; when the cattle stir up the grass as they move, they
flush out insects, which the birds eat.

Worked example
Using the food web, predict the effect of each of:
a i decreasing the rabbit population on the fox population fox
Think about the relationship between the rabbits and
the foxes. owl
ii decreasing the rabbit population on the grass seed
population.
Think about the relationship between the rabbits and the
grass seed. rabbit
a i fox population will decrease as fewer rabbits to eat shrew

ii the grass seed population will increase as less of it will be eaten

b Explain these two possible effects on the mouse population of
decreasing the rabbit population. worm mouse
i Why might the mouse population increase?
ii Why might the mouse population decrease?
You can track through the food chains within a web and leaf litter grass seed
think of the effect, step by step, for each organism.
Remember that within a food web, there are more relationships and so there are more
possible effects.
Start with ‘As rabbits decrease …’ and then consider step-by-step how that might affect the
foxes and then the grass seed.
b i As rabbits decrease, less grass seed is eaten, so the grass seed increases. This provides more food
for mice, so the mouse population will increase.
ii As rabbits decrease, there are fewer for the foxes to eat, so the foxes may then eat more mice, and
the mouse population will decrease.

7 A fish farmer needs to increase the prawn trout

number of trout in an ecosystem. kingfisher
algae
The food web is shown in the
diagram. carp
turtle
a Predict the effect on the number
of trout if the farmer changed the frog
following. Explain each answer: waterweed slug
snake
i increases the number of prawns pond fly dragonfly
ii decreases the number of kingfishers
iii decreases the number of frogs.
b How many trophic levels are there in the longest food chain within this web?

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

8 Consider a simple food chain of shrews eating worms and worms eating leaf litter.
a Draw a food chain to show the feeding relationship.
b i Describe what happens to the amount of energy available to the animals as you go
along the food chain.
ii Explain why.
c Where does the energy in a food chain come from initially?
d Food chains usually have only four or five trophic levels. Suggest why, in terms of energy.

Worked example
The graph below shows the changes in population size of a predator and prey.
Population size

prey

predator

Time

a Explain why the predator population decreases towards point A.

For graphs like this one, always consider the predator population in relation to the prey
population (and the other way around).
What has happened to the prey population immediately before the predator population
decreased at point A?
Previously, the prey population was low and so there was less food for the predators to eat; therefore,
the predator population decreased.
b Predict whether the predator population will increase or decrease after point B. Explain your
answer.
Again, consider what has happened to the prey population immediately before the time of point B.
The prey population has started to decrease and so there will be less food for the predators to eat;
therefore, the predator population is likely to decrease after point B.

9 The graph shows the relationship between predator and prey.

a By referring to both the predator and prey
prey
Population size

populations, describe what is happening to each predator

of the following and explain why it is happening:
B D
i the predator population at point A
ii the prey population at point B A C
iii the predator population at point C
iv the prey population at point D.

Time

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 Questions

b Another predator species is introduced into the ecosystem. Predict the effect on:
i the prey species
ii the original predator species.
c What is the name of the relationship between the two predator species, both feeding on
the same prey?

10 a From the food web below, identify:

i a producer
ii a predator of the harvester ant
iii a prey of the mongoose.
b Predict the following.
i What the harvester ant might eat if the star grass is decreased.
ii What would happen to the numbers of pangolin if both red oat grass and star grass
were reduced. Explain your answer.
c Explain why food webs form, instead of organisms only forming food chains.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

5.2 The importance of insects

You are learning to:
• explain why insects such as bees are so important in crop production
• describe what is meant by ‘food security’
• discuss the risks to food security.

1 What is the name of the process that transfers pollen from the male part of a plant to the
female part of a plant?
a fertilisation b reproduction c food security d pollination

2 What is monoculture?
a growing of single crops in a field
b growing of plants within a laboratory
c growing of all crops by only one farmer
d growing crops without pesticides

3 Choose the correct answer in brackets to complete each sentence.

a Hand-pollinated fruits are (larger/smaller) than bee-pollinated fruits.
b Hand-pollinated fruit plants produce (higher/lower) yields than bee-pollinated fruit plants.
c Wild bees are (more/less) effective than honeybees at pollinating orchards.
d Bee colony numbers have (increased/decreased) over recent years.

4 Put these stages of colony collapse disorder in the right order.

a Bees cannot find their way back to their hive.
b The colony becomes much smaller or disappears.
c Pesticides sprayed on crops weaken bees.
d Bee larvae die because there is not enough food.

5 The graphs show how the

Number of beehives by world region (in millions)
number of beehives has changed
over time in different world regions. 50 50
a Using data from the graph, 43.6
which region has had: 40 40
Number of beehives

Number of beehives

i 
the largest increase in 30 30
beehives
21.7
ii the largest decrease in 20 20 17.4 16.2
14.7
beehives? 11.6
10 7.9 8.7 10
Some research suggests that the
costs of keeping beehives has 0 0
increased in some areas so that 1969 2019
costs outweigh the income that Africa Americas Europe Asia and Middle East
can be generated.
b Suggest one area where this seems likely.

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 Questions

6 A fruit grower is comparing their crop yield for the previous two years.
The table shows the yields in 2020.

Fruit Yield 2020

apples 1500 kg
pears 1200 kg
tomatoes 22 kg
cucumbers 44 kg
a All of the fruit crops are bee pollinated. Suggest two reasons why there might be a
reduction in bee pollination from the previous year.
b The fruit grower had predicted a reduction of 50% in crop yields in 2021 compared with
2020. Calculate the predicted 2021 yields for each fruit.
c When the fruit grower calculated the actual yield of pears, they found that they had
harvested 840 kg of pears. What percentage of the 2020 yield was this?

100
7 Food security data for the UK is shown below.
90
a i What percentage of the population were
80
experiencing some form of food insecurity
in 2018 (represented by marginal, low or 70
% of population
very low)? 60

ii How might people judge whether they 50

have low food security? 40

The data compares food imports (food brought 30

into the country) and exports (food taken out of 20
the country) for the UK in 2019. 10
0
High Marginal Low Very low

UK trade in food, drink and animal feed, 2019

Exports
14
Imports
12
£ (billions)

10
8
6
4
2
0
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Some experts believe that to have high food security, a country should be able to export more
than they import.
b Using this belief, for which food(s) did the UK show high security in 2019?

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

8 Monoculture can be a barrier to food security.

a Describe what is meant by ‘food security’.
The images below show the farming methods of monoculture and polyculture.

Monoculture Polyculture

b Using the images to help you, describe the difference between monoculture and
polyculture.
c In terms of insect pollination, give:
i a reason why monoculture might lead to reduced populations of insects
ii a reason why monoculture might lead to decreased health of insects.
d In some countries of West Africa, cocoa plants are grown as monoculture. Suggest why
this is done even though it could affect food security.

9 As well as different types of bees, there are many other pollinators in the UK, for example
butterflies, hoverflies, wasps, moths and some beetles.

a Why do these insects visit the flowering plants?

b Why is it useful for the environment to have many different pollinators?
A team of scientists observes a meadow and counts how many visits to the flowers each type
of insect makes.
c i What is the independent variable in this investigation?
ii What is the dependent variable?
iii Explain why counting the number of visits to a flowering plant may not give a true
indication of how much pollination has taken place.

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 Questions

Worked example
A scientist investigated whether temperature affects how much pollination bees carry out.
They observed how many visits bees made to flowering plants every 15 minutes at different
temperatures. Their results are shown below.

4
Number of individuals per 15 min

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature (°C)

a What is the most effective temperature for bees to visit the plants?
25 °C
The scientist now wants to narrow down the best temperature for pollination to be successful.
b Describe the range that the scientist should focus on in a follow-up investigation.
Which temperatures should they focus around to find the most effective temperature?
Remember, in science, you need to give both the lowest and the highest values.
20–30 °C

100
10 Scientists investigated whether the time of day affects Pollinated
the effectiveness of pollination. They measured what Unpollinated
80
proportion of visits to the plant by a bumblebee
Percentage

resulted in pollination at different times of the day. 60

The results are shown in the graph.
40
a Which is the most effective time of day for
pollination of these plants by bumblebees?
20
b Which is the least effective time of day for
pollination of these plants by bumblebees? 0
00

00

00

00

00

00

c Describe how the scientists could increase the

:

:
07

08

09

10

11

12

repeatability of these observations.

0–

0–

0–

0–

0–

0–
:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

:0
06

07

08

09

10

11

The scientists now want to narrow down the best

time for pollination to be successful. Time slot (hourly interval)

d Describe the range of time that they should focus on in this follow-up investigation.
e When repeating the observations, suggest two factors that the scientists should try to
ensure are similar to the first investigation.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

5.3 Impact of organisms on their

environment
You are learning to:
• describe the effects of humans and other organisms on the environment
• describe how toxins enter food chains
• explain how toxins accumulate in food chains
• apply sampling techniques.

1 What is meant by ‘biodiversity’?

a the number of one species in an ecosystem
b identification of habitats
c the species that are endangered
d the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem

2 Nearly half of all animal species live in rainforests. What is the biggest threat to animals living
in rainforests?
a loss of habitat
b change in temperature
c introduction of more animals
d parasites

3 As the human population increases, strain is put on the environment. Match each
development to the risk that it causes.

a use of more land for farming i plant and animal species moved away
from their natural habitat
b b
 uilding of more factories and power ii natural habitats are lost
stations
c increase in long distance travel iii increase in pollution

4 A team of conservationists is carrying out a survey of different species in South America. They
have a summary about each species. Match the summaries to the categories.

a Harpy eagle numbers are large compared to other areas. i vulnerable

b G
 iant armadillo numbers have decreased slightly since the last survey ii not threatened
but are not a major concern.
c Candango mouse is no longer found here. iii endangered
d H
 yacinth macaw has so few numbers that it is at risk of becoming iv extinct
extinct.

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 Questions

5 What is meant by ‘bioaccumulation’?

a breakdown of toxins by animals
b diversity of organisms in a food chain
c build-up of toxins as you go up a food chain
d run-off of toxins from fertilisers on crops

6 Why do most modern farmers not use manure as fertiliser?

a manure does not work as a fertiliser
b most crop farmers do not keep animals as well
c farmers do not like the smell
d manure contains insecticides

7 Global warming contributes to climate change.

a What is meant by ‘global warming’?
b Explain how each of these activities contributes to global warming:
i burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
ii increasing landfill waste
iii deforestation.

8 a How can toxins enter a food chain? Choose two answers.

i Animals can make toxins such as DDT inside their bodies.
ii Fertilisers run off fields and contaminate water.
iii Pesticides are eaten by insects.
iv Chemicals randomly change to become poisonous.
A toxic pesticide has been found to have entered the food chain shown below.

water weed small fish large fish otter

Chemists have analysed how much of the toxin is in each organism in the food chain. Their
data is shown in the table below.

Organism Concentration of toxin

A 10 parts per million
B 10 000 parts per million
C 50 parts per million
D 2500 parts per million
b Identify each organism A, B, C and D.
c Explain why the otter may die even though the toxin entered the water weed.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

9 A group of conservationists wants to maintain the biodiversity in part of a forest.

a What is meant by ‘biodiversity’ in this forest?
The conservationists have observed bird species over time and have found
that the hyacinth macaw is vulnerable and the toucan is endangered.

Hyacinth macaw Toucan

b Which of the two species is most at risk of extinction?

The team is putting together a plan of how to ensure that these species do not become extinct.
c Suggest two different strategies that the team could use to ensure that these
birds do not become extinct. Explain how each suggestion would help.

Worked example
1 2 3 4 5
A student is investigating the population of plantain plants on a field.
1
He draws a plan of the field and draws grids on it to choose the areas
2
to sample. He chooses numbers at random to decide the co-ordinates
of the selected areas and shades them as below: 3

a Why has the student selected areas to sample, rather than 4

counting the plants over the whole field? 5
How easy would it be to count the plantain in the whole field?
a It would be time consuming and difficult to count plants in the whole field.
b Why is it important to choose the areas to sample at random?
What might influence the student if he was choosing the areas himself?
To avoid bias, choosing areas for a particular reason (for example, choosing sunny spots or
shady spots).
The results are shown in the table below.
Number of plantain plants per quadrat sample
1 2 3 4 5
22 10 12 18 14
c Estimate the total number of plantain plants in the field.
Consider the number counted in the sample. Then consider what proportion of
the field was sampled.
Total number of plantain plants in the sample = 76
5 squares out of a total of 25 for the field were sampled. This is 1 (or 20%).
5
Therefore, total in the field = 76 × 5 = 380 plantain

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 Questions

10 A group of students investigated whether the amount of sunlight affected the growth of
dandelions on their school field.
Using a quadrat, the students sampled 6 areas in full sunlight and 6 areas in partial shade. The
results are shown below.

Amount of Number of dandelions per quadrat sample

sunlight 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean
full sunlight 12 14 10 18 12 11 i
partial shade 6 4 2 2 3 7 ii

a Calculate the mean values shown by i and ii in the table to one decimal place.
b In this investigation, identify:
i the independent variable
ii the dependent variable.
c Write a conclusion for this investigation.
d i The quadrat is 0.5 m × 0.5 m. Calculate the area of the quadrat.
ii The total area of the field that is in full sunlight is 10 m × 6 m. Estimate the total
number of dandelions in the field in full sunlight.
11 An aquatic food chain is shown below.
Insecticides containing mercury are used near the water where the phytoplankton grow and
small traces enter the phytoplankton. Mercury is a toxin that affects the nervous system and
reproductive system of animals.

Food chain How many does it eat? Concentration of mercury (ppm)

phytoplankton – 0.5
➝

zooplankton 100 phytoplankton i

➝

herring 50 zooplankton ii
➝

salmon 8 herring iii

➝

orca whale 10 salmon iv

a What is a toxin?
b Animals with high levels of mercury can become confused, numb and make twitchy
movements. Explain why.
The table shows how much each organism eats. The table also shows that
the phytoplankton have a concentration of 0.5 parts per million (ppm).
c Calculate the concentration of mercury in each of the other organisms shown as i–iv in
the table.
d State which organism is most likely to die from mercury poisoning. Explain your answer.
The salmon sources another food and starts to eat crayfish as well as herring.
e i Explain the effect this will have on the concentration of mercury in the salmon.
ii Explain the effect this will have on the concentration of mercury in the herring.

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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

Maths and practical skills

1 What is the scientific name of the apparatus used in sampling, shown in the image below?

a square b frame c quadrat d sampler

2 The number of a species has been counted for 20% of an area. What should the result be
multiplied by to estimate the total population size?

a ×2 b ×5 c ×10 d ×20

3 Workers in southwest China are hand pollinating plants in a crop field of area 60 m2. Each worker
can cover an area of 5 m2. How many workers will be needed to cover the whole crop field?

a 55 b 12 c 300 d 10

4 The graph below shows population sizes for a predator and its prey.
Population size

Time

Which of the lines on the graph represents the prey?

5 Sequence the steps to show how you could estimate the size of a population of daisies in a field.
a Count the number of the daisies inside the quadrat.
b Choose sections of the field to sample at random.
c Place the quadrat on the chosen areas.
d Multiply the number of daisies counted to estimate how many would be in the whole field.

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 Questions

Worked example
The graph below shows data on loss of primary forest in parts of a rainforest.
4
Hectares (millions)

0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year
a i Which year had the smallest forest loss?
2013
ii Which year had the greatest forest loss?
2016
b What was the loss in both 2018 and 2019?
 ead carefully from the graph and remember to include units. Even if the units are unfamiliar,
R
just use them as they are given on the graph.
3 000 000 hectares
c Describe the trend in the data from 2002 to 2019.
 hen describing a trend, focus on the start and end points (2002 and 2019 here) and describe
W
what has happened overall, rather than focusing on every slight increase or decrease.
forest loss has increased over time (with variation in loss and gain over time)

6 The graph below shows how the loss of trees in the rainforest has changed over time.
18

16
Area of tree cover lost (Mha)

14

12

10

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year
a Between which years was the biggest increase seen?
i 2003–2004
ii 2011–2012
iii 2014–2015
iv 2015–2016
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 5 Ecosystems and interdependence

One scientist predicted that the tree cover loss in 2018 would be the same as in 2017.
b What is the scientist’s predicted tree cover loss in 2018?
c Describe the general trend of the data.

7 Students investigated grass growth on a 3 m × 3 m section of a beach.

a What is the area of the beach being investigated?
The students used a quadrat 0.25 m × 0.25 m.
b What is the area of each quadrat?
10 quadrats are randomly placed within the area and in each quadrat the percentage covered
by grass is estimated. The results are shown below.

Percentage covered by grass (%)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
25 20 10 10 25 35 40 10 20 25

c Estimate the percentage covered by grass in this area of beach.

8 Methylmercury is a toxin that can enter food chains and is extremely harmful in high
concentrations.
The data below shows the concentration of methylmercury found in three different types
of tuna.

Tuna Concentration of methylmercury (mg/kg) Mean

species Sample number concentration
(mg/kg)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
yellowfin 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.30 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.21
albacore 0.20 0.24 0.02 0.31 0.35 0.22 0.25 0.34
bigeye 0.35 0.42 0.47 0.41 0.45 0.52 0.48 0.46

a i Identify the anomalous result in the data.

ii How should you treat an anomaly when calculating a mean?
b Calculate the mean concentration of methylmercury in each of the fish.
c Which fish is most likely to be affected by the toxin? Explain your answer.

9 Mercury is a toxin that causes serious harm and death when in high enough concentration.
Scientists have investigated whether the size of a fish affects the concentration of toxin in its
body. The data comparing three different types of tuna are shown below.

Mean length of fish (cm) Mean mercury concentration

(mg/kg)
yellowfin albacore bigeye
50 0.05 0.10 0.15
100 0.10 0.30 0.45
150 0.30 0.55 0.95

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 Questions

a i Describe the trend in the mercury concentration as length increases for yellowfin tuna.
ii Is the trend the same for albacore and bigeye?
b Which type of tuna would give the greatest risk if eaten? Explain your answer.
Data was then collected about the depth that each tuna feeds at. The data is given in the
table below.

Tuna species Mean feeding depth (m)

yellowfin 100
albacore 150
bigeye 300

c Scientists believe that mercury levels in water vary based on the depth of the water.
Using both sets of data, can you conclude that mercury levels are more of a risk in water at
100, 150 or 300 m depth?

10 A student is investigating a population of snails on a seashore. They have decided on an area

of 3 m × 3 m, and have drawn a grid of the area, as shown below.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1

3
3m
4

3m

The student uses a die to identify the areas to sample. They roll the die twice to decide the
coordinates to use. The results of the die rolling are shown below.

Sample Top coordinate Side coordinate

1 3 2
2 2 1
3 3 1
4 4 6
5 4 5
6 5 4

a Sketch the grid and shade the areas that the student will sample.
b Explain why the student selected the areas in this way rather than choosing where to place
the quadrat.
c Using the grid, calculate the length of each side of the quadrat.
d The student counted 18 of the snails in the 6 areas sampled.
i What fraction of the whole area was sampled?
ii Estimate the size of the whole population in the area of the beach.
e The student believes that this species of snail may be reducing in number in this area. How
could they check whether this is true?

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6 Inheritance and evolution

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

6.2 Natural selection and evolution

• describe variation and competition
• describe and explain evolution
• define and explain selective breeding
• apply evolution
• describe gene banks

6.1 Types and causes

classification of living things of variation
fossils • identify differences
• identify features
adaptations of living things • explain diversity
variation in offspring • compare variation
• investigate variation

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

6.3 The role of chromosomes,

genes and DNA in heredity
• describe relationships
• explain roles
• describe the DNA structure
ution model reproduction
• explain extracting DNA
• explain some genetic disorders classification of living organisms
variation and evolution
6.4 Explaining inheritance
• explain inherited the development of understanding
differences of genetics and evolution
• explain identical twin
formation
• apply a model KS4

Maths and practical skills

observing and measuring, including the evaluation of reproducibility

describing the development of scientific methods and theories over time
making scientific predictions
planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
calculating results and converting between different units
presenting data using tables and graphs
interpreting observations and data
analysing data

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6 Inheritance and
evolution
Scientists have identified over 1.7 million species with different features
and adaptations. Even within a species, there are lots of differences: think
about how different humans look from one another. These variations are
important for the survival of species.

Which of these do you recognise?

None of the animals below exist now. They are extinct. Why might these animals have become extinct
whereas other species of birds and mammals have survived?

Model of dodo Replica of woolly mammoth Model of sabre-toothed tiger

What similarities and differences can you see?

Why do brothers and sisters have similarities and differences? Even these identical twins vary. How can
that happen?

Brother and sister Identical twins

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 Unit opener
Using your science skills

Could you be a forensic scientist?

You examine crime scenes for laboratory work. You will liaise
traces of genetic evidence, for with police teams to share your
example in blood and hair, so findings and may also attend
will need to cope with difficult court to present evidence and
situations and upsetting answer questions. You need to
scenes. You may work long be thorough and extremely
and unusual hours as samples careful to ensure evidence is
will need to be collected and accurate.
analysed quickly. The work is unlikely to be as criminal investigations as it
You will carry out scientific tests glamorous as it sometimes could make the difference
on the materials you find, so seems in films, but is hugely between a person being found
will be confident undertaking important and is essential in innocent or guilty of a crime.

Genetic counsellors analyse and interpret genetic

information to advise patients and families about their
condition. They present
information about inheritance
patterns that helps patients to
make decisions about having a
family, for example. They need
to be experts in genetic medicine
Museum curators bring together but also have counselling skills.
collections based on a specific
theme, such as changes in living
things over time or extinct animals. DNA analysts are technicians
They find relevant objects, research working within a laboratory to
the background to the collection analyse samples such as saliva,
and present the information in blood and semen. They carry out
an accessible way for visitors to scientific tests to extract the DNA
the museum. The role gives the and try to determine who the
opportunity to research many samples belong to. This could be
different fields and to communicate as part of criminal investigations or in determining whether
with, and educate, the public. people are likely to be part of the same family.

Biostatisticians Crop plant breeders improve the quality and quantity of

collect and food produced by crops and create new crop plants. They
study numerical base their work on the fact that plants show natural genetic
data to make variation. Parent plants with desirable features are selected,
predictions. For such as those that produce
example, they use data to predict large quantities of crops
how long a person may live or the or those that are naturally
sequence of symptoms of a genetic resistant to disease, and
condition. Aside from number new plants are bred.
crunching, they need to ensure that Breeders must be patient
data collected is repeatable and to see the results of their
without bias, and so they need a very work and ensure that
good understanding of how to plan what they breed is useful
and carry out valid investigations. to farmers.

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 6 Inheritance
Cells and evolution
and Organisation

Knowledge organiser
A classification system shows the species name Individuals of the same species have
(using Latin names) but is also used to show which other characteristics in common and can
organisms are closely related. Carl Linnaeus developed the reproduce and produce fertile offspring.
modern classification system. The range of characteristics in a group
is called variation. Variation between
Biodiversity is the variety of living things in an species is always greater than variation
ecosystem. An ecosystem with high biodiversity is more within species.
likely to survive changes.
High biodiversity is linked with large variation.

Variation can be described as continuous variation or discontinuous variation.

Type of continuous discontinuous
variation
Description feature has a whole range of values feature has a limited number of
discrete values
Graph histogram (normal distribution often shown bar chart
plotted as a bell-shaped curve). The most common
value is the mode (150–154 cm in this graph) 60
50

Number of people
Number of people in category

mode

40
30
20
10
0
AB A O B
Blood group
up to 129

over 174
130–134
135–139
140–144
145–149
150–154
155–159
160–164
165–169
170–174

range
Height category (cm)

Examples height, mass, intelligence eye colour, blood group, tongue rolling

Genetic or inherited variation is Evolution is a change in a species over many generations.

caused by what is inherited from parents. Natural selection can happen quite quickly; evolution
Environmental variation is caused by takes many generations. Through natural selection, some
the environment around the organism. organisms are more likely to survive to reproduce and
pass on their genetic information. Their offspring that
Cause of Example of inherit the selective advantage are more likely to survive
variation feature to reproduce and pass on their genetic information. Over
many generations, this can lead to an evolutionary change
genetics eye colour, blood
in the species.
group, natural hair
colour
environment scars, tattoos evolutionary time

both genetics height, mass, skin

and environment colour
Most features are affected by both Over many generations, the necks of giraffes have become longer
genetics and the environment. because a long neck is an advantage for feeding

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Selective breeding is used to produce Key vocabulary

plants and animals with desirable features.
biodiversity the variety of living things in an ecosystem
Examples in farming and horticulture are:
crops that are resistant to disease; fruit classification a system that allows scientists to group
trees that produce more fruit; chickens that system organisms; for example, into a genus or species
produce more eggs; cows that produce more continuous variation that is distributed along a
milk; cattle that produce lower-fat meat. variation continuum, with a whole range of values,
such as weight and height
The process of selective breeding follows correlation how well sets of data are linked; a high
these steps. correlation shows a strong link between the
1 Parent plants or animals are chosen that sets of data
have desirable features (for example, a
discontinuous variation that is distributed in discrete
fruit tree producing large fruits and a
variation (separate) categories, for example, eye
fruit tree producing lots of fruit).
colour and blood group
2 These are bred together.
environmental linked to environmental factors
3 The offspring showing the desirable
features are selected (the offspring evolution the change in a species over a very long
producing lots of large fruit). period of time
4 These offspring are bred together. extinction the process of a species dying out
5 The process is repeated over many fertile able to reproduce
generations. gene bank a store of genetic material that can be used
The disadvantages of selective breeding are in future to grow more organisms
that it decreases variation and can cause genetic linked with genes or heredity
deformities in organisms. Breeding of closely
inbreeding breeding between close genetic relatives
related individuals is called inbreeding.
inherited passed on through genetic material
In an environment where any resource mass the extinction of a large number of species at
is limited, such as food, shelter or mates, extinction the same time
individuals of the same species compete
natural the process by which characteristics that
with each other, as well as with individuals
selection can be passed on genetically become more
of different species.
common because they provide an advantage
Variation within a species or between for survival
species means that some individuals may
be better adapted to compete in that normal a spread of values usually linked with
environment than others. distribution continuous variation; produces a bell‑shaped
curve
The individuals that are better adapted
are more likely to survive. This is natural scatter graph a graph of plotted points to show the
selection: nature selects the individuals that relationship between two sets of data
survive. This is also known as survival of selective the mating of two individuals chosen
the fittest. breeding because of their characteristics, in an
attempt to produce offspring with desired
Extinction can be caused by too characteristics
little variation in a population. If the species a group of organisms that can interbreed
environment changes and none of the and produce fertile offspring
individuals are adapted to the change,
none of the species may survive. survival having a characteristic that means that an
advantage individual is better adapted, and more likely
Mass extinction is the extinction of
to survive to reproduce, than other individuals
a large number of species at the same
time. This is very rare. It can be caused by survival of the the existence of individuals that are better
natural events, such as climate heating and fittest adapted to an environment, meaning that
cooling, asteroids or disease. they are more likely to survive to reproduce
Gene banks preserve genetic material and pass on their genetic material
by freezing, such as sperm and eggs in variation the range of characteristics across individuals
animals and seeds in plants. The aim is to of the same group or between groups
stop species becoming extinct.
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 6 Inheritance
Cells and evolution
and Organisation

Genetic material is found inside the nucleus chromosomes Genetic material is arranged into
of a cell. Genetic variation is due to these thread-like structures, which
differences in the genes we inherit. are made of wound-up DNA.
cell chromosome
DNA Each DNA molecule contains two
chromosome
strands arranged as a double helix.
Each strand is made up of four
chemical bases: A, C, G and T. The
two strands are held together by
bonds between bases.
nucleus genes Regions of the DNA that control the
DNA
development of characteristics, such
DNA base as eye colour and blood group. Each
gene is made up of a different pattern
of the four bases: Each chromosome
contains hundreds to thousands of
gene genes.

The discovery of the DNA model was achieved through the contributions of several scientists.
Scientists Maurice Wilkins Rosalind Franklin Erwin Chargaff James Watson and Francis Crick
Contribution Studied DNA Produced the Discovered Used a modelling technique to
to the using X-ray clearest image that A pairs build a large-scale model of DNA.
discovery crystallography. of DNA using with T, and C They were awarded a Nobel Prize
X-ray pairs with G. for their work.
crystallography.

A set of chromosomes in an organism is called

a karyotype.
Chromosomes are arranged in pairs, as we inherit one
chromosome of each pair from our mother and one
chromosome of each pair from our father.
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell, that is
female
23 pairs.
Each of the chromosomes in a pair is the same size and male
carries genes for the same characteristic. Pair of genes
for blood group XY
One pair of chromosomes determines whether an organism
Chromosomes in a pair A female human karyotype
is male or female. These are the sex chromosomes.
contain genes for the
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY); same characteristic in
females have two XX chromosomes (XX). the same position

DNA can be extracted from many cells to allow scientists to study its structure.
Uses of extracted DNA include forensic science; medicine (to detect genetic disorders)
and families (to find out whether people are related).

fat and protein in

cells broken open cell membranes DNA solidified DNA separated
by grinding broken down with using ethanol by spinning
salt solution

DNA extraction

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

We have two copies of every gene, one on each Key vocabulary

chromosome of a pair. Different versions of each
gene are called alleles; e.g. there is an allele for allele a version of a gene; can be
blue eyes and an allele for brown eyes. recessive or dominant
• The dominant allele chromosome gene base a chemical that is a component
controls the characteristic of DNA: A, C, G and T
whether one or two chromosome a thread-like strand of DNA
copies of it are present; individual A – brown eyes
e.g. allele for brown eyes DNA deoxyribonucleic acid; the
or red flower colour. molecule that genes are
• The recessive allele made of
individual B – brown eyes
s
only controls the dominant a version of a gene that controls
characteristic when there allele the characteristic whether there
are two copies present, are one or two copies of it
e.g. allele for blue eyes. individual C – blue eyes
double helix two strands that wind around
allele for brown eyes (dominant)
each other like a twisted
allele for brown eyes (recessive)
ladder; DNA has a double helix
structure
Genetic variation is caused by random mixing of
genetic material. This passing on of traits is known forensic the science of collecting and
as inheritance or heredity. science examining physical evidence
When sex cells are formed
Sperm cell contains one
set of genes/chromosomes
Egg cell contains one gene a region of DNA that controls
(sperm and ovum in
animals, pollen and ovule
set of genes/chromosomes
an inherited characteristic
in plants), the number of
chromosomes is halved;
e.g. human sex cells
contain 23 chromosomes.
genetic a model used to predict the
Which of the parent
chromosomes form the diagram outcomes of a genetic cross
sex cell is random.

This means that the chromosomes

Fertilisation: the egg genetic a disorder caused by a fault in
and sperm fuse together
(and, therefore, genes) in each
offspring is random and this
– the new cell now
has two sets
disorder the genes or chromosomes
makes the offspring different
of genes/chromosomes
heredity inheritance, the passing on of
traits from parent to offspring
Identical twins are formed when a fertilised egg
splits into two. Each twin is formed from the same identical twins twins developed from the
sperm and egg and so they have identical genetic splitting of a single fertilised
material. egg; they share identical
genetic information
Traits that are affected by the environment, such
as weight and height, may show variation even karyotype the number and appearance of
between identical twins. all the chromosomes in a single
nucleus
We can model inheritance mutation a change in the genetic
Possible
using a genetic diagram. gametes B b composition of a cell
It helps us to predict of parents

the probability of probability the chance of something

characteristics. B
BB
Brown
Bb
Brown
occurring
eyes eyes
1 identify the allele in recessive allele a version of a gene that controls
each gamete Bb
bb the characteristic only when
b Brown
2 identify the offspring eyes
Blue eyes there are two copies of it
allele combinations Possible combination of sex chromosomes that determine
3 identify the characteristic alleles in offspring. The chromosomes the sex of an organism; X and Y
probability of blue eyes is chromosomes in humans
of each offspring. 1 in 4 or 25% or 1:3; the
We can show probability in probability of brown eyes is trait a characteristic
different ways. For example, 3 in 4 or 75% or 3:1.
trisomy a chromosomal disorder where
if we have four possible offspring we can express there is an extra chromosome
this as ‘x in 4’, or as a percentage, or as a ratio.

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6.1 Types and causes of variation

You are learning to:
• identify differences between species
• identify features that are inherited and features that are determined by the
environment
• explain the importance of diversity
• compare continuous and discontinuous variation
• investigate variation within a species.

1 Choose the two true statements about an ecosystem with high biodiversity.
a It will be more able to survive changes.
b It will have a smaller variety of animal species.
c It will have a greater variety of plant species.
d It will be less able to survive changes.

2 Which two of the following statements are correct?

a A Siamese cat and a Labrador dog belong to the same species.
b A Sumatran tiger and a Siamese cat belong to the same family.
c There is a lot of variation between a Siamese cat and a Labrador dog.
d There is little variation between a Siamese cat and a Labrador dog.

3 For each of the examples below, identify whether it is linked with continuous or discontinuous
variation.
a length of a dog’s tail c eye colour in animals
b height in humans d colour of a cat’s coat

4 Match each sentence to its correct ending.

a An example of a feature that is entirely i genetic variation.
inherited is …
bA
 n example of a feature that is affected by ii environmental variation.
the environment is …
cT
 he cause of gradual changes in a species iii natural hair colour.
over hundreds of years is …
d The cause of changes in an individual iv the appearance of the skin.
animal that do not affect the survival of the
species as a whole is …

5 a Give an example of a characteristic where its variation is caused by:

i genetics (inherited) only
ii the environment only
iii both genetics and the environment
b Which causes most variation?
i genetics
ii environment
iii a mixture of both genetics and environment

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 Questions

6 Relationships between two sets of data are correlations. Identify the type of correlation
between each set of data below. Choose from either positive, negative or no correlation for
each one.
a age and height of children
b gender and intelligence
c height and foot size
d age and eye colour

Worked example
Data was collected on eye colour in a group of children. The graph of the data is shown below.

Number of children 14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
brown blue green
Eye colour

a Which type of variation does this show? Explain your answer.

Consider continuous and discontinuous variation – think about which type has discrete
values rather than a range of values.
Discontinuous because eye colour has discrete values rather than a whole range of possible values.
b Select which type of graph this is.
i bar chart
ii histogram
iii scatter graph
It might help to think of a bar chart as looking like bars on a cell window; they have gaps
between them.
i
c The height of children in the same group was then measured. Draw a sketch graph to
show the likely shape of the graph.
Height shows continuous variation. Think about what shape you see with continuous
variation.
line graph with a bell curve:
Number of children

Height

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

7 Students investigated variation in hair colour of the pupils in class. The results are shown
below.

Hair colour Number of pupils

brown 12
black 6
blond 8
red 2

a Does hair colour show continuous or discontinuous variation? Explain your answer.
b Draw a graph to show these results.

8 Students are investigating variation in ‘handedness’. They are collecting data from students in
the school on being left-handed, right-handed or ambidextrous (use both hands equally as
well). Some of the results are shown below.
• Number of pupils in the sample = 180
• Number of pupils who are right-handed = 144
• Number of pupils who are left-handed = 27
a How many pupils are ambidextrous?
b i What percentage of the students are right-handed?
ii What percentage of the students are left-handed?
Another student repeats the data collection from their class of 30 pupils. They find that their
results do not match the initial investigation.
c Why should the students make conclusions from the school data rather than the class data?

9 Viruses cause the illnesses myxomatosis and haemorrhagic disease in rabbits which can kill them.
The rabbits in Group A are resistant to the virus that causes myxomatosis.
The rabbits in Group B are resistant to the virus that causes haemorrhagic disease.

Group A Group B

a What does it mean to be ‘resistant’ to a virus?

b Predict the effect on both Group A and Group B if they come into contact with the virus
causing myxomatosis.
c Predict the effect on both Group A and Group B if they come into contact with the virus
causing haemorrhagic disease.
d Explain why this variation is useful in the rabbits.

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 Questions

Worked example
Students investigated whether there was any correlation between the height of fruit trees and the
number of fruit produced. They predicted that as height increases the number of fruit increases.
a Draw a sketch graph of the results if the prediction is correct.
A sketch graph shows the general shape of a graph, without plotting actual numbers.
Number of fruit

Height

b Which type of correlation does this show?

Consider whether this is positive correlation, negative correlation or no correlation.
positive

10 One scientific theory says that holly leaves have spikes to prevent animals on the ground from
eating the leaves.
Students are exploring whether there is a correlation between the height of the leaves on a
holly plant and the number of spikes on the leaves.

a In this investigation, identify the type of variable for each of the following:
i the height of the leaves
ii the number of spikes per leaf
iii level of sun and shade for each plant.
b Assuming the students believe that the scientific theory is correct, write a prediction for
the investigation.
c The students find there is a negative correlation between the height of the leaves and the
number of spikes per leaf. Draw a sketch line graph of the results.

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6.2 Natural selection and evolution

You are learning to:
• describe how variation causes competition and explain how this can lead to
natural selection
• describe and explain the theory of evolution
• describe and explain how selective breeding can be used to produce
offspring with desirable characteristics
• apply the theory of evolution to explain extinction
• describe the use of gene banks to preserve hereditary material.

1 Fill the gaps using the words below.

variation     adapted     compete     extinct
Organisms            for resources such as food and mates.
Individuals differ, this is called           .
The individuals that are better            are more likely to survive.
If all individuals were the same and none of them were adapted to a change, the species could
become           .
2 Place the sentences in the correct order to describe the selective breeding process.
a Offspring with most of the desired characteristic are selected.
b Selected parents are bred.
c Repeated over many generations.
d Male and female with desirable features are selected.
3 Match the answers to the questions.
a Places where seeds are stored, so that new i What are mass extinctions?
plants can be grown if the species is
threatened or extinct.
bS
 tores of frozen genetic material from ii What is an endangered species?
animals that could be cloned in the future.
cA
 bnormally large numbers of animals die in iii What are seed banks?
a very short time period or at the same time.
d Organisms at risk of extinction. iv What are gene banks?
4 Match each organism with a feature selectively bred by farmers and horticulturists.
a beef cattle i bred for disease resistance
b sheep ii bred for larger flowers
c wheat iii bred for lower fat content of meat
d roses iv bred for thicker fleeces
5 Complete each sentence using the words provided.
a Charles Darwin proposed the theory of         of the fittest. i adaptations
b Darwin’s theory explained that offspring with the best         ii offspring
survive to breed and pass on these features.
c The theory of acquired characteristics explained that giraffes stretch iii survival
their necks to reach leaves higher up on the tree, then pass their
longer necks on to their        .

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 Questions

6 Which two of these statements best describe natural selection?

a Organisms with the best adaptations are able to use more resources.
b Organisms with the best adaptations to their environment survive.
c Organisms with the best features pass these on to their offspring.
d Organisms with the best features live a long time.

7 Wild cheetahs are at risk of extinction. This is partly because there is very little variation in the
population.

Cheetah in the wild

a What is extinction of a species?

b Using the example of a virus entering cheetah populations, explain how a lack of variation
could lead to extinction.
c Describe the difference between ‘extinction’ and ‘mass extinction’.

8 In New Mexico, both white mice and dark Mouse population in New Mexico
mice are found. The numbers of each type
of mouse were monitored. The results are 180
shown in the graph. white mice
a i Describe the trend in the numbers 160 dark mice
of dark mice from 2006 to 2010.
140
ii Describe the trend in the numbers
of white mice from 2006 to 2010. 120
Number of mice

b The sand where the mice are found

became darker. How would this affect 100
how well mice could be hunted by
other animals? 80

c When the sand became darker, the 60

number of dark mice started to increase
and the number of white mice started 40
to decrease. Using the data, predict
which year the sand became darker. 20

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

9 The image below shows two variations of a moth species: a pale, peppered colour, and a dark,
black colour. Moths are eaten by birds.

a In the feeding relationship between the moth and the bird, identify:
i the predator
ii the prey.
b i On a pale surface, which moth has a selective advantage? Explain why.
ii On a dark surface, which moth has a selective advantage? Explain why.
Before the industrial revolution in the UK, trees were pale as there was little pollution. Then,
during the industrial revolution, many trees were black due to pollution.
c Describe and explain how the number of each variety of moth changed from before to
during the industrial revolution using the sentence starters below.
Before the industrial revolution, there were more           moths. This is because …
During the industrial revolution, the number of            moths decreased and
the number of            moths increased. This is because …

10 a Explain why selective breeding is used in farming.

b Choose the two best features that could be looked for in the parents selected to improve
a dairy herd by selective breeding.
i Bull comes from a heifer that produces creamy milk.
ii Heifer produces large quantities of milk.
iii Male produces creamy milk.
iv Heifer comes from parents that produce lean meat.
c Describe the effect of selective breeding on the variation in a population.
d Describe two disadvantages of selective breeding in animals.
e Describe how selective breeding may be used to increase the size of flowers produced by a
rose bush.

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 Questions

Worked example
One cause of a species becoming endangered is too little genetic variation in the population, which
may then lead to extinction. Explain how a change in the environment of a population like this can
lead to extinction.
Write your answer as step-by-step bullet points; you can then change the order if needed. Start
from what genetic variation is and why too little can be a problem.
• Genetic variation within a species gives individuals different adaptations.
• If there is little genetic variation, individuals are similar and adapted in similar ways.
• A change in the environment occurs, such as a change in prey available or in conditions such as
temperature.
• As all individuals are similar, there could be very few individuals that are adapted to the change.
• Fewer organisms will survive to reproduce.
• The number of individuals will decrease and could reach zero; the species is then extinct.

11 Over generations, peacocks (male) have evolved to have colourful tail feathers. It is believed
that colourful feathers are more attractive to peahens (female).

Peacock

Many generations ago, populations of peacocks were mixed with some peacocks having dull
tail feathers and others having brightly coloured tail feathers.
Explain how, over many generations, populations of peacocks now have brightly coloured tail
feathers.
In your explanation, include the following words and terms:
competition   selective advantage   natural selection   reproduce   evolution

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6.3 The role of chromosomes,

genes and DNA in heredity
You are learning to:
• describe the relationship between nuclei, chromosomes, DNA and genes
• explain the role of chromosomes, DNA and genes in heredity
• describe how the DNA structure model was developed, including the
importance of collaboration
• explain the importance of extracting DNA, giving examples
• explain how some genetic disorders arise.

1 Choose two reasons why DNA is extracted from cells by scientists.

a to make a double helix
b to detect genetic disorders
c to solve crimes
d to find differences between identical twins

2 Fill in the gaps using the words below.

hair     nucleus     DNA     chromosomes     genes
Genetic material is found in the           of a cell.
This material is arranged into thread like strands called          .
These strands are made of a chemical called          .
Along these strands are regions called           which control development of
features such as eye colour and           colour.

3 DNA is made up of a series of chemicals that make a ‘pattern’. What are these chemicals
called?
a bases
b cell
c chromosomes
d nucleus

4 Match the stages in the discovery of the structure of DNA to the scientists involved.
a Started to use X-ray crystallography. i Watson and Crick
b Took the clearest X-ray crystallography picture of DNA showing ii Erwin Chargaff
its helical structure.
c Used a molecular insert modelling technique to create a large iii Maurice Wilkins
model of DNA.
d Discovered the DNA base pairings. iv Rosalind Franklin

5 Which two statements are correct?

a DNA is made up of a single chemical.
b Each gene is a pattern of four bases.
c DNA has two strands that form a helix.
d The sides of the DNA molecule are held by rungs made of sugar.

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 Questions

6 Choose true or false for each of the statements below. Hint: read the statements carefully.
a Chromosomes are made of genes.
b Chromosomes come in fours.
c Humans have 46 pairs of chromosomes.
d Genes control characteristics.

7 Chromosomes are made of DNA. Regions of the DNA are genes.

a gene

a In which part of the cell are chromosomes found?

b Explain the role of a gene.
c A student wants to observe human chromosomes. Explain why they should not use red
blood cells for their investigation.

8 In forensic science, DNA is extracted from substances found at a crime scene. The DNA profile
is then used to see if it matches the profile of people.
a Give three examples of substances that DNA can be extracted from in forensics.
b Explain how DNA analysis of substances at a scene helps police to convict a criminal.
c Cattle are worth a lot of money. DNA profiling has been used by police to prove that cattle
were stolen from a herd on a farm. Explain how this can be proven.
d Explain why DNA profiling may not be useful to show that an item such as a picture was
stolen.

9 Body cells in a gorilla have 24 pairs of chromosomes.

a What are the sex cells called in the following?
i female gorillas
ii male gorillas
b How many chromosomes will be in the gorillas’ sex cells?
c African hedgehogs have 90 chromosomes in their body cells. Which two of these
statements are true?
i There are 45 identical chromosome pairs.
ii The sex cells have 22 chromosomes.
iii The sex cells have 45 chromosomes.
iv The fertilised egg has 88 chromosomes.

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

10 The image below shows the chromosomes of a human from a cheek cell.

X X

a What is the name given to a whole set of chromosomes?

b Are these the chromosomes from a male or a female? Explain your answer.
c Describe how this image would be different if the chromosomes were taken from a
sex cell.
d Explain why we arrange chromosomes in pairs.
e This image shows that there are 46 chromosomes. In a person with a disorder called
trisomy 21, how many chromosomes would be seen?
f Rose pollen contains 7 chromosomes. When leaf cells are observed under the microscope,
how many chromosomes should be expected?

Worked example
A DNA molecule is made of two strands wound around each other.
a The shape of a DNA molecule is described as a ‘twisted ladder’. What is the name given to this
shape?
Consider how many strands a DNA molecule has. What shape do these strands form?
double helix
These two strands are held together by bonds between chemicals in each strand. There are four
types of these chemicals, given the letters A, C, G and T.
b i What is the general name for these chemicals?
bases
ii What pairs do these chemicals form?
The four chemicals form two pairs.
A–T and C–G
c The sequence of part of one strand is shown below. Write the sequence of the opposite strand.
T C C A T G

Remember to use the rules of the base pairings.

AGGTAC

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 Questions

11 The diagram shows the sequence of part of one strand of human DNA.

A
T
T
DNA strand
C
T
G

a What is the name of the chemicals shown by the letters?

b Write the sequence of the opposite strand (from top to bottom).
In another person, the sequence was found to be ATCCTG.
c What is the name of this type of change in the DNA sequence?
d What type of molecules are made from this DNA sequence?
e State whether or not each of the conditions below is caused by a change in a DNA
sequence.
i Down’s syndrome ii chicken pox

iii cystic fibrosis iv polydactyly

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

6.4 Explaining inheritance

You are learning to:
• explain how inherited differences arise by combination of genetic material
from both parents
• explain how identical twin information can be used to study heredity
• apply a model to demonstrate genetic crosses and make predictions about
offspring.

1 Choose two entirely genetic traits.

a height
b eye colour
c blood group
d hair length

2 Which two of these statements are true?

a All offspring inherit half of their genetic material from their mother and half from their
father.
b Boys inherit most of their genetic material from their father.
c Girls inherit most of their genetic material from their mother.
d Identical twins inherit the same genetic material.

3 Fill the gaps using the words below.

parents’     different     father’s     mother’s
a Each sperm cell contains one chromosome from every pair of the _____ cells.
b Each egg cell contains one chromosome from every pair of the _____ cells.
c Every offspring has a random mix of their _____ genetic information.
d Each chromosome in a pair contains ______ genetic information.

4 Identify whether each of the statements is true or false.

a Identical twins happen when a fertilised egg split into two.
b Identical twins may not be exactly the same.
c Identical twins are only as similar as other brothers and sisters.
d When a fertilised egg splits, but not completely into two, conjoined twins occur.

5 Match each word to its definition.

a gene i controls the characteristic whether there are one or two copies of
the gene present
b allele ii regions of the DNA that code for characteristics, such as eye colour
c dominant allele iii versions of genes that code for characteristics such as blue or
brown eyes
d recessive allele iv controls the characteristic only when two copies of the gene are
present

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 Questions

6 The image below shows the chromosomes in a pollen and an egg cell.
chromosome

pollen cell egg cell

fertilised egg cell

a How many chromosomes will be in the fertilised egg cell?

b Why might this plant have some features in common with both parent plants?

7 a Describe how identical twins are formed.

b Explain why identical twins have features in common, such as eye colour and natural hair
colour.
c If one identical twin has the blood group AB, will the other identical twin definitely also
have the blood group AB? Explain your answer.
d Identical twins do not have identical fingerprints. What does this tell you about what
controls the development of our fingerprints?

Worked example
There is an equal chance of a couple having a baby boy as a baby girl.
a Choose two ways of expressing the probability of having a boy.
i 1 in 2
ii 1:2
iii 50%
iv 100%
Consider each possible answer in turn.
i and iii
b If the couple has two children, can they be sure of having one boy and one girl? Explain your
answer.
Probability shows the chance of something happening rather than a prediction of what will
definitely happen.
No, probability is the chance of a baby being a boy or a girl, but as chromosomes are mixed randomly, we
cannot predict what the sex will be
c The couple had a baby boy and are now expecting another baby. What is the probability of
them having another boy?
Probabilities are calculated based on the chromosomes that organisms have and pass on.
Consider whether having a baby boy changes the chromosomes and the chances of sharing.
1 in 2 or 50% or 1:1

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

8 a A couple are told that there is a 1 in 4 probability of having a baby with a genetic
condition. What is the probability shown as a percentage?
i 1%
ii 4%
iii 25%
iv 75%
b The couple then have a baby and find that it has inherited the genetic condition. If they
have another baby, what is the probability of this baby having the genetic condition?
c If the probability of passing on a condition is 1 in 2, how many children
would be expected to be affected if the couple had 6 children?

9 Colour in sweet pea flowers is controlled

by genes. There are two alleles, one for
red colour and one for white colour.
The allele for red is the dominant allele.
The allele for white is the recessive allele.
A botanist crosses plants with red flowers
and white flowers by taking pollen from
the red flower and pollinating the white
flower. They are hoping to produce pink
flowers. Red flowers White flowers
The red flowers have the alleles RR.
The white flowers have the alleles rr.
a i Name the allele in the red flower pollen cells.
ii Name the allele in the white flower egg cells.
iii Write the allele combination in all of the offspring.
iv What colour will the offspring be?
b Explain why the flowers produced were not pink.

Worked example
Earlobes are either ‘attached’ directly to the side of the head or are ‘not attached’ and have an
earlobe that hangs slightly. Whether earlobes are attached or not is controlled by a particular gene,
with two versions of the gene.
The allele for not attached, E, is dominant.
The allele for attached, e, is recessive.
Two parents both have the combination of alleles, Ee.
a Do these parents have attached or not
attached earlobes?
Consider which is the dominant allele.
not attached

Earlobes not attached Ear lobes attached

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 Questions

The genetic diagram shows the possible offspring from these parents.
Possible sex cells of parents E e
E (i) (ii)
e (iii) (iv)
b Identify the allele combinations for each offspring, i, ii, iii and iv.
Each offspring inherits one allele from each parent.
i EE
ii Ee
iii Ee
iv ee
c Which one combination will lead to attached ear lobes?
For each offspring, work out whether their earlobes will be attached or not attached.
ee
d What is the probability of attached earlobes?
Write this as __ in 4.
1 in 4, 25% or 1:3

10 Eye colour is inherited. It is controlled by two alleles, one for brown eyes, B, and one for blue
eyes, b.
a Considering the symbol for each allele, which allele is likely to be dominant?
The diagram below shows the possible offspring from a father with alleles Bb and a mother
with alleles bb.
Father Mother

Bb bb

eye brown
colour

possible B b
sex cells

offspring Bb Bb
alleles

eye
colour

b Identify the eye colour of the mother.

c Identify the alleles in the possible sex cells of the mother.
d Identify the missing possible combination of alleles of the offspring.
e Identify the eye colour for each offspring.
f What is the probability of the couple having a child with blue eyes?

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

Maths and practical skills

1 The results of an investigation are shown in the graph on the right. 20
18
What is the total sample size in the investigation?
16

Number of children
a 18     b 8     c 10     d 26 14
12
2 Match each example graph to the correct name. 10
8
A i scatter graph 6
4
2
0
can cannot
roll roll
tongue tongue

B ii bar chart

C iii histogram

3 Why should you use a large sample size when gathering variation data?
a It would be easier to make a prediction.
b The data would be more accurate.
c The data would have fewer errors.
d The data collection would be safer.

4 Match the stage of DNA extraction to its purpose.

a cells broken down by grinding i to solidify the DNA
b salt solution and cleaning agent added ii to break down fat and protein
c ethanol added iii to release cell contents

5 The probability of a couple passing on a genetic condition is 1 in 2. Choose two statements

that mean the same thing.
a chance of 50%
b more likely to pass on the condition than not pass on the condition
c probability of 1:2
d if they have 4 children, predict 2 children affected

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 Questions

6 To create a DNA profile from a crime scene sample, approximately 0.001 g of DNA is needed.
How many µg is this?
a 0.000001     b 1.0     c 1000     d 0.1

7 The graph below shows the variation in height of human males.

Number of people

0
145 153 161 169 177 185 193 201 209
Height (cm)

a Does this graph suggest that height has continuous or discontinuous variation?
b What is the mode value?
The relationship between height and lung volume was then investigated.

5500

5000

4500
Lung volume (ml)

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000
155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195
Height (cm)

c i Describe what the scatter graph shows about the link between height and lung volume.
ii What type of correlation (positive, negative or no correlation) does this graph show?

7
8 The graph on the right shows the height of a
population of pine trees in a forest. 6
a What type of variation is shown in this
5
feature in the fir trees?
Number of trees

b How many trees are between 24 and 4

27 m tall?
3
c What is the total population size of
these trees? 2

d What is the mode value?

1
e What is the range of the results?
0
0–3 4–7 8–11 12–15 16–19 20–23 24–27 28–31
Height (m)

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 6 Inheritance and evolution

Worked example

Twin 1 eye colour

Identical twin studies are really helpful in understanding which
differences are caused by genes and which are caused by
the environment.
The graph on the right is a scatter graph of a comparison
between the eye colours of identical twins.
Where twins have exactly the same eye colour, the cross is on
the dotted line.
a i Make a conclusion about how the eye colour between
identical twins compares.
 s the study was to compare the eye colour, your
A Twin 2 eye colour
conclusion should state whether eye colour is the same or different in identical twins.
Eye colour is the same in identical twins.
ii Does this study tell us that eye colour is controlled by genes or the environment?
genes
A study was carried out to try to find out whether the amount of sleep that we have is
controlled by our genes or the environment.
The number of hours of sleep that identical twins have was compared.
The number of hours of sleep that non-identical twins have was compared.
The scatter graphs below show the results.
Identical twins Non-identical twins
12 12
Twin 1 sleep time (hours)

Twin 1 sleep time (hours)

11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Twin 2 sleep time (hours) Twin 2 sleep time (hours)

Where twins have exactly the same number of hours of sleep, the dot is on the dotted line.
b Choose the correct answer from the brackets for each statement.
i Identical twins have (all/some) of their genes in common.
ii Non-identical twins have (some/none) of the same genes.
iii (Identical/non-identical) twins are more likely to be similar.
i all
ii some
iii identical

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 Questions

c i Comment on whether many of the twins had the same number of hours of sleep.
Remember, when the twins have the same number of hours of sleep the cross sits on
the dotted line.
Not many had the same number of hours of sleep (as not many crosses are on the line)

ii Does this study suggest that sleep is controlled only by genes or that the environment
also has an effect?
If this was controlled by genes, would you expect more similarities between identical
twins?
environment also has an effect

9 A study compared the intelligence between identical twins and then compared the
intelligence between non-identical twins.
The graphs below show the results.
Identical twins Non-identical twins
150 150
Twin 1 IQ (intelligence score)

Twin 1 IQ (intelligence score)

140 140
130 130
120 120
110 110
100 100
90 90
80 80
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Twin 2 IQ (intelligence score) Twin 2 IQ (intelligence score)

a Explain why identical twins are usually so similar.

b Compared to identical twins, do non-identical twins share more, less or the same number
of genes?
Where twins have exactly the same intelligence, the dot is on the dotted line.
c i Which twins have the most similar intelligence, identical or non-identical twins?
ii Does this study suggest that intelligence is affected by genes?
10 The height of pea plants is controlled by genes.
Some plants are tall and some are short. There are two alleles, T for tall
and t for short.
a Both parent plants have the combination of alleles Tt. This means
that their sex cells contain T or t.
i What is the probability of the sex cells containing the T allele?
ii What is the probability of the sex cells containing the t allele?
The diagram below shows the genetic cross.
Possible sex cells of parents T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt Pea plants
b i What is the probability of the offspring having two of the same allele?
ii What is the probability of short plants being produced?
c In a crop of 120 offspring from these parent plants, how many do you predict would
be tall?

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7 The particulate nature of

matter road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
7.3 Atoms, elements
and compounds
• understand terms
• recognise differences
• use simple models

7.2 Changes of state

• recognise reversible changes
• describe changes of state
dissolving solids in liquids • explain using the particle
model
recovering solids from solutions
reversible changes 7.1 The properties
group materials by states of matter of different states
of matter
changes of state • recognise differences
• describe in terms of
evaporation and condensation in the particle model
the water cycle • explain properties

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

7.4 Conservation of mass the three states of matter

• use the particle model
state symbols
7.5 Diffusion conservation of mass and balanced
• use the particle model chemical equations
• understand concentration diffusion
differences
atoms, elements and compounds
the development of the model of the atom
changes of state and specific latent heat
7.6 Energy changes
• identify effects of heating
• explain changes of state
KS4

Maths and practical skills

analysing data
calculating results and converting between different units
interpreting observations and data
planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
observing and measuring, including the evaluation of repeatability, reproducibility,
accuracy and precision
using SI units and chemical names and symbols

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7 The particulate nature of matter

We can explain the world around us using the particle model. Particles can be atoms or molecules. They
behave differently in solids, liquids and gases. We can use the particle model to explain why water flows,
why smells spread from one place to another and how ice melts.

Where did it go?

Describe what’s happening to the water and the state it’s in, in each photo.

What is happening?
Look at the ice in the image. Describe what you think is happening and why.

What do you think is happening to the mass of the ice cubes?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an ice core analyst?

Could you analyse ice cores? You count the layers, like tree rings, know what the carbon dioxide
would normally work in Antarctica to work out how far back in time levels in the atmosphere were
or Greenland and use a drill to the snow fell in each layer. thousands of years ago. We can
remove a long column of ice; Working with ice cores tells us analyse the
some ice cores have been drilled about the history of the Earth, gas in the air
to over 3 km in depth. The ice including which gases were bubble, and
cores are cut into short sections in the atmosphere hundreds then count
which are analysed in a lab. of thousands of years ago. back the
Ice cores are made by drilling The ice core in the picture is layers to work
into the layers of snow that have from Iceland. It contains layers out when the
built up on the ground. This of black ash from volcanic air bubble
is like pushing a metal straw eruptions over the centuries. was trapped.
into a layered cake. Each layer Ice cores contain bubbles of
represents half a year. We can trapped gases. This is how we

Food technologists are scientists

and engineers working in the food
industry. They develop new food
products and make sure that the
Weather forecasters food we buy has the right flavour Nanotechnologists are
use their understanding of and texture. When manufacturing helping to treat illnesses
air pressure to monitor the coffee, food technologists add such as Alzheimer’s
weather and predict what it volatile chemicals to coffee disease and Parkinson’s
will be like in the future. Air granules. These evaporate quickly disease by finding new
moves from an area of high when a new jar of dried coffee is ways to deliver drugs to
pressure to an area of low opened and gives the coffee the the brain. The brain is
pressure; we feel this as wind. freshly opened jar smell. A key protected by a blood–
Weather forecasters can predict part of their role is to ensure that brain barrier, preventing
the strength and direction of the right processes are followed harmful substances from
winds based on maps of air to make sure the food is safe for diffusing across from
pressure measurements. consumption and legal for sale, as the blood to the brain.
well as tasty. This barrier can also stop
some helpful drugs from
diffusing through to
where they are needed.
An analytical chemist analyses chemical Nanotechnologists are
compounds to work out which elements using tiny nanoparticles to
they contain, and their structures and help solve this problem.
properties. This is an important role in drug
development and healthcare.

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

Knowledge organiser
All matter is made from particles, solid The particles in a solid have very strong,
which are arranged in the different attractive forces between them, which hold the
states of matter. particles in their positions.
• In solids, the particles vibrate in
their fixed positions.
• In liquids, the particles move
randomly from their positions, liquid
but are always in contact with
other particles.
• In gases, the particles move The forces between the particles in liquids
about randomly and very are still strong, but not as strong as in solids.
quickly, widely separated but Gases have the weakest forces between particles.
colliding with other particles.
Temperature affects how quickly gas When gas particles or liquid particles move,
the particles move. At higher they collide with other particles and also
temperatures, particles in a solid with the sides of the container they are in.
vibrate faster, while in liquids and Pressure is a measure of the average force of
gases particles move around faster. these collisions over the area of the container’s
sides. The standard units of pressure are
kilopascals (kPa).

State of matter solids liquids gases

Shape fixed shape and cannot flow and take the shape flow and fill their container
flow because the of their container because the particles can
particles cannot move because the particles can move around quickly in any
from their fixed positions move past each other direction
Compression cannot be compressed cannot be compressed can be compressed because
as the particles are close because their particles the particles are far apart
together in a fixed are close together and with space between them
position there are no spaces for for particles to move into
them to move into

The change from a solid to a liquid or a gas, and from a liquid to a Boiling only happens at
gas, are reversible changes. They are called physical changes. When the boiling point, and
materials are heated or cooled, they may change from one state to the whole liquid turns into
another. Water freezes to become ice at 0 °C and boils to become a gas a gas. The particles gain
at 100 °C. enough energy to leave
the liquid.
energy transferred to the particles from the surroundings by heating Evaporation occurs at
sublimation
any temperature between
the melting point of a
melting boiling liquid and its boiling
gas point. It only happens at
solid
liquid the surface of the liquid.
freezing condensation Some of the particles gain
enough energy to leave
energy transferred from the particles to the surroundings by heating the surrounding particles
and become a vapour.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Atoms are the smallest parts of all Key vocabulary

substances. We can represent an
atom the basic ‘building block’ of an element; it cannot
atom by writing its element name,
be chemically broken down
writing a symbol, or drawing a
boiling the process that happens when a liquid changes
simple circular particle. John Dalton
state and turns into a gas, by reaching its boiling
was the first person to propose
point
using particles to represent atoms.
boiling point the temperature at which a liquid changes state to a
calcium, Ca oxygen, O chlorine, Cl gas (or at which a gaseous substance condenses)
chemical chemical symbols and numbers that show which
formula elements, and how many atoms of each, a
compound is made up of
Some atoms can chemically bond collision when objects hit each other with force
together to form molecules. Here compound atoms of more than one element chemically
is a molecule of hydrogen and a bonded together
molecule of oxygen. compress to make smaller by squashing or pushing together
condensation the process that happens when a gas changes into
a liquid when the temperature drops to the boiling
point; for example, when water vapour condenses
to form liquid water
Elements contain only one element a substance made of only one type of atom
type of atom. Most elements are evaporation the process that happens when a liquid changes to
metals. Each element is identified a gas at the surface of the liquid; for example, when
by a unique symbol, which always water evaporates to form water vapour
begins with a capital letter. freezing the process in which a liquid turns into a solid by
being cooled to its melting point; for example,
Compounds are made from the when water freezes to form ice
atoms of more than one element, kilopascal unit of pressure
chemically bonded together. (kPa)
Compounds have different properties matter anything that takes up space and has mass
from the original elements.
melting the process in which a solid turns into a liquid by
We use the chemical symbols of the being heated to its melting point; for example,
elements to write the chemical when ice melts to form water
formula of the compound, which molecule two or more atoms held together by strong
represents the ratio of atoms in chemical bonds
each unit of the compound.
particle a very small part of a material, such as an atom or a
molecule
particle a scientific model in which all matter is made of a
model large number of very small particles; used to explain
1 red brick and 1 blue brick,
the properties of solids, liquids and gases
the ratio is 1:1 physical physical changes are reversible and include
This model could represent one change dissolving and changes from one state (solid, liquid
unit of the compound copper or gas) to another
oxide, CuO
pressure the average force on a certain area
ratio a link between two values; for example, if the first
value is twice the second value, the ratio is 2:1
state of solid, liquid or gas
matter
2 red bricks and 1 green brick,
sublimation the process that happens when a solid turns into a
the ratio is 2:1 gas when heated, without becoming a liquid first
This model could represent one temperature a measure of how hot an object is; the unit is
molecule of the compound normally degrees Celsius (°C)
carbon dioxide, CO2
viscosity the resistance to flow

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

The law of conservation of mass Sometimes there appears to be a change in mass during
means that matter cannot be destroyed a physical or chemical change. This change in mass
or created, only transformed. This means can usually be explained because one of the reactants or
that when a reaction takes place, the products is a gas.
mass of the reactants always equals In a chemical reaction, the mass of the products may
the mass of the products. This is also true be less than expected because one of the products is
when substances change state, when a gas that has escaped into the surrounding air. If the
solutions are mixed together, or if a mass of the products is more than expected, then one
solute is dissolved in a solvent to form of the reactants is a gas. The gas atoms have chemically
a solution. bonded to one of the other reactants.

When alcohol and water are

mixed the volume is less,
but the mass stays the same.
This is because there are the
same number of particles,
but the mixture takes up less
room

When a solid is heated, its temperature increases

140
until it reaches its melting point. At the
melting point, all the energy transferred by 120
heating is used to overcome the forces between
the particles, until the solid changes state. The boiling
100
point
temperature remains constant until all the solid
has changed state. This ‘extra heat’ needed for 80
Temperature (°C)

the change of state is called latent heat.

This graph shows what happens to the 60
temperature as an ice cube is heated. At the
melting point, 0 °C, the temperature remains 40
constant until all the substance has changed state
from a solid to a liquid. The temperature also 20
remains constant at the boiling point of 100 °C, melting
until all the water has changed state from a liquid 0
point
to a gas.
–20

–40
Time

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Heating causes solids, liquids and gases to Key vocabulary

expand. This is called thermal expansion.
accurate an accurate measurement is one
It means they take up more space when they
that is close to the true value
are hot compared to when they are cold.
Gases expand more than solids and liquids. chemical an irreversible change caused
change when one substance combines
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an with another to form a new
area of high concentration to an area of low substance, or one substance
concentration, until the concentration is equal breaks down to form two or
throughout. more others
concentration a measure of the number of
particles in a certain volume or
space
concentration the difference in concentration
gradient between two areas
conservation of matter cannot be destroyed or
mass created, only transformed; this
means the total mass does not
change during physical changes
or chemical reactions
diffusion the movement of particles from
a higher concentration to a
lower concentration
energy transfer the passing on of energy from
one energy store to another
expand get bigger
latent heat the heat needed to change the
state of a substance
melting point the temperature at which a solid
changes state to a liquid (or a
liquid substance freezes)
precise measurements are precise if
they are clustered together
around the mean
repeatable measurements are repeatable
when the same person carries
out the same experiment under
the same conditions and gets
similar results
Diffusion happens because of the movement of thermal when particles in a solid or
particles in a gas or a liquid. There is hardly any expansion liquid gain enough energy to
diffusion in solids because the particles cannot occupy more space
move freely. Gas particles move faster and
further than liquid particles, so diffusion in gases true value the actual value that a
occurs faster than in liquids. measurement should be

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.1 The properties of different

states of matter
solid
You are learning to: solid
• recognise the differences between solids, liquids and gases
• describe liquids and gases in terms of the particle model
• explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases, including gas pressure, in
terms of the particle model.

1 The particle model can be used to show how particles behave in solids, liquids and gases.
liquid
Match the particle model diagram to the state of matter.
liquid
a Solid

i)
gas
b Liquid gas

ii)
solid
c Gas

iii)

2 Particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of energy and move in different
liquid
ways. How do the particles move in a solid? Choose one correct answer.
a move about very fast
b vibrate in fixed positions
c move slowly past each other

3 There are forces between the particles in solids, liquids and gases. These forces cause the
particles to be attracted towards each other. Are these forces strongest in solids, liquids or gases?

4 Some substances can be squashed

gasor compressed into a smaller space. Can solids be
compressed?

5 Use the particle model to explain why liquids can flow and solids cannot.

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 Questions

6 A teacher filled a syringe with air, then placed their finger over the end of the syringe so no air
could escape. When they pushed the plunger of the syringe down, the air inside compressed
into a smaller space.
a Explain why the teacher was able to compress the air in the syringe.
b What happens to the pressure inside the syringe as the air is compressed?
c How does the arrangement of gas particles inside the compressed syringe differ from
outside?
d Explain why the mass of the gas inside the syringe stayed the same when it was compressed.

7 Use the particle model to describe the differences between liquids and gases. Your answer
should link the particle model to the properties of liquids and gases. Include ideas about energy,
forces and space between particles to explain the different properties of liquids and gases.

8 Explain how a sponge can be solid and can be compressed.

9 A cyclist used a pump to inflate the tyre on their bicycle.

a Explain how adding air to a tyre increases the pressure.
b The tyre was pumped up on a very cold day. What would
happen to the pressure inside the tyre on a hot day?
c Explain your answer to part b in terms of the movement of
the gas particles.

10 Viscosity is the resistance to flow. Some liquids are more viscous

than others. A liquid with a higher viscosity does not flow as
easily as a less viscous liquid. Oil is more viscous than water,
which means that it flows less easily than water. Use your
knowledge of the forces between particles to explain this.

11 A student filled some 250 cm3 measuring cylinders with Time taken for the
Liquid
different liquids. They dropped a marble into the first marble to fall (s)
measuring cylinder of liquid and timed how long it took water 1
to reach the bottom. They repeated their experiment A 24
with the other liquids. Here is a table of their results.
B 1
a Suggest which two liquids are the most viscous.
C 4
b Which two liquids probably contain mostly water?
D 3
E 25
F 1

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.2 Changes of state

You are learning to:
• recognise changes of state as being reversible changes
• describe changes of state using scientific terminology
• explain changes of state using the particle model.

1 Match the following descriptions to the correct change in state.

a melting i liquid to solid
b boiling ii solid to liquid
c freezing iii gas to liquid
d condensing iv liquid to gas

2 If pure water is heated to 100 °C, it will turn into a gas. We see the gas coming out of a kettle
as steam.
a What is the name given to the temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas?
b What happens to the particles in water as it turns from a liquid to a gas?

3 The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance melts. What is the
melting point of pure water?

4 A teacher used some dry ice to demonstrate sublimation. Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. What
change in state occurs during the sublimation of dry ice?

5 An ice cube is left out in the sun and begins to melt.

a Describe how the movement of the particles changes as the ice melts.
b Draw a particle diagram to show how the arrangement of particles changes as the ice
cube melts.
c How can you show that melting ice is a reversible change?

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 Questions

6 A puddle of water evaporates from a road. Is the water boiling? Explain your answer.

7 As a gas is cooled, the particles lose speed and the thermal store of energy decreases. What
would eventually happen to a gas if energy was continually removed from it?

Worked example
Propane gas can be bought in bottles to be used in some barbeques. Propane has a boiling
point of −42 °C and a melting point of −188 °C. What state of matter is propane in at −92 °C?
The easiest way to start answering this type of question is to draw a number line and label it
with the melting point and boiling point of the substance. Then add the temperature from the
question.
melting point boiling point
of –188°C –92°C of –42°C

–200 –180 –160 –140 –120 –100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0

 92°C is between the melting point and the boiling point. This means the propane has melted
−
to form a liquid, but has not boiled to form a gas.
liquid

8 Chlorine has a boiling point of −34 °C and a melting point of −102 °C. What state of matter is
chlorine in at −26°C? Explain your answer.

9 Metals have different melting points. The melting point is the temperature at which the
substance melts. Gold has a melting point of 2800 °C, whereas zinc has a melting point of
910°C. Explain why some metals have much higher melting points than others.

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.3 Atoms, elements and compounds

You are learning to:
• understand what is meant by ‘element’ and ‘atom’
• recognise the difference between an element and a compound
• use a simple model to show differences between atoms, elements and
compounds.

1 Look at this model of an oxygen molecule. Is oxygen an element or a compound?

2 Which statement best describes an atom?

a the smallest part of all substances
b more than one element chemically joined together
c anything that takes up space and has mass
d a unit of mass

3 Match the diagrams to the correct term. Each diagram can be used more than once.
a Atom

i)
b Molecule

c Element

ii)

d Compound

4 Scientists often use models. Decide which statements about models are true and which are false.
a Models are objects for scientists to play with.
b Models help scientists to explain difficult ideas.
c Models do not have to look exactly like the real thing.
d All ideas in science need models to explain them.

5 Which of the following substances are compounds?

carbon dioxide (CO2)  oxygen (O2)  copper (Cu)  ammonia (NH3)

6 Explain the difference between an atom and an element.

7 Which one of these ideas about atoms is true?

a All atoms in a compound are identical.
b All matter is made of atoms.
c Atoms can be made in a chemical reaction.

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 Questions

8 Two students were discussing the differences between elements and compounds. During their
discussion they made the following statements:
Student A: ‘I think water is an element.’
Student B: ‘Air is a compound. It contains more than one element.’
Explain why both students are wrong.

9 The particle model is a useful tool to represent atoms and molecules of elements and
compounds. Explain why we use models to represent atoms.

Worked example
Silicon dioxide is a compound used in the
chemical industry to make glues and sealants.
It has the chemical formula SiO2
How many elements are there in silicon
dioxide, SiO2?
Each element has a unique symbol that starts
with a capital letter. Some elements will have
a symbol with two letters: the first letter is
always a capital letter, the second letter is
always a lower-case letter.
In the formula SiO2, Si is the symbol for one
element (silicon) and O is the symbol for
another element (oxygen). The ‘2’ after the
oxygen tells us that there are two oxygen atoms for every one silicon atom. The ratio is 1:2, one
silicon atom for every two oxygen atoms.
two

10 A teacher demonstrated how to produce copper sulfate crystals

from copper sulfate solution. Copper sulfate is a compound
with the chemical formula CuSO4. How many elements are
there in copper sulfate, CuSO4?

11 The chemical formula for sulfuric acid is H2SO4.

a How many atoms of oxygen (O) are there in the formula?
b What is the ratio of hydrogen (H) to sulfur (S) to oxygen (O)
in the formula?

12 What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in this water molecule? Use this ratio to write the
formula for water.

O

H H

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.4 Conservation of mass

You are learning to:
• use the particle model to explain the law of conservation of mass in physical
changes.

1 Which of the following is not an example of a physical change?

a melting ice
b dissolving sugar in water
c oxygen reacting with hydrogen

2 Which of the following statements about matter is true?

a It is possible to make new matter.
b Matter cannot be destroyed or created.
c Matter is the same as energy.

3 50 g of ice is melted in an empty bowl. What mass of water would be in

the bowl once all the ice has melted?

4 A beaker containing 50 g of warm water is placed on a balance. 2 g of

salt is added to the water. The salt dissolves in the water. What would the
reading on the balance be now?
a 50 g
b 48 g
c 52 g

5 A student heated 100 g of water in a beaker until all of it had turned to steam. What mass of
steam would be made?

6 A teacher added water to a beaker at the start of an experiment.

They measured the mass of the beaker and water before and
after the water was boiled. The mass of the beaker and water at
the start of the experiment was 200 g. The mass of the beaker
and water at the end of the experiment was 180 g. Why does
boiling appear to show a change in mass?

7 A student filled a balloon with air. They measured the mass of the balloon and then they
placed the balloon into a freezer. The volume of the balloon decreased as the air inside the
balloon cooled. What would have happened to the mass of the balloon of air as it cooled?

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 Questions

8 An experiment was carried out on a set of scales like the ones in the image.
Two beakers were placed on each side of the set of scales, one containing 50 g of water and
one containing 2 g of salt. The scales were balanced. On the left side of the scales, the salt was
poured into the beaker of water and stirred. The empty beaker was placed back on the scale.
Which statement describes what happens next?
a The left side of the scales would move up.
b The right side of the scales would move up.
c The position of the scales would not change.

9 Mass is always conserved. When an indigestion tablet is added to water it begins to fizz.
Explain why the mass of the tablet and water decreases when the tablet fizzes.

10 When magnesium is burned, the ash formed has a higher mass than the magnesium at the
start. Why do you think this is the case?

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.5 Diffusion
You are learning to:
• use the particle model to explain observations involving diffusion
• understand the role of concentration differences in diffusion

1 Use the words to complete the definition of diffusion.

high   low   equal   zero   unequal

i
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of ______ concentration to an area of
ii iii
______ concentration, until the concentration is ______ throughout.

2 ‘Diffusion only happens in gases.’ Is this statement true or false?

3 There is hardly any diffusion in solids. Why do you think this is the case?

4 A teacher opens a bottle of perfume and places it on the front bench. After a while, students
at the back of the classroom can smell the perfume even though the bottle stays on the
teacher’s desk. Use your understanding of the particle model and diffusion to explain what is
happening.

5 Why is diffusion in liquids slower than in gases?

6 The concentration of a solution is a measure of how many particles there are in a certain
volume. The more particles there are, the higher the concentration. In diffusion, what do we
call the difference between an area containing a lot of particles and an area containing fewer
particles?
a the diffusion
b the concentration gradient
c a collision
d the surface area

7 How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion? Explain your answer.

8 A student investigated factors that affect how quickly water

evaporates from different materials. They took pieces of three
different materials (cotton, denim and polyester), soaked them
in water and then pegged them onto a washing line.
a What would speed up the evaporation of water from the
materials? Suggest two factors.
b Name two variables the student will need to control
during this experiment.
c Suggest how the student could measure how much
evaporation has taken place from each material.

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 Questions

Worked example
Diffusion happens in the body. Dissolved gases can diffuse between cells and their surroundings.
Look at the diagram of a simple animal cell. Will the gas move in or out of the cell? Explain
your answer.

gas particle

To answer this question we need to look at the number of particles inside and outside the
cell to compare the concentrations. There are more gas particles outside the cell, this means
the concentration of gas outside the cell is higher than inside. The gas will diffuse down the
concentration gradient from outside the cell into the cell.
The answer needs to start with the fact.
Gas will diffuse into the cell.
Followed by an explanation. This needs to say why the gas moves into the cell.
This will happen because there is a higher concentration of gas outside the cell. Gas will diffuse down the
concentration gradient into the cell.

9 Look at the following cell. Will the gas move into or out of the cell? Explain your answer.

gas particle

10 Larger particles are often heavier than smaller particles. They also take up more space and
need more energy to move than smaller particles. Suggest how particle size might affect
diffusion.

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

7.6 Energy changes

You are learning to:
• identify how heating affects the arrangement and movement of particles
• explain changes of state using ideas about energy transfer.

1 What unit do we normally use when measuring temperature?

2 Choose the correct statement to finish this sentence about temperature.

Temperature is a measure of …
a how hot something is.
b the amount of matter in a particular volume.
c the energy of the particles.
d the physical state of something.

3 Which of these statements about what happens when solids, liquids and gases are heated
is true?
a Solids do not expand.
b Liquids cannot expand without changing state.
c Gases expand more than liquids and solids.

4 A beaker of water was heated using a Bunsen burner. Describe what happens to the
movement of the particles as the water is heated.

5 A student measured the temperature of a beaker of water three times. Look at

their data.
Temperature (°C)
Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3
23.5 23.3 23.4

a Calculate the mean temperature of the water.

b Is the data repeatable?
c Explain your answer to part b.

6 During an experiment, a teacher explained the importance of accuracy and precision

when evaluating data. Explain the difference between accuracy and precision.

7 What happens to the temperature when a pure substance changes state?

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 Questions

8 Look at this graph showing how the temperature of ice changes as it is heated.
140 E

120

100 C D

80
Temperature (°C)

60

40

20

0A B

–20

–40
Time

a Which letter on the graph shows when the ice begins to change state from a solid to a liquid?
b What is happening between points C and D on the graph?

9 A beaker containing 50 g of crushed ice was heated until it all melted. A student measured the
temperature of the ice as it was being heated.
a The temperature of the ice stayed at 0 °C as the ice melted, even though it was still being
heated. Explain why. Refer to particles in your answer.
b After all the ice had melted, the temperature increased again. Explain why. Refer to
particles in your answer.
c What mass of water would be in the beaker once all the ice has melted?

10 At 700 °C, aluminium is a liquid, copper is a solid and water is a gas. Which two of the
following statements are true?
a Water has weaker forces between its particles than copper and aluminium.
b At room temperature, water is a gas, aluminium is a solid and copper is a solid.
c Copper has a lower melting point than aluminium.
d Copper has stronger forces between its particles than aluminium and water.

11 Stearic acid is solid at room temperature 100

(20 °C) and melts to form a liquid when
heated. A test tube of stearic acid was 80
placed into a beaker of hot water. The
Temperature (°C)

temperature of the stearic acid was 60

measured as it cooled. The temperature
data was used to draw a cooling curve for
40
stearic acid, which is shown on the right.
What is the melting point for stearic acid? 20
Explain your answer.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s)

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 7 The particulate nature of matter

Maths and practical skills

1 Which of the following is the most appropriate unit to measure temperature in science?
a degrees Fahrenheit
b degrees Celsius
c joules
d degrees

2 A teacher placed different coloured sweets onto a plate and added water. After a while the plate
looked like this.

What is the name of the process that has caused this to happen?

Worked example
A student timed how long it took a marble to drop through a large cylinder of liquid. They
repeated their experiment five times. Calculate a mean time for their results.

Time taken (s)

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5
6 7 7 5 6

 ne way to find the average is to calculate a mean. To calculate a mean, you need to add
O
together all the values and divide by how many values there are. In this example you have 5
values for the time taken: 6, 7, 7, 5 and 6.
It is important to show your working when carrying out maths questions in science. This is
because you may get marks for your working out, even if your final answer is wrong.

(6 + 7 + 7 + 5 + 6) = 6.2
5
 ou normally give the answer to the same number of decimal places as the numbers in the
Y
question, unless the question asks for something different. It is also important to include the
units in your answer, s or seconds. Do not use ‘secs’ to represent seconds.
6 seconds

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 Questions

3 A student timed how long it took some crystals to dissolve and diffuse through a liquid. They
repeated their experiment three times. Calculate a mean for their results.

Time taken (s)

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
65 72 57

4 A teacher heated an aluminium can containing a small amount of

water, using a Bunsen burner. When they could see steam coming
out of the hole at the top, they stopped heating. Using tongs, they
turned the can upside down and put it into a bowl of cold water.
There was a bang as the can crushed.
a Name the change in state taking place inside the can as it
is heated.
b Why did the teacher use tongs to hold the can upside down in
the cold water?
c When all the water evaporates, the can is filled with steam. What
happens to the steam when the can is placed in the cold water?
d What happens to the pressure inside the can when it is placed in the cold water?
Explain your answer.
e Why do you think the can crushed? Use ideas about gas pressure inside and outside the can in
your answer.

5 Here is a table of melting and boiling points for three different elements.

Element Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C)

nitrogen −210 −196
sodium   98 883
aluminium 660 2467

a At what temperature does sodium become a gas?

b What is the physical state of nitrogen at 20 °C?
c Which element is a liquid over the biggest temperature range?
d Between which two temperatures will both sodium and aluminium be liquids?

6 A teacher placed a glass bottle into a bowl of hot water. They put a boiled egg on
top, with the pointed end in the mouth of the bottle. The hole in the top of the
bottle was too small for the egg to pass through.
They took the bottle out of the hot water and placed it in a bowl of cold water.
The egg moved through the hole into the bottle. Suggest why this happened.
Use your ideas about gas pressure and the particle model in your answer.

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8 Pure and impure substances

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
8.3 Pure substances
• explain chemically
8.2 Mixtures pure substances
• explain terms • identify pure substances
• identify factors
• recognise differences
• separate using filtration
• separate using evaporation
• form crystals

separation of mixtures, including

filtering, sieving and evaporating 8.1 Working safely
in the laboratory
dissolving substances to form
• recognise and
solutions reduce risks
recovering substances • name and select
from solutions equipment
• make measurements
• evaluate data

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

es
8.4 Distillation
• use distillation pure substances
• explain distillation chromatography
mixtures
fractional distillation and petrochemicals
8.5 Chromatography
• separate dyes potable water
• identify unknown substances

KS4

Maths and practical skills

carrying out practical work safely

presenting data using tables and graphs
interpreting observations and data
suggesting improvements to practical work
evaluating data, including being aware of possible errors

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8 Pure and impure

substances
This pencil case contains a mixture of items. If the ruler is removed, then it
has been separated from the mixture.

You can have mixtures of elements and compounds too. These are not so
easy to separate. We need to look at physical properties, such as size and
whether a substance dissolves in a liquid, to help us.

Anyone for tea?

In the UK, 61 billion tea bags are sold every year, which is enough to cover almost 31 000 football
pitches. 97% of tea drinkers now use tea bags, but 50 years ago only 3% did. Suggest why the tea
bag has become more popular. What additional piece of equipment would be needed to make a cup
from loose-leaf tea?

loose-leaf tea tea bag

Why does the water turn brown when a tea bag is placed into it?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a forensic technician?

Many everyday substances different areas of forensics. Your
are mixtures and sometimes work could be connected with
the parts of a mixture can tell crimes against property, where a
us something about a crime forensic technician collects and
scene. Your job as a forensic analyses evidence, such as paint
technician would be to analyse or chemicals. You could also be
and identify different parts involved in testing for banned samples for alcohol in drink-
of important mixtures using drugs in athletes, examining driving offences. Your reports
specialist equipment and samples for detecting poisons would often be used as evidence
techniques. There are many and analysing blood or urine in court.

Everyone needs clean and safe water to drink. Health and safety managers have
Water treatment operators collect and test responsibility for developing and implementing
water samples to make sure the quality is high, safe working practices in every area of business,
and monitor online data to ensure water is safe including construction sites, concert arenas,
to go into the water supply. They also ensure hospitals and schools. They ensure that risk
that the wastewater from drains and sewers is assessments are carried out and that unsafe
converted into a form that is safe to release back working practices are stopped. They also
into the environment, and harmful substances provide training and carry out proactive safety
are removed. inspections.

Perfume chemists must understand how to Medical scientists conduct research aimed at
separate fragrant oils from plants, purify them improving overall human health. They prepare
and then mix them with other substances to and analyse medical samples, which often
make a perfume. They need to understand the contain a complex mixture of substances. They
components in the perfume to ensure the smell use their findings to better understand the
is easily spread, lasts for a while, and is safe for causes of different diseases and how they can be
human skin. treated.

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 8 Pure and impure substances

Knowledge organiser
We work with many different types of substances in chemistry. air hole air hole
Some of these are hazardous. There are also many other closed – yellow open – blue
flame flame
hazards in a laboratory, including glass equipment, hot objects,
or even bags on the floor. We need to identify these hazards,
assess the risk and then try to reduce the risk. For example, we hottest part
of flame
can reduce the risk of a chemical going into your eye by wearing
safety goggles. Using a Bunsen burner can be hazardous. A
yellow flame should be used when the Bunsen burner is not in
use, so that it can be seen easily. The process of reducing the collar

chance of someone being harmed is called a risk assessment.

To measure the volume of a solution,

it is important to choose apparatus
The substance is hazardous to the environment with the most appropriate scale and
read it correctly using the level of the
meniscus.
The substance is hazardous to health When a solid solute is added to a
solvent, the total volume of the
solution is usually less than the
volume of the 50

The substance is corrosive two substances meniscus

separately. This is 40
because the solute
particles occupy
The substance is flammable spaces between eye level 30

the water
Scientists across the world use the same hazard symbols to molecules. 20

highlight the risks of using chemicals such as solvents.

If you stir sugar into a cup of tea or Some of the

coffee the sugar crystals disappear – they sugar molecule substances we work
dissolve. The water is called the solvent and with in chemistry are
the mixture is called a solution. Substances pure substances.
water molecule
that dissolve are described as soluble, and A pure substance
they are called solutes. If you stir sugar into contains only one
water, sugar is the solute and water is type of element
the solvent. or compound.
Substances dissolve more in hotter solvents. Chemically pure
This is because the solvent molecules have water only contains
more energy and move faster. They can H2O molecules.
separate the solute particles more quickly. Bottled spring water
is not the same as
pure water. It also
Mixtures can be separated by making use of differences between substances. contains other
For example, magnets can be used to remove magnetic metals (cobalt, iron substances known
or nickel) from mixtures. Physical methods are used to separate mixtures. as minerals. It is
The method used depends on the physical properties of each component in a mixture.
the mixture.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Filtration can be used to Key vocabulary

separate a mixture of soluble and
apparatus equipment used in a scientific experiment
insoluble substances. A filter
has microscopic holes that allow Bunsen a controllable gas flame used to heat substances
some substances to pass through burner
but not others. For example, it
compound two or more elements that are chemically joined
can remove suspended solids
together, such as water (H2O)
from a liquid, such as sand from
sea water. Larger items such as crystallisation when a solvent evaporates to leave crystals
gravel and stones can be removed of solid
using a sieve.
dissolve when particles of a solute are mixed with
folded filter particles of a solvent to form a solution
paper residue
evaporation the process of changing state from a liquid to
funnel a gas
filter a material with microscopic holes used to
filtrate
remove insoluble solids from liquids
filtration the separation of an insoluble solid from a liquid
using a filter
hazard something that can cause harm
Soluble substances can be
hazard a standard symbol that warns of a particular
separated from their solutions by
symbol type of hazard
evaporation. When liquids are
heated, they evaporate, turning immiscible liquids that do not mix, but form separate layers
into a vapour (gas). The solvent
impure an impure substance contains more than one
evaporates to leave behind the
type of element or compound
solid solute. If evaporation is fast,
small crystals will form, but if insoluble unable to dissolve in a solvent
evaporation takes a long time, meniscus the curved surface of a liquid in a container
then much larger crystals will be
observed. Volatile liquids, like miscible miscible liquids will mix together
alcohol in perfumes, easily change mixture two or more elements or compounds mixed
to their vapour state. together, but not chemically joined
pure a substance containing only one type of element
Immiscible liquids like oil and
or compound
water do not mix. They can
be separated using a separating residue the solid left after evaporation has occurred
funnel.
risk the likelihood of a hazard causing harm
saturated when no more solute will dissolve
(solution)

oil
separate to divide a mixture into its components
water solubility the mass of solute that dissolves in a solvent at a
particular temperature
soluble able to dissolve in a liquid
solute a solid that dissolves in a solvent
solution the mixture formed when a solid dissolves in
a liquid
solvent a liquid in which a substance dissolves
volatile a liquid which evaporates quickly

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 8 Pure and impure substances

Different liquids boil at different temperatures. This information can be used to help
separate mixtures of liquids by a process called distillation. A piece of apparatus called
a Liebig condenser is used in distillation; it is a double glass tube. The outer tube is
connected to a water tap, and cold water flows through it.

thermometer

condenser

cold water

vapour warm
rises water
out
beaker
boiling
mixture vapour cools
and condenses
into a liquid
heat distillate
(pure liquid)

During distillation, a liquid mixture is heated. The liquid with the lowest boiling point
changes into a vapour and rises. It flows through the inner tube of the Liebig condenser
and is cooled by the water in the outer tube. The vapour condenses to a liquid, which
flows into a collecting beaker. The collected liquid is known as the distillate.

Chromatography is another separating technique.

It can be used to separate and identify unknown
substances in a mixture. It is used by scientists to detect
drugs, banned chemicals and explosives, and to
identify dyes and paints.
An example of chromatography is the separation of
black ink into different colours. Black ink is actually
a mixture of different coloured inks. Filter paper and
water can be used to separate them. This method of
separation is called paper chromatography. It works
because some of the inks are more soluble in water
than others.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

During chromatography, soluble substances Key vocabulary

travel up the filter paper when the end is dipped
accurate very close to the true value
into a solvent such as water. Substances that
are the most soluble travel the furthest. If a chromatogram pattern of results obtained in
substance is not soluble in the solvent then it chromatography
will not travel. chromatography a process used to separate a
If the same conditions are used, the distance mixture of soluble substances
that a soluble substance travels up the paper is
always the same. This allows substances to be condense the process of turning from a
identified. The retardation factor (Rf) is used gas into a liquid
to do this. It is calculated using the equation: distillate the pure liquid collected at
Distance travelled by dye the end of distillation
Rf =
Distance travelled by solvent distillation a process for separating
liquids using heating
and cooling
solvent evidence information gathered in a
front
scientific way that supports or
separated
contradicts a conclusion
dyes Liebig condenser apparatus used for distillation
7 cm
paper a simple method of separating
filter
paper
chromatography different inks or dyes
3 cm
pencil precise when repeated readings of
line the same measurement give
similar values
dye spots
precision how close together, or spread
out, repeated measurements
water are
(solvent)
purify make a substance pure or
near to pure
In all experiments, we gather data that needs random error an error caused by changes
to be evaluated. To evaluate data, we need to that are difficult to control,
look at the repeatability, reproducibility, such as a change in room
accuracy and precision. We also need to spot temperature
sources of error.
repeatable when the same person carries
Random errors are caused by factors that
out repeat tests and the
can be difficult to control, such as a change in
results are very similar
air temperature while taking readings. These
errors are not predictable. Taking several reproducible when the experiment is
measurements and calculating a mean can be carried out by a different
used to reduce the effect of a random error. person and they get similar
Systematic errors cause readings to be results
consistently higher or lower than the true value. retardation the distance a substance
Carrying out many repeats will not deal with this factor (Rf) has travelled divided by the
type of error. A balance that reads 0.2 g more distance the solvent has
than the true value will do this every time it is travelled (in chromatography)
used. It can be corrected by a process known as
recalibration. systematic error an error caused by an
inaccuracy with the
measurement system; the
error will be the same for
every reading

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8.1 Working safely in the laboratory

You are learning to:
• recognise and reduce risks when working in the laboratory
• name and be able to select appropriate equipment
• make and record accurate measurements
• evaluate data.

1 Link each key term to its meaning.

a hazard i how likely something is to be harmful
b risk ii how to reduce a risk
c control measure iii example of a way to reduce risk
d safety goggles iv a situation that could cause harm to people

2 The method in an experiment asks for a Bunsen burner flame to be turned to a safety flame.
What colour would the safety flame be?

3 Match each hazard symbol to the risk it warns people of.

a
i corrosive

b
ii hazardous to the environment

c
iii health hazard

d
iv flammable

4 A student heats a solution using a Bunsen burner. He is wearing a lab coat

and safety goggles.
a What are the potential hazards you can identify from this photograph?
b What can be done to reduce the risk of harm?

5 Complete the paragraph below about selecting an appropriate measuring cylinder for an
experiment.
Measuring cylinders come in different sizes. You should select the size of measuring cylinder
which is closest to the volume you will be measuring. This is because it allows the volume to
be measured more __________.

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 Questions

Worked example
A student measured the water temperature Water temperature Time
in an experiment. They recorded their
50 1 min 30 secs
results in a table. How could the design of
the student’s results table be improved? 87 60 secs
Draw out your improved results table. 100 0 secs
 he top line in a results table should always include the heading and unit. The one in this table
T
has no units. You should add these, using degrees Celsius (°C) for temperature and seconds (s)
for time. The table also gives time in both minutes and seconds. Units should not be mixed like
this, so you should convert all of the data to seconds. You can then remove the units from the
lines of data in the table, as the unit will be shown on the top line instead. The independent
variable should also be on the left of the table. In this example, the independent variable
is time. Lastly, it would be better to measure the temperature of the water at regular time
intervals, such as every 30 seconds. The student did not record a value at 30 seconds, so you
will not show a data value for this time.
Here is an improved results table for the experiment:

Time (s) Water temperature (°C)

0 100
30
60 87
90 50

6 A student plans to measure the water temperature in a water bath during an experiment. They
will record the temperature every 20 seconds for 2 minutes. The water temperature at the
start of the experiment is 22 °C. Design a suitable results table.

7 A student plans an experiment to find out how quickly coffee powder dissolves in water.
a Name three pieces of measuring equipment that the student will need.
b The student extends their investigation to change the temperature of the water. What
additional piece of measuring equipment will be needed?
c What will the student need to control in the experiment to find out which water
temperature coffee powder dissolves fastest in?

8 In an experiment, two chemicals reacted to make a gas. A student tested whether changing
the amount of one reactant would affect how long it took to collect 25 cm3 of gas. Their
results are shown below.
Amount of reactant (g) Time to collect 25 cm3 of gas (minutes)
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
1.0 2.0 2.3 2.1
1.5 3.0 4.7 2.5 2.8

a 
Use the table of data to evaluate the quality of the data collected for 1.5 g of reactant. In
your answer, think about precision, identify any anomalies and calculate a mean.
b 
The student used a timer to measure how long it took to collect the gas. The timer was
stopped when the student noticed that 25 cm3 of gas had been collected. Is this method
likely to be a source of random or systematic error? Explain your answer.

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8.2 Mixtures
You are learning to:
• explain the terms solvent, solution, solute and soluble
• identify factors that affect dissolving
• recognise the differences between substances and use these differences to
separate them
• separate an insoluble substance from a liquid using filtration
• separate a soluble substance from water using evaporation
• form crystals from solutions.

1 Name three pieces of equipment which would be needed to separate sand from sea water.

2 A student adds a vitamin C tablet to a glass of water. The solution goes cloudy at the start but
then it becomes clear. What is happening?
a The vitamin tablet has reacted with the water.
b The vitamin tablet has dissolved.
c The vitamin tablet has disappeared.

3 Choose two statements that explain what happens during dissolving.

a The solvent reacts chemically with the solute to make a solution.
b The total mass of the solution is less than the total mass of the separate solute and solvent,
because the solute has disappeared during dissolving.
c The solvent particles collide with the solute particles, which break up and spread
throughout the solution.
d The total mass of the separate solute and solvent is the same as the total mass of the
solution after dissolving.

4 A student measured out 2 g of blue copper sulfate crystals and added them to a beaker of
water. The copper sulfate dissolved.
a How did the student know that the copper sulfate had dissolved?
b The student measured another 2 g of copper sulfate crystals and added them to the same
beaker. The student noticed that not all the copper sulfate crystals dissolved this time.
Which of the following describes this observation?
i the solution is saturated
ii the solution is unsaturated
iii the solute is insoluble
iv the solvent is insoluble
c What could the student do to increase the amount of copper sulfate that will dissolve?

5 Water goes through a multi-step treatment process before it can be used for drinking water.
Insoluble particles are removed first. What process is used to do this?
a chlorination
b distillation
c evaporation
d filtration

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 Questions

6 A student rinsed their cup under the tap and left it to dry on a work surface. When the student
moved the dry cup the next day, they noticed a white ring on the work surface.
a What happened to the water on the cup?
b Where did the white substance left on the work surface come from?

7 Iron and sulfur are mixed together.

a Why is it easy to separate iron and sulfur?
b After heating the mixture, iron sulfide is produced. Why is it difficult to separate iron and
sulfur now?

8 A person used water to try and remove a stain from a carpet. This was unsuccessful. Ethanol
was used instead and this worked. Explain why the stain was removed using ethanol but not
with water.

9 The solubility curve shows the solubility of three 200

potassium nitrate
substances in water at different temperatures. Use the
solubility curve to answer the questions.
a How much sodium nitrate is dissolved in 100 g of
water at 80 °C? 150

Solubility (g per 100 g water)

b A student is making a saturated solution of sodium
nitrate. The water bath is set to 30 °C. How much
sodium nitrate will the student need to add to sodium nitrate
100 g of water? 100

sodium chloride
50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)

10 A student investigated the differences between substances. They wrapped three thermometers
in cotton wool. The cotton wool for thermometer A was soaked in water. The cotton wool for
thermometer B was soaked in ethanol. Thermometer C was set up as a control experiment.
The readings on the thermometers were recorded for 10 minutes.
Time Temperature (°C)
(minutes) A – water B – ethanol C – control
0 22 22 22
2 21 19 22
4 20 17 22
6 20 13 22
8 20 13 22
10 20 15 22
a What was the air temperature at the time of the experiment?
b Suggest what the control C for this experiment might be.
c Why did the temperatures reduce for thermometers A and B?

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8.3 Pure substances

You are learning to:
• explain what is meant by a chemically pure substance
• identify pure substances.

1 Which statement correctly completes this sentence about pure substances?

Substances that are described as pure in chemistry…
a contain elements but not compounds.
b contain a single element or compound.
c are mixtures that have no impurities.
d are mixtures that contain only molecules.

2 Select the pure substances:

a sodium chloride, NaCl
b sea water
c calcium carbonate, CaCO3
d carbon, C

3 The chemical formula of water is H2O. Which key word describes water?
a compound c element
b mixture d alloy

4 Are chemically pure substances (such as zinc) and naturally pure

substances (such as the juice squeezed from a fresh orange) the
same? Explain your answer.

5 A mixture is made from more than one element or compound. It can also be described as:
a impure c distillate
b pure d residue

6 Pure ethanol has a boiling point of 78 °C.

At what temperature will ethanol start to boil when it is heated?
a approximately 75 °C c 78 °C
b over 78 °C d approximately 72 °C

7 Pure aluminium has a melting point of 660 °C. If molten (liquid) aluminium is allowed to cool
it will become a solid. At what temperature does molten aluminium become a solid when it
cools?
a 650 °C c 690 °C
b 660 °C d 25 °C (room temperature)

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 Questions

8 What information would you need to know to find out if a chemically pure substance is made
from an element or a compound? Choose one answer and explain how it would show
whether the substance was an element or compound.
a the mass of the substance
b the density of the substance
c the chemical formula of the substance
d the melting point of the substance

9 It is expected from secondary data that a particular liquid will boil at 76 °C, but during an
experiment it is found to boil at 79 °C. Give a reason why this might occur.

Worked example
Gold can be mixed with other metals such as copper or silver to form a mixture called an alloy.
This is easier to work with and less expensive than pure gold. It is used to make jewellery. The
purity of the gold is measured in karats. Pure gold is 24 karats.
The percentage of gold in jewellery can be found from this equation:

percentage of gold = (number of karats ÷ karats in pure gold) × 100

What percentage of gold is present in a 22 karat gold bracelet? Give your answer to 2 decimal
places.
You are told that 24 karat gold is pure, so it is 100% gold. Anything less than 24 karat gold is
a mixture and impure. You can use the equation to calculate the percentage of gold present in
the 22 karat gold bracelet:
percentage of gold = (22 ÷ 24) × 100 = 91.6666….
You have been asked to give your answer to two decimal places, so the correct answer is
91.67%
(22 ÷ 24) × 100 = 91.67% (to 2 decimal places)

10 Complete the table to show the percentage of gold present in 18 karat and 9 karat gold.
karat Amount of gold present (%)
24 100
22      91.67
18
9

11 The finest silver is known in industry as pure silver. It

contains 99.9% silver and is used to make bullion bars. It is
too soft to use in jewellery. Sterling silver is often used
instead. This is an alloy made from 92.5% silver plus other
metals. Sterling silver jewellery is stamped 925.
Scandinavian silver is also an alloy. It is given the stamp 830.
a Is the silver used in bullion bars a pure substance? Explain your answer.
b 
Suggest the percentage of silver and other metals in Scandinavian silver. Compare its
purity with sterling silver.

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8.4 Distillation
You are learning to:
• use distillation to separate substances
• explain why distillation can purify substances.

1 Choose two correct words from the list below to complete this sentence.
heating    cooling    freezing    melting
Distillation involves two processes: ____________ and ______________.

2 Decide on the correct word to complete the paragraph.

Spectacles often steam up when a person enters a warm room. This is because water vapour
has _______________ on the glass.

3 The diagram shows the distillation of sea water.

condenser

cold water

flask

beaker
sea water

A C

a Complete the labels A–C on the diagram of the distillation apparatus.
b Describe the function that part B performs in distillation.
c Which is the correct order of the processes that occur in the distillation of sea water?
i melting, boiling, condensing iii boiling, evaporation, condensation
ii boiling, condensation, evaporation iv melting, evaporation, condensation

4 A teacher set up a distillation experiment with some water and dark blue water-soluble ink.
The ink has a higher boiling point than water.
a What colour is the distillate?
b Give the name of the pure liquid distillate.
c What test could you do to prove your answer to b?
d The teacher removed the heat from the round-bottomed flask before all the distillate had
been collected. Why?

5 Our clothes can become stained with different substances. Not all stains are soluble in water.
Dry cleaners use solvents other than water to wash clothes. Clothes are washed in the liquid
solvent at 30 °C. They are then tumble dried at 60 °C.
a Suggest how the solvent is removed from the clothing during the dry-cleaning process.
b The solvents used in dry cleaning can be toxic. How could the solvent be collected after
tumble drying so it is not released into the atmosphere?

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 Questions

6 Wine is a mixture that contains about 12% alcohol. The rest is mostly
water. The alcohol in wine is called ethanol. It has a boiling point of 78 °C.
a Why is it not possible to boil wine to reduce the amount of water present and increase the
alcohol content by evaporation?
b What method could be used to increase the alcohol content of wine?

7 The diagram represents particles in a gas, a solid and a A

liquid. The letters represent a change in state.
a Which process of changing state is represented by each
letter? C

b During distillation, which letter would occur in the

round-bottomed flask? Use the diagram in question
3 to help you. D
c During distillation, which letter would occur in the
condenser? Use the diagram in question 3 to help you. B

8 The following apparatus was used to obtain pure water from sea water.

glass delivery tube

sea water

beaker

ice-cold
water
heat

a Why was the beaker filled with ice cold water?

b Explain how this method works.
c What is this technique called?
d What might occur if hot water was used in the beaker instead of ice-cold water?

9 Use the diagram in question 3 to help answer this question.

a Which diagram below represents a cross-section through the condenser? Explain your
choice.
A B

b What might happen if cold water entered the condenser at the top of the tube instead of
the bottom?

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 8 Pure and impure substances

8.5 Chromatography
You are learning to:
• use chromatography to separate dyes
• use chromatography to identify unknown substances.

1 Complete the paragraph using words from the list below.

insoluble  soluble  solute  solvent  solution
Chromatography can be used to separate the substances in a mixture.
In paper chromatography, __________ substances are carried up filter paper by a
_____________ such as water.
Before
2 Black ink is a mixture of colours. The diagram shows how filter
paper and water can be used to separate these colours. How filter paper
many different colours are found in this ink?

black ink
spot
After blue band

yellow band
3 A student carried out a paper chromatography
experiment. They placed spots of four different inks
on a pencil line on filter paper. The resulting
chromatogram is shown on the right.
a The results show that the blue, red and yellow
inks are pure substances. Why is this?
b The results show that the green ink is a mixture
of other colours. Which two colours does the
green ink contain?
pencil line
c The student has a purple ink that contains a
dissolved mixture of red and blue dye. Complete
the chromatogram to predict the result for the purple ink.
d Why was the line on the filter paper drawn in pencil?

4 A food scientist uses chromatography to test

several brands of sweets for a banned food solvent front
colouring. A diagram of their results is shown on
the right.
a Which brand(s) of sweets (A–D) contain the
banned substance?
b How many different colourings were identified
in the sweets?
c Suggest why the food scientist used one piece
of filter paper for all the sweets rather than do pencil line
each one separately.

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 Questions

5 The results of a chromatography experiment are shown below.

Complete the sentences.

The ____i____ colour is a mixture of dyes.
All of the other colours are ____ii____ substances.
The _____iii____colour was the most soluble in the solvent used.

Worked example

Use the equation provided to calculate the retardation factor (Rf) for the blue dye in this
chromatogram.
Distance travelled by dye
Rf =
Distance travelled by solvent

solvent front

8 cm

3 cm

pencil line

The distance moved by the blue dye from the pencil line where the spot was added, to the
centre of the spot obtained after the solvent has run up the filter paper, is 3 cm. The distance
the solvent front has travelled from the pencil line to the top of the solvent front is 8 cm. Use
the equation provided to calculate the Rf value.
Rf = 3 ÷ 8 = 0.375

6 A red dye is separated into blue and purple dyes using paper chromatography. The blue
dye travels 43 mm up the filter paper and the purple dye travels 26 mm. The solvent front is
53 mm. Calculate the retardation factor (Rf) for:
a the blue dye b the purple dye.

7 A scientist set up a chromatography experiment to identify the different pigments in a species

of plant. The pigments did not travel up the filter paper. Explain why this occurred and
suggest a change that the scientist could make.

8 Some of the solvents used in chromatography can be volatile and flammable. Volatile
chemicals can be hazardous if they are inhaled. Suggest how the hazards from these solvents
can be reduced when carrying out chromatography.

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 8 Pure and impure substances

Maths and practical skills

1 Arrange the units in order from smallest to largest.
a gram, g   b milligram, mg   c microgram, µg   d kilogram, kg
2 Match each key word to its description.
a filtration i separates a solvent from a solution
b crystallisation ii separates a soluble solid from a solution
c distillation iii separates a solid from a liquid
d chromatography iv separates different substances dissolved in a liquid

3 a Label the apparatus used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid using the words
provided.
filter paper   filter funnel   boiling tube    A
residue   filtrate B

b Describe how to place item A into item C. C

E
D

4 A student plans a method to make copper sulfate crystals. They know that black copper oxide
powder will react with dilute sulfuric acid to produce a clear blue copper sulfate solution.
copper oxide + sulfuric acid copper sulfate + water
The student’s teacher tells them to make a saturated solution, so the student plans to add
black copper oxide powder to dilute sulfuric acid until no more will react.
a What must the student do next to get a pure solution of clear blue copper sulfate?
b The student wants to allow the solution to crystallise slowly. How should they do this?
c How could the student prove that their crystals are pure?
5 The apparatus below was used to distil 150 cm3 of seawater.
The cold water entered the condenser at 12 °C from the tap. The water leaves the condenser
at point X.
a Predict the temperature at X.
thermometer
Choose from the list below:
i 12 °C iii 5 °C
ii 100 °C iv 45 °C condenser

b Explain your answer to part a. cold water

c What is the temperature
reading on the thermometer
when the sea water is boiling?
X
d Describe two ways the water beaker
vapour entering the condenser sea water
will be different from when it
leaves the condenser. heat distillate
(pure liquid)

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 Questions

Worked example
A student uses chromatography to separate the pigments in a solution. Four pigments are seen
on the chromatogram. The student calculates the Rf values using the equation below.
Distance travelled by dye
Rf =
Distance travelled by solvent
The student records their results in a table, but they forget to note down how far the pigment
travelled. Use the equation to work out the distance travelled by pigment X.
Pigment Rf value Distance travelled by the Distance travelled by
solvent (cm) the pigment (cm)
X 0.2 10.0

To find the distance travelled by the pigment, you must rearrange the equation given. To do
this you multiply both sides of the equation by the distance travelled by the solvent. That gives
you this equation:
distance travelled by the dye = Rf × distance travelled by the solvent front
Now you need to substitute the values from the table into the equation.
distance travelled by dye = 0.2 × 10 = 2.0 cm
2.0 cm

6 Daffodil petals contain coloured pigments. A student wanted to investigate how many
different pigments were present in one species of daffodil plant. The
student ground a handful of fresh petals with some sand to form a
paste. A solvent was added to the petal and sand paste.
a  hich separating technique should the student use to separate the
W
solution of pigments from the petal and sand paste?

b Use the equation for Rf to find the distance travelled by the three
pigments in the table below.

Pigment Rf value Distance travelled by Distance travelled by

the solvent (cm) the dye (cm)
A 0.8 12.0
B 0.75 9.2
C 0.4 9.6

c The student finds a trusted resource that lists the names of plant pigments along with their Rf
values. The solvent used to find these Rf values is not the same as the solvent used by the
student. Can the student use the resource to name the pigments in their experiment? Explain
your answer.

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 9 Periodic Table

9 Periodic Table road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

9.2 Properties of elements

in the Periodic Table
• recognise properties
• describe properties
• use data to choose materials
• make predictions
compare and group
together materials based
on their properties 9.1 The structure of
the Periodic Table
explain uses of materials • recognise changes
• understand organisation
describe some chemical
changes

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

development of the Periodic Table

9.3 Reactions of elements the Periodic Table

and compounds metals and non-metals
• recognise and represent elements
and compounds Group 0
• understand conservation of mass
• interpret ratios
Group 1
• balance equations Group 7
chemical bonds
conservation of mass and
9.4 Using the
balanced chemical equations
Periodic Table
• understand reactions
• understand patterns
• recognise symbols KS4
and formulas

Maths and practical skills

describing the development of scientific methods and theories over time

interpreting observations and data
using SI units and chemical names and symbols
making scientific predictions

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 9 Periodic Table

9 Periodic Table
Elements are the building blocks of every substance we know. Elements
can be solids, liquids or gases. They can be metals, non-metals or have
characteristics which are in between. Each element is unique, with its own
properties. The Periodic Table is a way of organising all the known chemical
elements so that similar elements are grouped together. This can help us
predict the chemical reactions of elements. Elements can join together in
many ways to produce an amazing range of different substances.

Look at the following materials. Which of these do you think will stick to a magnet? Explain your
answer.

iron nail graphite pencil

aluminium foil nickel beads

Which of these materials can conduct electricity?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a physical metallurgist?

As a physical metallurgist You might have a very
you monitor the behaviour of important role in the design
metals in different conditions of structures such as buildings
and as they encounter changes and bridges. When metals are
to help choose an appropriate heated, they expand, when
metal for a specific function. cooled they contract. This
You might investigate accidents means that a bridge containing
where it is suspected the cause metal will increase and decrease
may be related to a failure in in size during the day or during withstand these differences
the structure of the metal, for different seasons of the year. It in temperature, so that it does
example, in car crashes. is important that the bridge can not crack, buckle or break.

Automotive engineers use

their knowledge of metals and
their structure and properties to
design attractive, functional cars.
By using lightweight metals such as
aluminium, automotive engineers can
Electrical engineers reduce the amount of fuel used by
design, build and the car when driving.
maintain power
systems, electronics
and communication Jewellery designers use their
equipment. They need to knowledge of metals to design
understand materials and and make jewellery. They make
their ability to conduct use of non-toxic metals such
electricity. They work in as gold, silver and platinum
various locations, such and precious stones or enamel
as production plants, decorations. They produce designs
workshops, offices, for mass production or bespoke
laboratories and factories. designs for an individual client.
They develop and test
models, estimate costs
and timescales, and
research suitable solutions A geochemist needs to have
to problems such as a detailed understanding of the
increasing the use of Periodic Table. They investigate
renewable energy sources. the amount and distribution of
Electrical engineers chemical elements in rocks and
research suitable, minerals and study the movement
efficient and sustainable of these elements into soil and water
technologies to enhance systems. The research carried out
the overall performance by geochemists can help companies
of the designed electrical to find sources of oil and useful minerals, improve water quality and
system. clean up toxic waste sites.

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 9 Periodic Table

Knowledge organiser
The Periodic Table shows how scientific ideas develop over time. The modern Each element in the
Periodic Table is based on the table first published by Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic Table has a
in 1869 and refined in 1871. This contained 64 known elements, each unique number, called
represented by a chemical symbol. Mendeleev put the elements in order its atomic number.
of atomic mass and used patterns in their chemical properties to arrange This number increases
them into rows and columns. He was sure that there were missing elements from left to right across
and left gaps for them. The modern Periodic Table contains 118 elements, each period. Each
and all the gaps in Mendeleev’s table have been filled. element also has an
atomic mass.
atomic number 3
chemical symbol Li
7
atomic mass

Elements are represented by their chemical symbols. The symbols can be obvious. For example, H
represents hydrogen. Sometimes the symbols can be misleading, such as Cu for copper.
The Periodic Table is arranged in rows called periods and columns called groups. Groups are families
of elements with similar physical and chemical properties. Metals are found on the left of the table and
non-metals (except hydrogen, H) on the right. Some elements are metalloids. These are elements
that have some properties of metals and some of non-metals. They are found between metals and non-
metals in the Periodic Table; silicon, Si, is an example of a metalloid.
group number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Key atomic number 3

chemical symbol Li
reactive metals metalloids 7
atomic mass
1
transition metals non-metals 2
1 H He
1
poor metals noble gases 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
period 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
number 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
223 226 265 268 271 267 277 276 281 280 285 284 289 288 293 294 294

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227 232 231 238 237 244 244 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

• the elements in Group 0 are all unreactive gases Key vocabulary

• the elements in Group 1 are all reactive metals atomic mass the mass of one atom of an
and must be stored under oil to keep air and element
water away from them; they become more
reactive further down the group atomic the number of an element in
number the Periodic Table
• the elements in Group 7 are all non-metals; they
become more reactive further up the group; chemical an abbreviation used to
some are used to kill bacteria due to their symbol represent an element
chemical properties.
density the mass of a material per unit
volume
Metals have many useful physical properties. They
ductile can be stretched out into a thin
are usually strong, shiny, good conductors of heat
wire
and electricity, and have high melting points.
Iron, nickel and cobalt are the only metals that are element a substance made of only one
magnetic. type of atom
a M
 etals are ductile,
group a vertical column of elements
which means they can
be stretched into wires in the Periodic Table with
similar chemical and physical
properties
halogen a non-metal in Group 7 of the
Periodic Table
magnetic produces a magnetic field
b Metals are malleable,
which means they can malleable can be bent without breaking
be bent, rolled,
hammered and shaped metal an element that can conduct
without them breaking electricity and heat; usually
shiny and strong
metalloid an element that has properties
of metals and non-metals
c M
 ost metals are
sonorous, which noble gas an unreactive gas in Group 0 of
means they making a the Periodic Table
ringing sound when hit
and can be used in non-metal an element that does not
musical instruments conduct electricity or heat;
usually dull in solid form,
but are often gases at room
temperature
period a row in the Periodic Table
Non-metals are not shiny or strong. Most are
unreactive and are gases at room temperature. They Periodic a table of all the elements in
are very poor conductors of heat and electricity, and Table the universe arranged in order
have lower densities than metals. of atomic number
radioactive emits nuclear radiation
Some elements can be toxic, for example, mercury.
sonorous makes a ringing sound when hit
Some elements are very reactive, for example
sodium, so are unsuitable for some uses, such as, toxic poisonous
jewellery. Some elements are radioactive, for
transition a metal element in the middle
example, polonium and uranium, which means they
metal of the Periodic Table
emit nuclear radiation that can cause damage to
living cells; however, they can be used to produce trend the general direction of data,
energy in nuclear power stations and to identify and such as an overall increase or
treat cancer. decrease

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 9 Periodic Table

When different elements combine, they form A chemical reaction involves atoms being
new substances called compounds. Elements rearranged and chemically joined to each other.
and compounds can take part in chemical We can represent atoms as circles in diagrams
reactions, in which new substances are made. or by using chemical symbols and chemical
Sodium is a metal that can react with the non- formulae. For example, carbon and oxygen
metal chlorine to make a new substance called are two non-metal elements that react to make
sodium chloride. Sodium chloride is the chemical carbon dioxide.
name for table salt. Sodium and chlorine are
elements and sodium chloride is a compound. carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
This chemical reaction can be represented using a
word equation: C + O2 CO2
sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
REACTANTS PRODUCT +
The reactants are the substances that you start 1 atom 1 molecule 1 molecule of
with and the new substances that are made are of carbon of oxygen carbon dioxide
called the products. The products often look
very different from the reactants, although this is
The name of a chemical compound can
not always the case.
sometimes help us to interpret the formula.
Sodium Chlorine Sodium The prefix ‘mono-’ means ‘one’ and ‘di-’ means
reactant reactant chloride ‘two’. ‘Carbon dioxide’ means that there are two
product oxygen atoms for every carbon atom. We do not
put the number one in chemical formulae, so the
chemical formula of carbon dioxide is CO2.

Non-metals react with oxygen to form oxides that are acidic. Sulfur and nitrogen are non-metals and
react with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These are often released into the
atmosphere as waste from industrial processes. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater
to form acid rain, which causes problems such as damage to forests, lakes and buildings.

acid rain
sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

No atoms are lost or made in a chemical reaction. Key vocabulary

Two atoms of copper react with two atoms of
oxygen to make two units of copper oxide. The acid a substance that has a pH
number of atoms of each element must be the lower than 7
same on both sides of an equation – this is called a acid rain rainwater that is made acidic
balanced equation. by pollutant gases such as
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO sulfur dioxide
alkali a base that is soluble in water;
Cu Cu O has a pH above 7
+ O O
base a substance that will neutralise
Cu Cu O an acid
chemical chemical symbols and numbers
2 atoms 2 atoms 2 atoms
of copper of oxygen of copper formula that show how many atoms of
2 atoms which elements are found in
of oxygen a molecule of an element or
compound
When the numbers of atoms are balanced on each chemical a process in which one or more
side of an equation then the mass will also be reaction substances are changed into
balanced. The law of conservation of mass states others, by the rearrangement
that mass is never lost or gained during a chemical of their atoms
reaction. Zinc and oxygen react to make zinc oxide. compound atoms of more than one
The total mass of the reactants is exactly the same element chemically bonded
as the mass of the new products. together
zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide conservation the total mass does not change
of mass during physical changes or
64 g + 16 g → 64 + 16 = 80 g
chemical reactions
equation a chemical reaction written
Reactants 80 g Product 80 g (chemical) in terms of its reactants and
products

Patterns in the reactions and properties of elements indicator a chemical that is a different
allow us to predict how other elements will behave colour in an alkali and in an
if we know something about them, such as their acid; used to identify whether
location in the Periodic Table, or whether they are a an unknown solution is acidic
metal or non-metal. or alkaline
Most metals react with oxygen to form a base. metal oxide the product of a reaction
A base is a substance that neutralises an acid to between a metal and oxygen,
produce a salt and water. Bases are usually metal for example, copper oxide; it is
oxides, metal hydroxides or metal carbonates. a base
Copper will react with oxygen to form copper non-metal the product of a reaction
oxide. Copper oxide is a metal base which is oxide between a non-metal and
insoluble in water. A base that can dissolve in water oxygen; it is an acid e.g.
is known as an alkali. Sodium hydroxide is soluble carbon dioxide
in water. It is a base and an alkali. Sodium hydroxide pH a scale that shows how acidic
is used to make soap, paper and dyes, and is used in or alkaline a substance is, using
household products to clear drains and clean ovens. numbers from 1 to 14
Alkalis (including sodium hydroxide) can be very
corrosive and can cause burns. product (of a chemical reaction) a
substance made in a chemical
reaction
reactant a starting substance in a
chemical reaction

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 9 Periodic Table

9.1 The structure of the

Periodic Table
You are learning to:
• recognise that the Periodic Table has changed over time
• understand how the modern Periodic Table is organised.

1 Which scientist developed the basis of the modern Periodic Table?

a Charles Darwin b Albert Einstein c Dmitri Mendeleev d Marie Curie

2 Complete this sentence about the structure of the Periodic Table, using words from the
following list.
lines     elements     periods     groups

In the Periodic Table, rows are called ____i____ and columns are called ____ii____.

3 Why is water not listed on the Periodic Table?

4 How is the modern Periodic Table arranged?

a by increasing atomic mass c by increasing size of atoms
b by increasing atomic number d in alphabetical order
group number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Key atomic number 3

chemical symbol Li
reactive metals metalloids 7
atomic mass
1
transition metals non-metals 2
1 H He
1
poor metals noble gases 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
period 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
number 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
223 226 265 268 271 267 277 276 281 280 285 284 289 288 293 294 294

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227 232 231 238 237 244 244 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262

Use the Periodic Table to help answer the questions below.

5 a How many elements can be found in Period 1 of the Periodic Table?

b ‘Most elements in the Periodic Table are non-metals.’ Is this statement true or false?

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 Questions

6 The table shows elements from the Periodic Table. Some elements are in the wrong places.
Which row is correct?

Metal Non-metal
a Na Cu
b Cl Fe
c Se B
d Mg O

7 a Which of these elements is found in Group 1?

i helium, He ii francium, Fr
b Which element is in Group 6 and Period 5?
c What do elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have in common?

8 The diagram shows an outline of the Periodic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Table. Five elements have been given the 1

labels A to E. 2
3 D E
a Place the elements in order of their atomic 4 A C
number, starting with the lowest. 5

b Explain how you decided upon this 6

answer. 7 B

c Which element is a non-metal?

9 The table shows the approximate time in history when some elements were discovered.

Element Approximate time of discovery

gold, silver, copper, sulfur early history
zinc pre-1600
aluminium, sodium, magnesium, potassium 1800s
Suggest a reason why gold and silver were among the first to be discovered by humans.

10 In 1803, an English chemist called John Dalton wrote an article in which he assigned one atom
of hydrogen, H, a mass of 1. This was then used to give atomic masses to every other
known element. Carbon, C, has an atomic mass of 12, which means that 1 atom of carbon
has 12 times more mass than 1 atom of hydrogen. Mendeleev used atomic masses in his
version of the Periodic Table. Elements were not given atomic numbers until later, after the
discovery of electrons and protons.
a Complete the table to show the atomic mass and
Element Atomic Atomic
atomic number for each element. Use the Periodic
symbol mass number
Table to help you.
Li
b Which element has an atomic mass that is 20
N
times greater than that of hydrogen? Use the
Periodic Table to help you. O
c How did the article by John Dalton help Dmitri S
Mendeleev to produce his initial Periodic Table?
d Describe three ways in which the modern Periodic Table is different to the one
produced by Dmitri Mendeleev.

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 9 Periodic Table

9.2 Properties of elements in the

Periodic Table
You are learning to:
• recognise the properties and uses of metals and non-metals
• describe the properties of non-metals and identify some uses
• use data and the properties of elements to choose materials suited to
particular uses
• make predictions about the position of an element in the Periodic Table
based on its physical and chemical properties.

group number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Key atomic number 3

chemical symbol Li
reactive metals metalloids 7
atomic mass
1
transition metals non-metals 2
1 H He
1
poor metals noble gases 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
period 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
number 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
223 226 265 268 271 267 277 276 281 280 285 284 289 288 293 294 294

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227 232 231 238 237 244 244 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262

Use the Periodic Table to help you answer the questions below.
1 Place these properties of metals and non-metals in the most appropriate column in the table:
a shiny Metals Non-metals
b good conductor of heat
c poor conductor of electricity
d found on the right of the Periodic Table
e dense
2 Complete the sentence about elements in the Periodic Table.
Elements in the same ________ of the Periodic Table undergo similar chemical reactions.
3 The table lists some elements from the Periodic Table Element Chemical symbol
and their chemical symbols.
iron Fe
a Which of these elements could be malleable? copper Cu
b Which of these elements is magnetic? chlorine Cl
c Which of these elements is very unreactive? oxygen O
neon Ne
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 Questions

4 Hydrogen is a non-metal element that is a gas at room

temperature. A rigid airship filled with hydrogen carried
passengers for the first time in 1936.
a Which of these properties of hydrogen would have made
it a good choice to fill an airship?
i colourless ii no smell
iii low density iv non-toxic
b Are the properties listed in part a chemical or physical properties?
c Rigid airships are now filled with helium instead of hydrogen. Which of these properties of
helium makes it a better choice than hydrogen for an airship?
i Helium has a higher density than hydrogen.
ii Helium is less flammable than hydrogen.
iii Helium is a gas at room temperature.

5 The diagram shows an outline of the Periodic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1
Table. Five elements have been given the
2
labels A to E.
3 D E
a Which elements would be able to 4 A C
conduct electricity? 5
6
b Which element would react very violently
7 B
with water?
c Which element would be useful in treating harmful bacteria in drinking water?

6 A student plans to set up an experiment to find out if an unknown element is a metal or a

non-metal. The element is a solid. They will use the equipment listed below.
bulb, wires, crocodile clips, power supply
Describe how the student could use this equipment to find out if the element is a metal or a
non-metal. Your answer should include:
a a labelled diagram of the student’s experiment
b a description of the results that would be obtained if the element is a metal and if the
element is a non-metal.

7 The table below shows data for the melting points, boiling points and densities of several
elements and water. Use the table and your own knowledge to answer the questions.

Element Density Melting point Boiling point State at room

(g/cm3) (°C) (°C) temperature
S 0.002 −219 −188 gas
T 0.0008 −248 −246 gas
U 0.003 −101 −34 ?
V 3.1 −7.2     58.8 liquid
water 1.00    0 100 liquid
a Will element U be a solid, a liquid or a gas at room temperature?
b Which element will not float on water?
c Three elements are in the same group of the Periodic Table. Element S has the lowest
melting and boiling points of the group. Suggest which element is not part of this group.

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 9 Periodic Table

9.3 Reactions of elements

and compounds
You are learning to:
• recognise and represent elements and compounds using formulae and
symbols
• understand that mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
• interpret the ratio of atoms and the formulae of simple compounds
• be able to balance simple chemical equations.

1 ‘A chemical reaction involves the formation of one or more new substances.’

Is this statement true or false?

2 Which statement correctly completes the following paragraph about compounds?

It is difficult to separate a compound into the elements it is made of. This is because the
elements in a compound…
a are chemically joined together. b cannot change state.
c are in the Periodic Table.

Worked example
What is the name of the compound formed in this reaction?
lithium + chlorine → ___________ ____________
+
In a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged and then join
together differently to make new compounds. element A element B compound

The first part of the compound name comes from the element which is closest to the left-hand side
of the Periodic Table (usually a metal). The second part of the name comes from the other element.
If there are only two elements involved in the reaction, the last part ends in ‘-ide’. Lithium is a
metal, so the first part of the compound name is ‘lithium’
The second element is chlorine, so the second part of the compound name is ‘chloride’.
The name of the compound is lithium chloride.

3 Name the compound formed when copper metal reacts with oxygen gas.

Worked example
Write this word equation as a sentence:
sodium + bromine → sodium bromide
Start on the left-hand side of the arrow and mention both elements or compounds that are reacting
together. The arrow symbol means ‘reacts to form’. Then name the compound(s) formed as the
product of the reaction.
Sodium and bromine react together to form the product sodium bromide.

4 a Write this word equation as a sentence:

potassium + oxygen → potassium oxide
b Write a word equation from the following sentence: hydrochloric acid and calcium react
together to produce calcium chloride and hydrogen.
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 Questions

5 Complete the particle diagram for the reaction below, so that the equation has the same
number of atoms on both sides.

magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

6 A student measured out the reactants for an

experiment in two beakers on a digital balance.
The balance read 256.7 g. The student added
the zinc granules to the hydrochloric acid.
hydrochloric acid
There was a chemical reaction and hydrogen gas
was released. zinc granules

a The student noticed that the reading on the

digital balance decreased. Explain why.
b ‘Mass is conserved in a chemical reaction.’
What does this statement mean?
c What additional equipment could the
student use to show more accurately that
mass was conserved in this reaction? Explain g
your choice.

7 Magnetite is a type of iron ore. Iron can be extracted from

magnetite through a chemical reaction with carbon monoxide.
magnetite + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
The chemical formula of each substance in the reaction is shown
in the table.
a Complete the following sentences about the chemical
formulae in the table.
In carbon monoxide, there is one carbon, C, atom for Substance Chemical
every __i__ oxygen, O, atom. formula

In carbon dioxide, there is one carbon atom for every magnetite Fe3O4
__ii__ oxygen atoms. carbon monoxide CO
In magnetite, there are three iron, Fe, atoms for every iron Fe
__iii__ oxygen atoms. carbon dioxide CO2
b The symbol equation for the same reaction is shown
below. This equation is not yet balanced.
Fe3O4 + ___CO → ____ Fe + 4CO2
The number of atoms on each side of the equation must be the same. Finish the table to
show how many atoms of each element are currently shown on each side of the equation.
Element Number of atoms on the left Number of atoms on the right
of the equation of the equation
iron (Fe)
oxygen (O)
carbon (C)
c Which option shows the correct values needed to balance the equation?
Fe3O4 + _ __CO → __ __ Fe + 4CO2
i 4CO, 4Fe ii 4CO, 3Fe iii 2CO, 3Fe iv 3CO, 4Fe
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 9 Periodic Table

9.4 Using the Periodic Table

You are learning to:
• understand that metals react with oxygen to produce bases
• understand that non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic compounds
• understand how patterns in reactions can be predicted using the Periodic
Table
• recognise chemical symbols and simple formulae.

You may need to refer to the Periodic Table to help answer some of the questions.
group number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Key atomic number 3

chemical symbol Li
reactive metals metalloids 7
atomic mass
1
transition metals non-metals 2
1 H He
1
poor metals noble gases 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
period 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
number 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
223 226 265 268 271 267 277 276 281 280 285 284 289 288 293 294 294

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227 232 231 238 237 244 244 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262

1 Choose the correct terms from the list to complete the sentence below.
acid  alkali  oxygen  a non-metal  oxide  carbonate
A metal reacts with i _________ to form a metal ii _______, which is a base.

2 a What is the difference between a base and an alkali?

b Are all alkalis also classed as bases?

3 Titanium is a metal element.

a What compound is formed when titanium reacts with oxygen?
b Is this compound acidic or basic?

4 The following compounds are oxides:

sulfur dioxide, SO2   magnesium oxide, MgO
a Which compound is basic?
b Which compound is acidic?

5 Iron, Fe, reacts with oxygen in damp conditions to produce iron oxide; this is also known as
rust. Is rust an acidic or a basic oxide?

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 Questions
5 6 7 8 9
6 A section of the Periodic Table is shown on the right. Which B C N O F
11 12 14 16 19
element would you predict to have similar chemical properties 13 14 15 16 17
to boron, B? Al Si P S Cl
27 28 31 32 35.5

7 The pH scale measures how acid or how alkaline a substance is.

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

increasingly acidic increasingly alkaline

A student reacted four unnamed elements (A–D) with Element pH of metal oxide
oxygen to make metal oxides. They tested the pH of
A 4
each metal oxide and recorded their results.
B 8
a Which elements are metals?
C 11
b Justify your choice.
D 2

8 The diagram shows an outline of the Periodic Table. Seven elements are labelled A to G.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1
2
3 D E G
4 A C
5
6
7 B F

a Which of the elements A to G are in Period 3?
b Which elements will have similar chemical properties? Choose from the list below:
i D, E, G ii A, C iii B, F iv A, F
c Which elements will combine with oxygen to form a basic oxide?
d A student predicts that one of the elements will not react with oxygen at all. Give the
letter of the element and explain why you chose this element.

9 Indicators are substances that can be used to identify if a substance is acidic or alkaline. Litmus
is an example of an indicator. Litmus solution turns red in acid and blue in alkali. Red litmus
paper stays red in acid and turns blue in an alkali. Blue litmus paper stays blue in an alkali and
turns red in an acid.
A student tested solutions of some metal and non-metal oxides with litmus paper. Complete the
table to show what colour the litmus paper would be when solutions of the oxides were tested.

Oxide Colour of blue litmus paper Colour of red litmus paper

magnesium oxide, MgO
sulfur dioxide, SO2
sodium oxide, Na2O

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 9 Periodic Table

Maths and practical skills

You may need to refer to the Periodic Table in the knowledge organiser to help answer some of the
questions.

1 Aluminium, Al, has an atomic mass of 27. How many times greater is the mass of an atom of
aluminium than an atom of hydrogen, H?

2 A student tested the conductivity of four elements using an electrical circuit. Each element was
placed in a complete circuit with a bulb. Complete the table to classify the elements tested.

Element Did the bulb light? Metal, non-metal or metalloid?

hydrogen, H no
sulfur, S no
scandium, Sc yes, brightly
tellurium, Te yes, dimly

3 The elements in Group 1 of the Periodic Table are

metals. They are stored in oil. A teacher removed a
sample of a Group 1 metal from oil and cut a piece off
using a knife. It was shiny on the exposed surface but
soon turned a dull grey. The metal sample was
returned to its container and stored under oil again.
a Group 1 metals can be cut with a knife. Is this an
example of a physical or a chemical property?
b Why did the shiny metal quickly become dull
when left exposed to the air?
c Suggest why the Group 1 metals are stored in oil.

4 The table shows the elements in Period 2 of the Periodic Table.

Element Li Be B C N O F Ne
State at room temperature solid solid solid solid gas gas gas gas
a Use the table to decide which of the elements below has the highest melting point.
i beryllium, Be    ii neon, Ne    iii fluorine, F
b Explain your answer to part a.
c Will elements in the same period have the same physical properties?

5 The units that scientists use all over the world are standardised in the Système Internationale
d’Unités (SI units). The base unit for temperature across the world is kelvin (K). Many scientists
also use the unit degrees Celsius (°C) for temperature, so it is important to be able to convert °C
into K and vice versa.

0 °C is equivalent to 273.15 K

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 Questions

Worked example
Convert 10 °C into K
To convert a temperature written in °C to K, add 273.15 to the temperature.
A temperature of 10°C would be 10 + 273.15 = 283.15 K

The table shows the melting points of a group of elements E to H in both °C and in K. Use the
information in the table to calculate the melting point of elements F and G in kelvin (K).

Element E F G H
Melting point (°C) 180 98 63.5 39.3
Melting point (K) 453.15 i ii 312.45

6 A gas burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. A student writes the equation for
this reaction:
C3H8 + 4O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
a Complete the table below to show how many atoms of each element are in the reactants
and products.
Element Number of atoms in Number of atoms in
the reactants the products
carbon, C
hydrogen, H
oxygen, O

b Is the equation balanced? Justify your answer.

7 The graph shows the boiling points of elements in Group 7 of the Periodic Table. These elements
are also known as the halogens.
a Underline the elements that are gases at room temperature.
fluorine     chlorine     bromine     astatine
b Describe the trend for boiling point in the
elements of Group 7. 300 Astatine, At

c Iodine, I, is a black solid which is often used in 250

photography and in medicine. It has an
atomic mass of 127 and a boiling point of 200
184 °C. Plot the boiling point of iodine on
150
the graph.
Boiling point (°C)

d Dmitri Mendeleev first organised elements in 100

terms of increasing atomic mass. Bromine, Br
50
Tellurium, Te, is a semi-solid grey powder. It Room temperature
has a boiling point of 988 °C and an atomic 0
mass of 28. Mendeleev initially placed iodine Chlorine, Cl
–50
in Group 6 and tellurium in Group 7, but then
swapped them around. Further evidence has –100
since shown Mendeleev’s decision to be
correct. Suggest one reason why Mendeleev –150
decided to swap iodine to Group 7 and Flourine, F
–200
tellurium to Group 6.

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 10 Chemical reactions

10 Chemical reactions road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
10.3 Thermal 10.4 Oxidation
decomposition • state the meaning
• state the meaning of oxidation
of thermal • describe oxidation
decomposition • describe reduction
• describe thermal • represent reactions
decomposition
• use evidence
• represent reactions

10.2 Acids and alkalis

• describe acids and alkalis
• describe the pH scale
compare and group together • understand indicators
materials based on their properties
10.1 Chemical change
describe some chemical changes • describe reactions
describe how solutions are formed • recognise conservation
of mass
describe how to recover a substance • describe combustion
from a solution • represent reactions

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

n 10.5 Neutralisation conservation of mass and balanced

ng • recall the neutralisation chemical equations
reaction equation
on • explain how water
atoms, elements and compounds
10.6 Reactions of
on is made acids and alkalis energy transfer during exothermic and
ons • apply models • describe reactions endothermic reactions
• represent reactions • predict reactants reaction profiles
• represent reactions metal oxides; Group 7
the pH scale and neutralisation
10.7 Displacement
reactions reactions of acids with metals; neutralisation
• represent and explain of acids and salt production
reactions catalysts
• make inferences about
reactivity
• represent reactions KS4
10.8 Energetics
• describe examples
• describe catalysts
• explain energy changes
• represent reactions

Maths and practical skills

planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables

presenting data using tables and graphs
interpreting observations and data
analysing data and identifying anomalous results
presenting reasoned explanations
using SI units and chemical names and symbols
making scientific predictions

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 10 Chemical reactions

Chemical reactions
When substances are mixed together, chemical changes can happen.
During a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new chemicals.
A chemical equation can be used to show this rearrangement.

Chemical reactions and physical changes

Identify which of the following photographs show chemical reactions. How do you know it is
a chemical reaction and not a physical change?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a chef?

As a chef, you could be a chemical reaction your cakes
responsible for cooking food would not rise! Baking powder
for people in places like pubs, contains two chemicals that
restaurants and hotels. You react together to form carbon
might learn how to cook lots of dioxide. It is this carbon dioxide
different types of food from all gas, released during the reaction,
over the world. There are many which causes cakes to rise.
different types of chef, but it is You use the Maillard reaction discovered by a French chemist
common to start as a ‘commis’ when cooking. It causes called Louis-Camille Maillard.
or junior chef. browning and gives the food This reaction is responsible for
You use chemical reactions lots of flavour. It is a reaction the flavours in cooked meat,
to cook food and improve its between sugars and amino fried onions, roasted coffee and
flavour. For example, without acids in the food and was toasted bread.

Soil scientists gather information about Marine biologists monitor and protect
the structure and properties of soil, and the vulnerable ecosystems, such as coral reefs.
organisms which live there. Good soil is The sea is becoming more acidic as more
important for healthy crop growth to sustain carbon dioxide dissolves in it. This has an
food production. Some soils may not have effect on organisms like coral, which use
enough nutrients calcium carbonate to build their skeletons.
to grow crops. The more acidic sea
They may also water becomes, the
be too acidic, less calcium carbonate
or too alkaline. it can hold. Marine
Soil scientists can biologists help us to
recommend adding understand the effect
substances to this is having on
improve the soil. coral reefs.

Builders work with many

different materials to make
buildings and other structures.
They commonly use cement.
Cement is a powdery substance
that is mixed with water, sand
and gravel to make concrete.
A chemical reaction occurs in
Railway engineers use a the cement when it is mixed
chemical reaction called the with water. This gives out a lot Industrial cleaners use
thermite reaction to weld of heat and produces a strong very strong chemicals to
railway tracks together. The material that is very useful in clean. Chemicals known as
thermite reaction releases the construction of buildings. bases or alkalis react with
a lot of heat. Iron is usually oils and fats, and so can
produced in the reaction, and degrease surfaces. Drain
so much heat is released that cleaners and oven cleaners
the iron is molten. The molten normally contain sodium
iron welds the rail tracks hydroxide, which is a strong
together. base.

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 10 Chemical reactions

Knowledge organiser
A chemical reaction is a change in which During a chemical reaction, atoms rearrange and
new substances are made. During a chemical join together in a different way. New products are
reaction you may see: formed from the reactants. For example, hydrogen
• bubbles of gas and oxygen react together to form water. Hydrogen
and oxygen are the reactants and water is the product.
• a change in temperature
One molecule of oxygen reacts with two molecules of
• a colour change hydrogen to form two molecules of water.
• a change in mass.

In any chemical reaction, the total mass of

+
the reactants is the same as the total mass
of the products. This is called the law of
conservation of mass. Sometimes it may
oxygen hydrogen water
appear that the mass has changed. When
this happens, there is normally a gas, either Notice that there are the same numbers of oxygen
as a reactant or as a product, which accounts and hydrogen atoms at the start of the reaction as
for the ‘missing’ mass. there are at the end of the reaction. They have been
rearranged to form a new substance, water.
Burning is an example of a chemical
reaction. The scientific name for burning is
Some of the substances we use at home
combustion. During combustion, a fuel
or in the laboratory are acids. Vinegar
reacts with oxygen to make carbon dioxide
and lemon juice contain acids. Acids
and water. The reaction releases useful energy.
are substances with a pH less than 7.
corrosive hazard sign
‘Corrosive’ hazard sign
We can summarise combustion using an
Concentrated acids are corrosive; corrosive hazard sign

equation:
dilute acids may be irritants. All acids
fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water contain the element hydrogen. Harmful hazard sign,which is
used for substances that are not
corrosive but are irritants

If there is not enough oxygen available Some other substances are alkalis. Harmful hazard sign,which is
‘Harmful’ hazard
used for substances that aresign,
not

to react with all of the fuel, incomplete Soap and detergents contain alkalis. corrosive but are irritants
which is used for
substances that are
combustion takes place. The reaction has Alkalis are substances with a pH greater not corrosive but
are irritants.
different products. than 7. Like acids, concentrated alkalis
can be corrosive and dilute alkalis may
fuel + oxygen → carbon + carbon + water be irritants. All alkalis contain hydroxide
monoxide particles (chemical formula OH).

An indicator is a substance that is a different colour in an acid and in an alkali. One example of an
indicator is litmus. Litmus solution turns red in acid and blue in alkali. If a solution is neither an acid nor
an alkali, we say it is neutral.
pH: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong weak weak strong

acid acid alkali alkali

increasingly acidic neutral increasingly alkaline

Universal indicator turns a range of different colours. The colour depends on whether the substance is
an acid or an alkali and on how strong or weak it is. Each colour is given a pH number. The pH scale is
a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
Hydrochloric acid is an example of a strong acid, with a pH of 1. Vinegar is an example of a weak acid,
with a pH of 3.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Oxidation reactions involve oxygen being Key vocabulary

added to another substance. This reaction
acid a substance that will neutralise a base;
forms compounds called oxides. During the
has a pH lower than 7
combustion of a metal, oxygen is added to
the metal: alkali a base that is soluble in water; has a
pH above 7
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
chemical chemical symbols and numbers that
The mass of the metal oxide is greater than formula show how many atoms of which
the mass of the metal because oxygen has elements are contained in a molecule
been added. of an element or compound
When oxygen is removed from a metal
chemical a process in which one or more
oxide, the reaction is called reduction.
reaction substances are changed into others,
This is the opposite of oxidation.
by the rearrangement of their atoms
Carbon can be used to remove oxygen
from iron oxide. combustion the reaction of a fuel with oxygen
that transfers thermal energy to the
surroundings
Thermal decomposition reactions
happen when some substances are conserved when the quantity of something does
heated and break down into simpler not change after a process takes place
products. No new substances are added. corrosive can destroy skin and attack metal if
When carbonates decompose, they spilled
produce a metal oxide and carbon dioxide:
fuel any material that can be burned to
metal → metal + carbon release energy
carbonate oxide dioxide
incomplete when there is not enough oxygen
clamp stand combustion available to react with all of a fuel
during combustion
clamp
indicator chemical that is a different colour in
an alkali and an acid; used to identify
copper whether an unknown solution is acidic
delivery carbonate
tube
or alkaline
irritant a substance that causes the skin to
become red, blistered and itchy
neutral has a pH of 7
oxidation a reaction in which a substance
test tube combines with oxygen
pH a number from 1 to 14 on the pH
scale of acidity and alkalinity
product (of a chemical reaction) a substance
made in a chemical reaction
reactant a starting substance in a chemical
reaction
reduction a reaction in which oxygen is
removed from a compound
thermal a chemical change caused by heating,
limewater decomposition when one substance is changed into
Bunsen at least two new substances
test tube burner
universal an indicator that turns a range
indicator of different colours; each colour
indicates a different pH value

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 10 Chemical reactions

A neutral substance has pH 7. It is made alkali A base is any substance that

acid neutralises an acid to produce
when an acid and alkali exactly neutralise
one another. This is called a salt and water. An alkali
neutralisation. Neutralisation is a is a soluble base – one that
chemical reaction; new products O dissolves in water. Therefore,
are formed. H H all alkalis are bases, but not all
bases are alkalis. Metal oxides,
acid + alkali → salt + water
metal hydroxides and metal
Water is a product of the neutralisation carbonates are all examples
reaction between acids and alkalis. water of bases.
O
The hydrogen from the acid combines
with the hydroxide from the alkali to H H
form water. bases

alkalis
Acids react with bases to produce a salt and water. This is similar to
the reaction you saw above between an acid and an alkali.
acid + base → salt + water
Salts are also formed in other reactions that involve acids. Acids react
with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
The name of a salt has two
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen parts. The first part comes
from the reactant that is not
Acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, water and
the acid; it is often a metal.
carbon dioxide.
For example, the alkali sodium
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide hydroxide forms salts that
start with ‘sodium’. The end
part of the name comes from
The reactivity series of In a displacement reaction a
the acid. For example, a salt
metals places metals in order more reactive substance displaces
formed from sulfuric acid and
of their reactivity. It also (pushes out) a less reactive
sodium hydroxide is called
includes two non-metals: substance from a compound.
‘sodium sulfate’.
hydrogen and carbon. An example is when iron is added
to a copper sulfate solution. Iron
Acid used Forms salts
Most K potassium is more reactive than copper.
in reaction that end
reactive A chemical change occurs – iron
Na sodium in…
displaces the copper to make
Ca calcium hydrochloric chloride
iron sulfate:
Mg magnesium acid
iron + copper sulfate → iron sulfate
Al aluminium
+ copper sulfuric acid sulfate
C carbon
nitric acid nitrate
Zn zinc
Fe iron
Sn tin Acids contain hydrogen. When reactive metals react with acids, a
Pb lead displacement reaction occurs and hydrogen is displaced from the acid.
H hydrogen
If a metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series, it will react to
displace hydrogen. For example:
Cu copper
Ag silver zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen

Least
Au gold Non-metals also undergo displacement reactions. Chlorine and iodine
reactive Pt platinum are non-metals. Chlorine is more reactive than iodine. When chlorine
gas is passed through sodium iodide solution, the chlorine displaces
the iodine:
chlorine + sodium iodide → sodium chloride + iodine

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

In a chemical reaction, hydrogen oxygen

Key vocabulary
existing chemical bonds + base a substance that will
are broken and new ones
neutralise an acid
are made. Energy is needed energy in energy in
to break chemical bonds; Energy is taken in from the
bond when a chemical bond
energy is released when surroundings to break the breaking is broken by overcoming
reactant bonds
new chemical bonds are the force of attraction
made. The balance between between particles; energy
these two processes is transferred in from the
explains why some Energy is released to the surroundings
reactions are endothermic surroundings when new
bonds are made bond making when a chemical bond
and others are exothermic.
is made by the force of
If more energy is needed for
attraction between particles;
bond breaking than is
energy is transferred out to
released in bond making, energy out energy out
the surroundings
the reaction is endothermic.
If less energy is needed for catalyst substance that speeds up a
bond-breaking than is chemical reaction
released in bond-making,
chemical the force of attraction
the reaction is exothermic.
bond between two atoms

In some reactions, like displacement a chemical reaction in which

combustion, there is an
Exothermic reaction one substance takes the place
reaction
energy transfer to the of another in a compound
surroundings – these are endothermic a chemical reaction in which
Energy

reactants
known as exothermic energy reaction energy is taken in, causing a
released
reactions, which cause cooling of the surroundings
the temperature of the products
energy the passing on of energy
surroundings to increase.
Progress of reaction transfer from one energy store to
Other reactions, like
another energy store
thermal decomposition, Endothermic
take energy from their reaction exothermic a chemical reaction in which
surroundings – these are reaction energy is given out, causing a
Energy

known as endothermic products warming of the surroundings

reactions, which cause energy
absorbed neutralisation to make a substance neutral
the temperature of the
(pH 7) by adding an acid or
surroundings to decrease. reactants
a base
An energy profile diagram Progress of reaction
shows the energy changes rate the number of times
taking place during something happens in a unit
exothermic and of time, such as a second
endothermic reactions. rate of a measure of the speed of a
reaction reaction; for example, the
A catalyst is a substance that is added to a chemical number of molecules of
reaction to make the reaction faster. Catalysts are product produced over a set
not changed by the reaction – they alter the rate time
of reaction. Most catalysts provide an alternative
reactive inclined to react in a
‘pathway’ for the reaction that lowers the amount of
chemical reaction; some
energy needed for the reaction to proceed.
substances are more reactive
than others
salt a substance formed when
an acid reacts with a base, a
metal or a metal carbonate

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.1 Chemical change

You are learning to:
• describe chemical reactions in terms of atoms
• recognise that mass is conserved in chemical reactions
• describe complete and incomplete combustion using equations
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 A student observed a chemical reaction taking place. List three clues that we can look for to
spot a chemical reaction.

2 Combustion is an example of which type of chemical reaction?

a thermal decomposition
b oxidation
c neutralisation
d displacement

3 The chemical formula for oxygen gas is O2. Give the chemical formula for:
a carbon dioxide
b water.

4 A fuel is burnt during a combustion reaction. Which

statement correctly completes this sentence about fuels?
A fuel is a substance that…
a takes oxygen away from another substance.
b can be burned to release energy.
c has a pH lower than 7.
d causes skin to become red, blistered
and itchy.

5 The mass of the reactants in a chemical reaction equals the mass of the products of the
reaction. Explain why mass is conserved during a chemical reaction.

6 Methane is a gas which can be used as a fuel. Write the word equation for complete
combustion of the fuel methane.

7 When the hole in the neck of a Bunsen burner is closed, the flame is
orange. This is the ‘safety flame’. Incomplete combustion of the fuel
occurs. State the differences between complete and incomplete
combustion.

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 Questions

Worked example
A student investigates thermal decomposition reactions. They heat 13.5 g of calcium carbonate
until it decomposes completely. Carbon dioxide and 7.6 g of calcium oxide are produced. Use
the law of conservation of mass to find the mass of carbon dioxide produced.

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed during
a chemical reaction. This means that the mass of the reactants must equal the mass of the
products.
The mass of the reactant in this reaction is 13.5 g. You have been given the mass of one of the
products, 7.6 g of calcium oxide.
calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
13.5 g 7.6 g ?g
You can use this information to find the mass of the other product, carbon dioxide. The mass
of carbon dioxide and calcium oxide added together must equal 13.5 g. You can subtract the
mass of calcium oxide from 13.5 g to find the mass of carbon dioxide.
13.5 – 7.6 = 5.9 g of carbon dioxide

8 15.6 g of sodium reacted with chlorine to produce 39.7 g of sodium chloride. Use the law of
conservation of mass to find the mass of chlorine used in the reaction.

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

9 Nitric acid reacts with zinc to form hydrogen gas and the salt zinc nitrate. How does this
equation show that mass is conserved during the reaction?

+ +

nitric acid zinc zinc nitrate hydrogen

10 A student heated a strip of magnesium in a Bunsen burner flame. The magnesium reacted
with oxygen in the air. The student measured the mass of the magnesium before the reaction
and the mass of the product. Suggest what happened to the mass and why.

11 Hydrocarbons are substances that can be used as fuels. Suggest which two chemical elements
can be found in all hydrocarbons.

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.2 Acids and alkalis

You are learning to:
• describe acids and alkalis in terms of what they have in common
• describe what the pH scale measures
• understand how to use indicators to identify acids and alkalis

1 Bottles of acids and alkalis used in the laboratory are labelled with hazard
symbols. A hazard is something that could cause harm. What does the
hazard symbol shown on the right mean?

2 Indicators change colour when they are added to solutions that are
acidic or alkaline. Litmus is an example of an indicator. What colour does
litmus turn in acid? corrosive hazard sign

3 A student added universal indicator to an unknown solution. The results showed that the
solution had a pH of 7.
a What colour would the universal indictor turn to show the solution was pH 7?
b What does this tell you about the solution?

4 A soluble substance dissolves in a solvent. An example of a solvent is water. What is the name
given to a soluble base?
a alkali
b acid
c hydroxide

5 All acids have an element in common. Which element do all acids contain?

6 All alkalis contain hydroxide particles, which have the chemical formula OH. Potassium
hydroxide is an alkali. Which elements are contained in potassium hydroxide?

7 During an investigation, a student decided to use universal indicator to test some liquids.
Explain the advantages of using universal indicator rather than litmus paper to test the acidity
and alkalinity of liquids.

Worked example
A student tested several different substances using universal indicator solution. They recorded
their findings in the following table.
Substance pH
soap 10.0
bleach 12.1
ammonia 11.0
milk 6.8
baking soda 8.2
sodium hydroxide 14.0
Which substance is the least alkaline?

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 Questions

Alkaline substances have a pH greater than 7. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. The closer the
pH of an alkaline substance is to 7, the less alkaline it is.
pH: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong weak weak strong

acid acid alkali alkali

increasingly acidic neutral increasingly alkaline

Therefore, the least alkaline substance will be an alkaline substance with a pH closest to 7.
Looking at the table we can see that milk has the pH closest to 7, but it is an acidic substance,
as its pH is less than 7. The question asks for the least alkaline substance. Baking soda is an
alkaline substance with a pH closest to 7 of those in the table.
baking soda

8 The table shows the pH of some liquids. Which liquid is the least acidic?

Liquid pH
lemon juice 2.2
milk 6.8
black coffee 5.0
beer 4.0

9 Sulfuric acid is a strong acid. Universal indicator turns red when added to sulfuric acid. Suggest
the pH of sulfuric acid.

10 Vinegar is acidic. A student added a strip of magnesium to vinegar, and a strip of

magnesium to hydrochloric acid. What would the student observe during the experiment?
Explain your answer.

11 A student wrote: ‘all alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis’. Explain what they meant by
this sentence.

12 A solution was tested with universal indicator solution. The pH of the solution was 0. Suggest
what a pH of 0 tells you about the solution.

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.3 Thermal decomposition

You are learning to:
• state the meaning of the term ‘thermal decomposition’
• describe the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates
• use evidence from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates to
construct the reactivity series of metals
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Complete the following sentences about thermal decomposition. Use the words to help you.
heating   cooling   oxidation   reduction   one   
two or more   three
Thermal decomposition is a chemical change caused by ___i___.
In thermal decomposition, ___ii___ compound breaks down into ___iii___ substances.

2 Which of these gases is produced when calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is heated to a high
temperature?
a oxygen
b hydrogen
c carbon dioxide
d water vapour

3 How would you test for the gas produced during the thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate?

4 Which one of these is the correct general equation for the thermal decomposition of a metal
carbonate?
a metal carbonate + metal oxide → carbon dioxide
b metal carbonate → metal oxide + carbon dioxide
c metal oxide + carbon dioxide → metal carbonate

5 Why does the total mass of substances appear to decrease when calcium carbonate is heated?

6 Lead is a more reactive metal than copper. Both metals can form carbonates. Which statement
about lead carbonate and copper carbonate is true?
a Lead carbonate needs more energy to decompose it than copper carbonate.
b Lead carbonate needs less energy to decompose it than copper carbonate.

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 Questions

7 A student heated white calcium carbonate during an experiment on thermal decomposition.

After 5 minutes, the boiling tube still contained a white powder. The student’s observation
read: ‘a reaction did not take place’.
a Is the student correct?
b Why do you think the student thought no reaction had occurred?
c Write a word equation for the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate.
8 A student investigated the amount of energy needed to decompose different metal
carbonates. Here are their results:

Energy for thermal

Metal carbonate
decomposition (kJ/mol)
magnesium carbonate 101
barium carbonate 269
calcium carbonate 178

Use the data in the table to put the metals magnesium, barium and calcium in order of
reactivity, from the most to least reactive. Explain your choice.

Worked example
When calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2, is heated it produces calcium carbonate, CaCO3,
water and carbon dioxide gas. Write a symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of calcium
hydrogen carbonate.
This question looks complicated when you first read through, but it gives you most of the
information you need. The reactant in the reaction is calcium hydrogen carbonate, the formula for
this is given in the question: Ca(HCO3)2. There are no other reactants. You can write the formula for
the reactant at the start of your equation:
Ca(HCO3)2 →
Now you need to consider the products of the reaction: calcium carbonate, water and carbon
dioxide. The formula for calcium carbonate is given in the question: CaCO3. This can be added to
the equation:
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 +
You know that the formula for water is H2O and for carbon dioxide it is CO2. You can now add these
to the equation to give your final answer.
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
gas
9 A student heated copper carbonate, CuCO3 (a green powder), in a
test tube. copper
carbonate
A black powder (copper oxide, CuO) and a gas were produced
during the reaction. The diagram below represents the reaction
that occurred.

Write a symbol equation for the thermal decomposition of copper heat

carbonate. copper
oxide

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.4 Oxidation
You are learning to:
• state the meaning of the term ‘oxidation’
• describe the oxidation of metals
• describe the reduction of metal oxides
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Rust can form on the outside of iron objects. Rust is a form of iron oxide. Is iron oxide an
element or a compound?

2 Complete the sentence about oxidation.

Oxidation is a chemical reaction that involves …

3 Which one of the following reactions is an example of oxidation?

a iron + oxygen → iron oxide
b iron oxide → iron + oxygen

4 A student investigated the rusting of iron nails under different conditions. The table shows the
results of their experiment.

Condition Did the nail rust?

no oxygen no
oxygen and water yes
oxygen and no water no
control (iron nail left in the air) no

What do the results tell you about the conditions needed for the oxidation of iron?

5 Iron is found in the Earth’s crust as iron oxide, Fe2O3. Iron oxide can be reduced to produce
iron. What is meant by the term ‘reduced’?

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 Questions

6 Choose two similarities between rusting and combustion.

a they involve the production of gases
b they involve reduction
c they are chemical reactions
d they involve oxidation
e they are physical changes
f they can be reversed easily
g they need heating

Worked example
Which substance is being reduced in this reaction?
copper(II) oxide + hydrogen → copper + water
Reduction involves the removal of oxygen. You need to identify which substance has lost oxygen.
The word ‘oxide’ in copper(II) oxide means oxygen is present in the compound. During the
reaction, the copper(II) oxide is reduced by hydrogen, removing the oxygen to form copper and
water.
copper(II) oxide

7 Iron oxide reacts with carbon to produce iron and carbon dioxide gas.
iron oxide + carbon → iron + carbon dioxide
a Which substance is being reduced in this reaction?
b Describe what is happening in this reaction using the terms ‘oxidised’ and ‘reduced’.

8 A student investigated the oxidation of magnesium. They

heated the magnesium in a small crucible with a lid. While
heating, they used tongs to lift the lid to allow air into the
crucible.
They measured the mass of the magnesium before the
reaction and the mass of the product.
Explain why the mass of the product is greater than the mass
of the original magnesium. Use ideas about the conservation
of mass in your answer.

9 A teacher folded a piece of copper in half. They heated the copper in a hot flame for a few
minutes. The outside surface turned black. After heating they opened the folded copper;
inside it was still shiny and copper-coloured. Suggest why the copper turned black on the
outside, but not on the inside.

10 Aluminium reacts quickly with oxygen in the air to make aluminium oxide. The surface of
aluminium structures is protected by a layer of aluminium oxide. Iron also reacts with oxygen
to make iron oxide (rust). This can flake off the surface of iron structures. Aluminium structures
are less likely to corrode than iron structures.
a Write a word equation for the oxidation of aluminium.
b Suggest why aluminium structures are less likely to corrode than iron structures.

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.5 Neutralisation
You are learning to:
• recall the equation for a neutralisation reaction
• explain how water is made during a neutralisation reaction
• apply a model to explain neutralisation
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Complete the following general equation for the reaction between an acid and an alkali.

acid + alkali → __________ + _____________

2 What pH does a neutral solution have?

3 The stomach contains strong acid to help digestion. Indigestion tablets neutralise stomach
acid. What does this tell you about the indigestion tablets?

4 A student tested a substance using universal indicator solution. The substance has a pH of 12.
What would you add to the substance to neutralise it?

Worked example
The diagram below shows a model for the reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl, and sodium
hydroxide, NaOH. What are the two products of this neutralisation reaction? In your answer you
should give the chemical formulae of the products.

HCl NaOH
Na

Cl
+ ?
O
H H

The model shows the structure of hydrochloric acid, HCl, and sodium hydroxide, NaOH, an alkali.
You know that when the neutralisation happens a salt and water, H2O, are produced. To work out
the formula of the salt you need to look at the atoms that have been left behind once water is
formed: Na and Cl. These two elements form the salt.
H2O and NaCl

5 Look at the diagram. It shows a model of the reaction between an alkali

acid
acid and an alkali.
Water is one of the products. Which of the following shows the
other product? Choose the one correct statement.
O
a b
H H

c d water
O
H H

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 Questions

6 Give the chemical formulae of the two products formed in this neutralisation reaction.

K
Cl
+ ?
O
H
H

7 Ammonium phosphate is used as a fertiliser, which

helps farmers to grow healthy crops. It can be made
by reacting a substance called ammonium
hydroxide with an acid.
Suggest which acid reacts with ammonium
hydroxide to make ammonium phosphate.
a sulfuric acid
b hydrochloric acid
c phosphoric acid
d nitric acid

8 Complete the paragraph below about the formation of water in neutralisation reactions.
In a neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali, the _____i____ from the acid
combines with the _____ii_____ from the _____iii_____. This forms water, H2O.

9 A student investigated the neutralisation of hydrochloric acid. They put two drops of universal
indicator into the acid and then added sodium hydroxide. The indicator turned blue. What
does this result tell you about the reaction?

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.6 Reactions of acids and alkalis

You are learning to:
• describe the reaction between acids and metals
• describe the reaction between acids and carbonates
• predict the reactants used and the salt made by different neutralisation
reactions
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Which statement completes the sentence about salts?

In science, a salt is a substance formed when…
a an acid is heated strongly.
b a soluble base dissolves in water.
c an acid reacts with a base.
d an alkali reacts with a base.

2 A student placed a piece of iron into a beaker containing hydrochloric acid. A gas was
produced.
a How did the student know a gas was produced?
b Which gas is made when a metal reacts with hydrochloric acid?

Worked example
A student reacts hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide. Name the salt produced during this
reaction.
The names of the acid and base in the reaction can be used to name the salt. The first half of the
name comes from the base and is normally a metal; in this case, sodium. The second half of the
name comes from the name of the acid; for example, phosphoric acid produces phosphates and
sulfuric acid produces sulfates. In this case the acid is hydrochloric acid, which produces chlorides.
sodium chloride

3 Which two of the following are salts made using nitric acid?
a sodium chloride
b calcium sulfate
c sodium nitrate
d copper carbonate
e copper nitrate

4 Look at the following equation:

sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxide → _________ + water

Use the information in the equation to name the salt produced during the reaction.

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 Questions

5 Calcium hydroxide is an alkali. When calcium hydroxide

reacts with hydrochloric acid, calcium chloride is formed.
Which two words best describe calcium chloride?
a element
b compound
c mixture
d base
e salt

6 A student added an indigestion tablet to some hydrochloric acid in a beaker. The student
wrote down their observation as ‘fizzing’.
The equation for the reaction is:

magnesium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Use the equation to explain the student’s observation.

7 Complete the following reaction equations:

a sulfuric acid + magnesium → __________ + ____________
b hydrochloric acid + magnesium hydroxide → _________ + water
c nitric acid + calcium carbonate → _________ + water + carbon dioxide

Worked example
Suggest the name of an acid and a base that could have been used to produce the salt
magnesium nitrate during a neutralisation reaction.
The two parts of the name of the salt give you a clue about the names of the acid and
the base. It is easier to work out the name of the acid first and then suggest the name
of a base. The second half of the name of the salt comes from the name of the acid.
‘Nitrate’ indicates that nitric acid was used in the neutralisation reaction. The first half
of the name of the salt comes from the base, in this case ‘magnesium’. Bases are
normally metal oxides, metal hydroxides or metal carbonates. If you had been told that
one of the products was carbon dioxide, you would know a metal carbonate had been
used. But you only know the name of the salt. So, the base could have been
magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, and you
just need to choose one of them. For this answer we have chosen magnesium hydroxide.
nitric acid and magnesium hydroxide

8 A student carried out a neutralisation reaction using an acid

and a base.
During the reaction, water was produced alongside the salt,
potassium sulfate. A gas was not produced. Suggest the name
of an acid and a base that could have been used by the
student to produce this salt.

9 Which of the following statements is not true?

a When the acidity of a solution increases, the pH decreases.
b When an acid reacts with a base, a salt is produced.
c When an acid reacts with a metal, carbon dioxide is produced.

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.7 Displacement reactions

You are learning to:
• represent and explain displacement reactions using formulae and equations
• make inferences about reactivity from displacement reactions
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Complete the sentences about the reactivity series of metals.

The reactivity series helps us to understand and predict displacement reactions that involve metals.
In the reactivity series, metals are placed in order of reactivity, with _____i_____ metals at the
top and _____ii_____ metals at the bottom.

2 Name the two non-metals found in the reactivity series of metals.

3 Chlorine and bromine are non-metals. Chlorine is more reactive than bromine. What will
happen when chlorine is mixed with potassium bromide?

4 Give one observation that a student could make that shows there is a reaction between
magnesium and copper sulfate.

Worked example
Use the reactivity series to explain what happens when iron is added to copper sulfate solution. Give
an equation in your answer.
To answer this question you need to look at the reactivity series of metals and work out which is the
more reactive metal: iron is more reactive than copper. This means the iron will displace the copper
from the sulfate compound. You need to start your answer with the fact (what happens in the
reaction) and then add the explanation.
Iron displaces the copper from the metal sulfate compound. This happens because iron is more reactive than
copper.
The question also asks for an equation for the reaction, so you add that to your answer.
iron + copper sulfate → iron sulfate + copper

5 Use the reactivity series to explain what

happens when potassium is added to
magnesium nitrate solution. Give an equation
in your answer.

6 A student carried out a series of displacement

reactions. During their experiments they
noticed that iron reacted with copper sulfate,
but copper did not react with iron sulfate.
Explain why.

7 Use the reactivity series to explain why carbon

cannot be used to extract sodium from
sodium oxide.

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 Questions

8 Describe the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid in terms of reactivity. Use an
equation in your answer.

Most K potassium
9 Use the reactivity series to complete the following equations. reactive Na sodium
a magnesium + potassium sulfate → Ca calcium
b potassium + magnesium nitrate → Mg magnesium
Al aluminium
c zinc sulfate + potassium →
C carbon
d zinc + magnesium sulfate → Zn zinc
Fe iron
Sn tin
Pb lead
H hydrogen
Cu copper
Ag silver
Least Au gold
reactive Pt platinum

10 Chlorine, bromine and iodine are non-metals. Chlorine is a yellow gas, bromine is a brown/
orange liquid and iodine is a purple solid. Chlorine is more reactive than bromine and bromine
is more reactive than iodine. Match the reactants to the description of the reaction.

a chlorine + sodium iodide i brown/orange solution is formed

b bromine + potassium chloride ii purple precipitate is formed

c chlorine + sodium bromide iii no change

11 A student predicted that metal A was more

reactive than metal B. Plan an experiment
to determine which metal is more reactive.
You have samples of each metal and its
metal sulfate.
You have the following equipment
available:
• Beakers
• Pipettes
• Measuring cylinder
• Metal A
• Metal B
• Metal A sulfate solution
• Metal B sulfate solution
• Safety goggles

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 10 Chemical reactions

10.8 Energetics
You are learning to:
• describe examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions
• describe what a catalyst is and explain how they work
• explain the energy changes taking place during exothermic and
endothermic reactions
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Name the piece of equipment used to measure differences in temperature.

2 What is a catalyst?

3 A student carried out an exothermic reaction.

a What would have happened to the temperature during this reaction?
b What happens to the energy released during an exothermic reaction?

4 Complete the table to show examples of endothermic and exothermic

changes.
photosynthesis  thermal decomposition  
setting off fireworks   burning wood

Endothermic changes Exothermic changes

5 Which statement about catalysts is false?

a Catalysts are specific to a reaction.
b The same reaction can use many different catalysts.
c Enzymes are biological catalysts.
d Catalysts react with the reactants.

6 Look at this energy level diagram. Is it showing an exothermic or an endothermic reaction?

How do you know?
Energy

products
energy
absorbed

reactants

Progress of reaction

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 Questions

7 A teacher dissolved ammonium chloride in water. Ice formed on the

outside of the conical flask, which stuck to a piece of wood.
Explain why ice formed on the outside of the flask.

8 A student investigated some reactions to see if they

were exothermic or endothermic. They added reactant
solutions to a test tube and measured the temperature
change using a thermometer.
a Name two control variables for this investigation.
b Look at the photograph of the practical on the right.
How could the student improve the method?

Worked example
Burning hydrogen is an example of an exothermic reaction.
hydrogen oxygen
hydrogen + oxygen → water
+
Explain why this is an exothermic reaction in terms of bond making and
bond breaking.
energy in energy in
To answer this question you need to think about bond breaking and
Energy is taken in from the
bond making. The hydrogen and oxygen molecules collide, putting surroundings to break the
reactant bonds
energy into the molecules to break the reactant bonds. Bond breaking is
endothermic, which means that energy is taken in from the surroundings.
Bond making is exothermic. Energy is released to the surroundings
when new bonds are made between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms Energy is released to the
to form water. surroundings when new
bonds are made
The difference between the amount of energy taken in to break the
bonds and the amount of energy released when new bonds are formed
determines if the overall reaction is exothermic or endothermic. Since you
are told that this reaction is exothermic, it must be the case that more energy out energy out

energy is released when the bonds are formed than is taken in when the
bonds are broken.
The amount of energy released to the surroundings when the bonds are made in the water molecules is higher
than the amount of energy taken in to break the bonds in the hydrogen and oxygen molecules. This means the
overall reaction is exothermic.

9 Thermal decomposition of copper carbonate is an example of an endothermic reaction.

copper carbonate → copper oxide + carbon dioxide
Explain why this is an endothermic reaction in terms of bond breaking and bond making.

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 10 Chemical reactions

Maths and practical skills

1 Which of the following is the most appropriate unit to measure energy?
a centigrade b joules c seconds d amperes e degrees

2 A student tested a solution using universal indicator. The indicator turned yellow. What pH was
the solution?

pH: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong weak weak strong

acid acid alkali alkali

increasingly acidic neutral increasingly alkaline

3 A student measures the mass of a strip of magnesium as 0.12 g. They heat the magnesium, then
measure the mass of the magnesium oxide produced. The mass is 0.20 g.
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
a What is this type of reaction called?
b Calculate the mass of oxygen that reacted with the magnesium during the reaction. Show
your working.

4 A student reacted three metals with different salt solutions. Here are their results.
Metal
Salt solution
Copper Magnesium Metal X
copper sulfate reaction reaction
metal X sulfate no reaction reaction
magnesium sulfate no reaction no reaction

Use the data in the table to put the metals in order of reactivity, from the most reactive to the
least reactive.
60
5 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to make oxygen and water.
Volume of oxygen (cm3)

A catalyst can be used to help the reaction take place. The 50

graph shows the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide 40

with a catalyst. 30

a What volume of oxygen has been produced after 20

20 seconds? 10

0
b At what time did the reaction stop? 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s)

6 A scientist had three solutions, labelled Q, R and S. Here is a table showing the pH of
each solution.
Solution pH
Q 7
R 1
S 5

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 Questions
Which of the following shows the correct universal indicator colour for each solution? Use the
diagram in question 2 to help you.
a Q = red; R = yellow; S = green
b Q = green; R = red; S = yellow
c Q = green; R = yellow; S = red
d Q = yellow; R = red; S = green

7 A drop of alkali and a drop of acid are placed a few centimetres apart on a piece of filter paper. The
acid and alkali spread through the paper. A neutralisation reaction takes place where the solutions
meet in the middle. A few drops of universal indicator are placed on the middle of the filter paper.
What colour is the universal indicator likely to be? Use the figure in question 2 to help you.

8 A teacher heated a crucible containing copper carbonate powder. They measured the mass of the
crucible before and after heating.
copper carbonate → copper oxide + carbon dioxide
Mass of crucible and Mass of crucible and
Mass of crucible (g)
copper carbonate (g) copper oxide (g)
45.00 46.24 45.80

a What type of reaction is this?

b Use the results to find the mass of copper oxide and the mass of carbon dioxide produced
during the reaction. Show your working.

9 A student placed a copper wire, a silver wire and a lead wire into dilute hydrochloric acid. Only
one of the metals reacted.
a Which metal reacted and why? Use the reactivity series to explain your answer.
b Write a word equation for the reaction.

10 A student adds lumps of metal carbonate to an acid. The graph

Mass of metal carbonate (g)

shows how the mass of metal carbonate changes during the

reaction.
a Which reactant is used up in the reaction: the acid or the
metal carbonate? How do you know?
b Use the information in the graph to describe the rate of
reaction.
c Explain why the mass does not decrease at a constant rate.
d The experiment was repeated using the same mass of metal
Time (s)
carbonate as a powder instead of lumps. The student drew a
graph of their new results. Which two of these statements about the graph would be true?
i The mass of metal carbonate would fall more quickly.
ii The mass of metal carbonate would fall more slowly.
iii The mass of metal carbonate left at the end of the reaction would be the same.
iv The mass of metal carbonate left at the end of the reaction would be lower.

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 11 Materials

11 Materials road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

11.2 Ceramics and

composites
• describe terms
• describe properties
• explain properties
and uses

compare and group together

materials based on their properties 11.1 The reactivity
explain uses of materials series
• identify the reactivity
describe some chemical changes series
• represent reactions
compare types of rocks

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

the reactivity series

extraction of metals and reduction

11.3 Using the alternative methods of extracting metals

reactivity series ways of reducing the use of resources
• describe extraction
using carbon polymers
cracking and alkanes
metal oxides
11.4 Polymers
• present observations oxidation and reduction in terms
and data of electrons
• describe terms
• describe properties
KS4

Maths and practical skills

making scientific predictions

presenting data using tables and graphs
interpreting observations and data
calculating results and converting between different units
using equations to calculate answers
using SI units and chemical names and symbols

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 11 Materials

11 Materials
Different materials are suitable for different jobs, depending on their
properties. Ceramics, polymers, and composites are used for lots of different
jobs, from bricks to bags, plates to false teeth. Metals are also useful
materials. Some metals are more reactive than others, and we can put
metals into a reactivity series to help us predict how they will react.

Which material is best for the job?

A company wants to make a saucepan and is deciding which material to use for the handle. Look at
the following information, which shows the properties of some different materials. The melting point
is the temperature at which a material melts.

Material copper wood plastic A plastic B

Melting point 1085 °C does not melt 180 °C 220 °C
Does it conduct heat well? yes no no no
Stiffness very stiff very stiff very stiff flexible

Which material would you use for the saucepan handle? Explain your answer.

copper wood

plastic A plastic B

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an aerospace engineer?

Could you be an aerospace ways to improve materials and
engineer? Aerospace might processes for products used
sound daunting, but it actually in the aerospace industry. To
just means anything above do this, you would need a
ground level, in the Earth’s good understanding of the
atmosphere or outer space. You manufacturing, processing forecasts, mobile phones,
would work with the materials, and properties of relevant television broadcast and space
structures and machines used materials, including metals and flight possible. Or work with
in the aerospace industry. You composites. manufacturers to make aircraft
might work on aeroplanes, You could be responsible safer, lighter and more efficient,
satellites or spacecraft. You for making the satellites and reducing their environmental
would be discovering new equipment that make weather impact.

Materials engineers
research the behaviour of
materials used in industry to
understand material failures
and design them to be
efficient and sustainable. They
research new ways to combine
materials by analysing test
Natural and human-made data to design and develop Chemical engineers turn
materials are very important prototypes of new products raw materials into a range of
in lots of areas, including and manufacturing processes. useful substances. They need
in medicine. A polymer to understand how to make
engineer investigates the large number of useful
possible uses of materials materials used in industries
known as polymers, and and homes. Chemical
develops new ones. Polymers engineers focus on turning
have many uses in medicine, one chemical into something
including in drug delivery and else, such as making plastic
cancer therapy. from oil.

Dental technicians work with a variety of Chemical metallurgists extract useful metals
different materials, including polymers and from their ores. They do this by testing the ore
ceramics, to help improve and/or replace lost to see how easily the metal can be removed,
teeth. They work with information provided by and then design a process for removing the
dentists to make dentures, veneers, bridges, metal on a larger scale. These processes may
crowns and braces. Dental technicians need a require clever techniques or a lot of heat and
good understanding energy in order to extract a useable metal.
of the science of Chemical metallurgists can also be responsible
dental materials, for testing metals to make
to ensure that the sure they are of a good
correct material is quality. They also help
selected to benefit to design cleaner, more
the required work. efficient processes that
produce less waste.

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 11 Materials

Knowledge organiser
Metals, ceramics, polymers and composites are useful materials A ceramic is an inorganic (not
with different properties. Understanding the properties of a carbon-based), non-metallic solid.
material helps us to decide how best to use it. It also helps us to It is prepared by the action of
choose the most suitable material for a job. For example, a plate heat on a substance, such as clay,
could be made from a ceramic (like pottery or glass), a metal or followed by cooling. Ceramics have
a polymer (like plastic). Each material has properties that make lots of uses, including for making
it useful for making plates, but they also have disadvantages. tiles, glass, bricks, pottery, plates,
Evaluating the properties of each material helps us to select the vases and ornamental objects.
most appropriate one. tiles

Some metals are more reactive than others. The reactivity of the
different metals can be compared by observing their reactions –
the more vigorous the reaction, the more reactive the metal.
porcelain dental implants
Name of metal Observations with acid basins

sodium explosive reaction occurs; any hydrogen

produced catches fire spontaneously
copper no visible change occurs
magnesium vigorous production of hydrogen bubbles; ceramics
the test tube becomes hot quickly
This information on the reactivity
of different metals can be used to Most K potassium
form a reactivity series of metals. reactive
Na sodium
The non-metals carbon and
Ca calcium
hydrogen are also usually included
in the reactivity series. This helps us Mg magnesium vases
to understand how the different Al aluminium microchips
metals will behave in some C carbon
important chemical reactions. Zn zinc
Fe iron
Sn tin plates
bricks
Pb lead
H hydrogen
Cu copper
Ag silver
Au gold
Least
reactive Pt platinum

Ceramics are very useful because of their properties. Most are:

• hard and resistant to wear • non-magnetic
• relatively light • chemically stable – they do not break down
• brittle – they can break easily if a force in air
is applied • non-toxic – they can be used for food
• thermal insulators – they keep heat in and drink
• electrical insulators – they do not allow • non-ductile – they cannot be drawn out
electric current to pass through into wire.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Composites are formed when two or more materials, Key vocabulary

often with different properties, are combined.
brittle breaks easily if force is
The composite is usually stronger, more durable
applied
or has other desirable properties compared to the
materials it is made from. ceramic an inorganic, non-
Composites normally have two parts. One acts as the metallic solid prepared by
matrix or binder. The other is reinforcement, which heating and then cooling
is usually fibres, crystals or fragments. substances such as clay
composite two or more materials
Concrete is a composite made from natural materials, combined together to
some of which have been processed. First, limestone improve their properties
and clay are heated to over 700 °C in a kiln to make
compress squash with a force
cement. This is then added to sand, water and gravel
to make concrete. The proportions of the ingredients compressive a measure of how well
determine the overall properties of the concrete. strength a material resists being
cement sand gravel squashed when a force is
+ applied
+
ductile can be stretched out into
a thin wire
durable hard-wearing; able to
withstand wear
electrical a material that does not
combine dry then insulator allow an electric current to
mix with water pass through it
inorganic not carbon-based
Wood and bone are natural composites. Wood is made matrix a substance in which other
of cellulose and lignin; the lignin acts as a glue, binding materials are embedded
the fibres of cellulose together. Bone is made of a soft, non-toxic not poisonous or toxic
flexible protein called collagen and a hard brittle
mineral; the mineral reinforces the collagen, making reactive inclined to react in a
it stronger. chemical reaction
reactivity a list of metals from the
Concrete can be reinforced with steel. Concrete and series most reactive to the least
steel expand in a very similar way when heated. reactive; also includes two
Concrete has a high compressive strength, making non-metals (hydrogen and
it strong when compressed. Steel has a high tensile carbon)
strength; this means a lot of force can be applied
before it will break. reinforcement a material included in a
composite material to give
it strength
tensile the tension a material
strength can withstand without
breaking
tension a force that stretches or
elongates something
thermal a material that does not
insulator allow energy to pass
through it quickly by
the process of thermal
conduction

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 11 Materials

Only a few metals are found in their pure form in the Earth’s crust. Gold, silver and platinum are
examples of these. The majority of other metals are found chemically combined with other elements in
the form of an ore. Oxygen and sulfur are elements that metals are commonly combined with in ores.

Lead ore – galena, PbS Iron ore – haematite, Fe2O3 Copper ore – malachite, CuCO3(OH)2

Lead metal, Pb Iron metal, Fe Copper metal, Cu

Carbon can be used to extract metals from their Polymers are chemicals made from long chains
ores in a displacement reaction. This method of repeating chemical units – the repeating
can only be used to extract metals that are less molecule is called a monomer. Polymers have
reactive than carbon, such as copper or iron. The very large molecules. Their structure often has
position of carbon in the reactivity series shows a shape that provides them with particular
which metals are more reactive and which are less properties. The arrangement of molecules within a
reactive than carbon. polymer defines this shape.
Ethene (monomer)
Carbon is more reactive than iron; this means iron C
can be extracted from its ore using carbon. When C C
iron ore is roasted with carbon, a displacement C C
reaction happens. Carbon removes the oxygen or C
sulfur the iron is combined with and displaces the
C
metal. If oxygen is removed, then reduction has
C
occurred. Carbon is a reducing agent because C
C
it removes oxygen from the metal oxide: C
C
iron oxide + carbon → carbon dioxide + iron
The more reactive a metal, the harder it is for the
metal compound to decompose. This is because Polythene (polymer)
metals with a high reactivity make stronger bonds
in compounds. C C C C C
C C C C C C

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

The type of monomer, the way it is bonded and the length of Key vocabulary
the polymer chain all determine the properties of a polymer.
displacement a chemical reaction
Many human-made (synthetic) polymers are strong and
reaction in which one
tough, but unlike ceramics, they tend to be flexible.
substance takes the
Many polymers are strong because of the number of chemical place of another in
bonds within their structure. Some are elastic, for example, a compound
muscle fibre and rubber. In elastic polymers, the long chains
are tangled up in their natural state and they straighten out elastic able to return to the
into long lengths when a force is applied. original shape and
size after a force is
removed
Human-made polymers include plastics. Polyethene is an
example of a plastic. It is a polymer formed from a long chain extract remove from
of ethene monomers. The types of monomer, the way they
monomer a small molecule
are bonded and the length of the polymer chain all affect the
that becomes
properties of human-made polymers. The longer the polymer
chemically bonded
chain, for example, the higher the melting and boiling
to other monomers
points. Many human-made polymers are not biodegradable.
to form a polymer
This means they will not break down completely in
the environment. ore a naturally occurring
rock that a metal
(or mineral) can be
In nature, starch, proteins CH2OH Glucose extracted from
and DNA are all examples
C O
of polymers. Like synthetic H H polymer a large molecule
polymers, natural H made up of a
C C
polymers can have very OH H very long chain of
different properties. The HO OH smaller molecules
C C
way the monomers are pure a substance
arranged in the polymer H OH
containing only one
gives it its shape. The type of element or
shape of a natural O O O compound
polymer is often very
important, because it can O O O reducing a chemical that
influence its behaviour agent removes oxygen
and properties. Examples Starch from a compound
of this are starch and reduction a chemical reaction
cellulose, which are both in which oxygen
polymers made from is removed from a
glucose. They have compound
different shapes and
different properties. Starch strong able to resist a force
is easy to break down, synthetic made by a chemical
which makes it a useful process, not
way to store glucose naturally occurring
inside cells. Cellulose is
hard to break down and is
very tough and strong,
which makes it useful in
plant cell walls.

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 11 Materials

11.1 The reactivity series

You are learning to:
• use evidence to identify the reactivity series of metals
• represent reactions using formulae and equations.

1 Which one of these metals is found in the Earth’s crust as a pure substance, not combined
with any other element?
a iron b copper c sodium d gold e magnesium

2 Metals can be placed in order of reactivity in a reactivity series. What happens to the reactivity
of the metals as you go down the reactivity series?

3 Magnesium is a metal. Metal A displaces magnesium from its compound. What does this tell
you about metal A?
a metal A is calcium
b metal A is more reactive than magnesium
c metal A is less reactive than magnesium
d metal A is copper

4 A student reacted some metals with dilute hydrochloric acid. Compare the reactivity of the
three metals.

Name of metal Observations with acid

sodium explosive reaction occurs; any hydrogen produced catches

fire spontaneously
copper no visible change occurs
magnesium vigorous production of hydrogen bubbles; the test tube
becomes hot quickly

5 Why is carbon included in the reactivity series of metals?

6 Explain why silver is mainly found as the metal itself in the Earth, rather than as a compound.

Worked example
Metal X displaces copper from its compound but does not react with zinc chloride. Put the
metals X, copper and zinc in order of reactivity from the most reactive to the least reactive.
A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound. Metal X displaces
copper from its compound. This tells you that metal X is more reactive than copper.
Metal X does not react with zinc chloride. This tells you that metal X is less reactive than zinc
because it cannot displace zinc from its compound.
zinc (most reactive), metal X, copper (least reactive)

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 Questions

7 Students wanted to work out where an unknown metal Z is located in the reactivity series.
They attempted to react the metal with iron oxide, magnesium oxide and tin oxide. Metal Z
displaced tin and iron from their compounds but did not react with magnesium oxide. Iron is
more reactive than tin.
a Place the metals in order of reactivity, from the most reactive to the least reactive.
b Write a word equation for the reaction between metal Z and iron oxide.

8 When aluminium was discovered, it cost more than gold. It was displayed next to the French
crown jewels at an exhibition in 1855. Explain why aluminium was discovered so much later
than gold.

  
the French crown jewels aluminium spoon

9 A displacement reaction occurred when a student mixed iron filings with copper sulfate
solution.
a What is meant by the term ‘displacement’?
b Describe the observations you would expect to see in this reaction.
c Write a word equation for this reaction.

10 A student reacted three metals, A, B and C, with dilute hydrochloric acid. They also tested to
see if compounds of the metals could be reduced by carbon.

Does the metal react with Is a compound of the metal

Metal
hydrochloric acid? reduced by carbon?
A no yes
B yes yes
C yes no

a What does the term ‘reduced’ mean?

b The compound of metal C was not reduced by carbon. What does this tell you about
metal C?
c Place the metals in order of reactivity, with the most reactive metal first. Explain your
answer.

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 11 Materials

11.2 Ceramics and composites

You are learning to:
• describe what is meant by the terms ‘ceramic’ and ‘composite’
• describe the properties of ceramics and composites
• explain how the properties of ceramics and composites determine their uses.

1 Which of the following are examples of ceramics?

a pottery b plastic c wood d glass

2 What is a composite? Choose from the sentences below.

a Two or more materials combined together to improve their properties.
b A large molecule made up of a very long chain of smaller molecules.
c An inorganic, non-metallic solid.
d A substance into which other materials are embedded.

3 Bricks are made of clay that has been heated and then cooled. What type of material is brick?

4 State two properties of ceramics.

5 Which one of the following is a property of ceramics but not of metals?

a high melting point b hard c brittle d ductile

Worked example
Explain why wood is an example of a natural composite.
This question requires you to explain. Start with the relevant fact.
A composite contains a matrix (or binder) and a reinforcement, which is usually fibres, crystals or fragments.
Then explain why that fact means that wood is a composite.
Wood contains lignin and fibres of cellulose. The lignin acts like a glue, binding the fibres of cellulose together.

6 Explain why composites can be more useful than the individual materials they are made from.

7 What property of ceramics means that they are not used in electrical wires?

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 Questions

8 A student investigated the strength of concrete made from different mixtures of cement, sand
and aggregate (small pieces of rock). They added the same amount of water to each mixture
to make four concrete bars.

Concrete mixture Aggregate (g) Sand (g) Cement (g)

A 150 100 50
B 200 100 50
C 250 100 50
D 300 100 50

a What is the independent variable for the investigation? Explain your answer.
b Name a control variable for the investigation.
c What is the ratio of cement to sand in mixture A?
d What is the ratio of cement to aggregate in mixture C?

9 Which of these processes could be used to make ceramics?

a thermal decomposition d shaping clay
b heating in a furnace e reducing metal oxide
c melting sand

10 Most composites contain a matrix (or binder) and a reinforcement. Explain how these two
components work together in the composite.

11 Complete the paragraph about concrete that contains steel. Use the words below.

reinforcement  compressive  tensile  matrix  brittle
Concrete is a composite material. Steel rods can be added to concrete to make structures like
buildings and bridges. The steel acts as a _____i_____ in the concrete, making it stronger.
The steel helps the concrete to resist squashing forces, which gives it a high _____ii_____
strength. It also helps to resist stretching forces, which means reinforced concrete also has a
high _____iii_____ strength.

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 11 Materials

11.3 Using the reactivity series

You are learning to:
• describe how carbon can be used to extract metals from metal oxides.

1 What is an ore?

2 Which statement correctly describes ‘reduction’?

a the removal of oxygen from a compound
b the removal of any element from a compound
c a reaction in which one substance takes the place of another in a compound
d a reaction in which a larger molecule is broken into several smaller molecules

Worked example
Carbon can be used to extract lead from the compound lead oxide.
Most K potassium
Use the reactivity series to explain why. reactive
Na sodium
This question requires you to explain. Start with the relevant fact: in
Ca calcium
this case, we need to look at the positions of lead and carbon in the
reactivity series. Mg magnesium

Carbon is above lead in the reactivity series, which means that Al aluminium
carbon is more reactive than lead. Now explain the fact: why C carbon
can carbon be used to extract lead? Explain the answer in terms Zn zinc
of displacement: the more reactive element can displace the less Fe iron
reactive element from its compound. Sn tin
Carbon is more reactive than lead. This means carbon can displace lead from Pb lead
lead oxide, to obtain lead.
H hydrogen
Cu copper
Ag silver
Au gold
Least
reactive Pt platinum

3 Use the reactivity series to work out which of these metals cannot be extracted using carbon.
Explain your answer.
a tin b potassium c copper

4 Complete the paragraph using the words below.

reduced    oxygen    ores    oxidised    acids
Metals react with ____i____ to form metal oxides. Many metal ___ii___ contain metal oxides.
Iron oxide can be ____iii____ to remove the oxygen and form iron.

5 Which two of these words describe the extraction of metal from a metal oxide using carbon?
a displacement b oxidation c neutralisation d reduction
e thermal decomposition

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 Questions

6 Carbon can be used to extract lead from its ore, lead oxide, by reduction.

Write a word equation for the reduction of lead oxide by carbon.

7 Zinc oxide reacts with carbon to form zinc. Explain what happens to the zinc oxide and
carbon in terms of oxidation and reduction.

8 Describe how carbon can be used to extract metals from their ores. Use these words in
your answer:
reduce/reduction    reactivity series    displacement reaction    reducing agent

9 Which of these metal oxides is easiest to reduce? Explain your answer.

a copper oxide b lead oxide c iron oxide

10 Iron can be extracted from its ore in a blast furnace. Inside the
ore, the iron is found in compounds such as iron oxide, Fe2O3.
Carbon is a reducing agent used to extract iron from its ore.
a What does ‘reducing agent’ mean?
b Write a word equation for the reaction between carbon and
iron oxide.
c Here is the symbol equation for the reaction:
3C + 2Fe2O3 → 3CO2 + 4Fe
Which substance has been oxidised in the reaction? Explain your answer.

11 A student attempted to extract the metals below by heating the metal

oxides with carbon in a crucible.
a zinc b aluminium
Describe and explain the results you would expect from the experiment.
Include word equations where relevant.

12 Copper is extracted from copper oxide in a chemical reaction.

Copper oxide is formed from copper carbonate in a thermal
decomposition reaction.
Compare these two chemical reactions. In your answer:
• Write a word equation for each reaction.
• Compare the products formed.
• Compare the types of reaction that happen.
• State whether heating is required for each reaction.

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 11 Materials

11.4 Polymers
You are learning to:
• present observations and data using appropriate methods, including tables
and graphs
• describe what is meant by the term ‘polymer’
• describe the properties and uses of human-made polymers.

1 What is a polymer? Choose from the statements below.

a A polymer is a large molecule made up of a very long chain of smaller molecules.
b A polymer is a small molecule that becomes chemically bonded to others to form a
large molecule.

2 Which of the following is a polymer?

a nylon b aluminium c concrete

3 Starch is a natural polymer. Name two other natural polymers.

4 A type of human-made polymer is used to make plastic drinks bottles. Choose four properties
from the table below that would make the polymer a good choice for drinks bottles. Explain
your choices.

non-toxic brittle insoluble lightweight

soluble toxic ductile strong

5 A biodegradable substance can be broken down by microorganisms in the environment. Most

human-made polymers are not biodegradable. Explain why this is a problem.

6 Both ceramics and polymers tend to be poor electrical conductors. Explain why polymers are
used as insulation around electrical wires rather than ceramics.

Worked example
How many monomers are in the polymer chain shown below?
monomer polymer

C C C C C C
C C C C C C

The easiest way to identify how many monomers are in this example is to look at the number of
carbon atoms in the monomer and compare it to the number of carbon atoms in the polymer.
There are ten carbon atoms in the polymer. As there are two carbon atoms in the monomer, this
would suggest five monomers were needed to make this polymer.
5

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 Questions
Glucose (monomer)

7 Starch is a polymer of glucose molecules. Here is a simplified diagram of glucose and starch.
How many monomers are in the polymer chain shown in the diagram?

Glucose (monomer) Starch (polymer)

Starch (polymer)

8 A group of students carried out an experiment to see how far a piece of plastic could be
stretched before it broke. Their results are shown below.

Mass added to Distance the plastic stretched (mm)

the plastic (g) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Mean
  0   0   0   0   0
100 17 19 18 18
200 42 41 41 ?
300 73 74 73 73
400 112 113 112 112
500 147 149 148 148

a Calculate the mean extension for a mass of 200 g. Give your answer to 2 s.f.
b Explain why the students carried out repeats in their experiment.
c Plot a graph of the mass added to the plastic against the mean distance the plastic
stretched.

9 The diagram below shows two types of plastic. The long polymer strands inside the plastic are
shown by blue lines.
plastic A plastic B

branching

cross-linking

a Plastic B can easily be stretched. Why do you think this is the case? Use information in the
diagrams to explain your answer.
b Suggest why plastic A has a high melting point.
c Suggest why plastic B has a lower density.
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 11 Materials

Maths and practical skills

1 A student plans an experiment to react a metal with hydrochloric acid. They will measure the
temperature of the reaction during the experiment.
a Which piece of equipment should the student use to measure a volume of 20 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid?
i 10 cm3 measuring cylinder
ii 25 cm3 measuring cylinder
iii 100 cm3 measuring cylinder
b  he student records the following temperatures in their experiment: 65.7 °C, 72.1 °C, 65.2 °C
T
and 73.4 °C. Find the mean of the temperatures.

2 Look at the following data. Place the metals in order of reactivity, from
the most reactive to the least reactive.

Metal Reaction with dilute acid observations

A rapid bubbling, metal reacts quickly
B very slow bubbling
C lots of bubbles appearing on the surface of the metal

3 A student added small pieces of iron to dilute

hydrochloric acid and measured the spatula
temperature change. They repeated the
experiment using copper, lead and magnesium.
a What is the independent variable for this
investigation? thermometer
b Name two control variables for this
investigation. iron
c Name the piece of equipment used to
measure the dependent variable.

4 A teacher demonstrated the extraction of iron

from its ore using carbon. They heated iron
oxide and carbon in a crucible. The teacher hydrochloric acid

repeated the demonstration with magnesium

oxide and carbon.
a Describe the reaction taking place between
iron oxide and carbon in terms of oxidation, reduction and displacement.
b Write a word equation for the reaction between iron oxide and carbon.
c Describe what would happen when the teacher heated aluminium oxide with carbon.
Explain your answer.

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 Questions

5 A group of students investigated the change in temperature when different metals were used to
displace copper from copper sulfate. They carried out four reactions, A–D.

Reaction Metal used in Temperature at Temperature at Difference in

reaction with the start of the the end of the temperature (°C)
copper sulfate reaction (°C) reaction (°C)
A zinc 20.0 28.0 8.0
B magnesium 20.0 30.5 ?
C silver 20.0 20.0 0.0
D iron 20.0 23.5 3.5

a Calculate the difference in temperature for reaction B.

b Write a word equation for the reaction between copper sulfate and zinc.
c What does the result for reaction C tell you?
d The larger the temperature difference, the more reactive the metal. Use the results in the table
to place the metals in order of reactivity. Include copper in your answer.

6 A student was given three unnamed metals: X, Y and Z. They were told that metal X was found
in the ground as an element rather than a compound. The student investigated the reactivity of
metals Y and Z. Here are their results.

Metal Reaction observations

Y Reacts violently with water. The oxide cannot be reduced by carbon.
Z Does not react with water. The oxide can be reduced by carbon.

a Place the metals X, Y and Z in order of reactivity. Explain your answer.

b What does the observation about metal Z tell you about its position in the reactivity series?
Explain your answer.
c Give two possible elements that metal X could be.

7 A student made three concrete bars using small stones, cement, sand and water. The mass of each
ingredient stayed the same. All the bars were the same size: 10 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm. The student
added different reinforcements to each bar:
• concrete bar A – no reinforcement concrete bar
• concrete bar B – an iron rod
• concrete bar C – a wooden rod
They investigated the mass needed to break to the bar. string
a Suggest why the student put no reinforcement into
clamp
concrete bar A.
b What is the independent variable for this
investigation?
c Calculate the volume of a concrete bar.
d Which bar do you think would need the largest masses
mass to break it? Explain your answer.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12 Earth and atmosphere road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

12.2 The rock cycle

• describe the cycle
• explain rock changes
• describe properties

compare types of rocks

12.1 The Earth
know what rocks are made of • recognise layers
describe how fossils form • describe characteristics
describe the requirements of plants
describe the requirements of animals

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

using the Earth’s resources and

12.3 The atmosphere 12.4 The carbon cycle obtaining potable water
• state what the atmosphere is • describe the carbon cycle
• describe composition • describe impact of carbon dioxide and methane as
• recognise changes over time human activity greenhouse gases
• understand the role
of decomposers life cycle assessment and recycling
the composition and evolution of the
12.5 Climate change Earth’s atmosphere
• describe human activity
• describe the greenhouse effect
common atmospheric pollutants and
• describe global warming effects their sources
• explain consequences

12.6 Sustainable development KS4

• describe Earth’s resources
• explain human activity
• describe benefits and limitations

Maths and practical skills

describing the development of scientific methods and theories

over time, including publishing results and peer review
making scientific predictions
planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
calculating results and converting between different units
presenting reasoned explanations
analysing data

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12 Earth and atmosphere

The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. It is made of different layers, some
of which are constantly moving. The thin, rocky crust is where we live.

The Earth
These rock samples were found in different places across the world. One came from a
mountain, one from a beach and one from a forest. What do these rocks have in common?
What evidence can these rocks provide?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a climate scientist?

As a climate scientist, you lost by 2050. Climate scientists
study the influences that may also design and build the
humans are having on the equipment used to gather data,
Earth’s climate. You monitor or write computer programmes
parts of the Earth that are to predict the
changing, such as air, sea future effects of
temperatures and the rate of ice climate change.
melting. You predict how these Policy makers such
changes might affect the planet as government
in the future. The image shows advisors rely on the
scientists monitoring the health advice provided by
of a coral reef. Corals are living climate scientists.
organisms and they become
stressed by changes in ocean
temperature. It is estimated that
over 90% of coral reefs may be

Palaeontologists study the

history of life on Earth through
the investigation of fossils. Their
work helps us to understand how
living things have changed over
the 3.5 billion years that life has
existed on Earth.

Farm managers ensure

high-quality produce is farmed
in a safe and environmentally Environmental managers
sustainable way. Farmers support organisations to
require natural resources continually improve their
such as healthy and fertile efforts to reduce their impact
soil, plenty of water and on the environment. Using
biodiversity to produce a renewable energy sources,
successful crop yield. Crop increasing recycling, reducing
production is levelling off the carbon footprint of products
in parts of the world due and monitoring any possible sources of pollution are important
to factors such as increased considerations for today.
temperatures, weather
variability, weeds and pests.
Farmers are at the forefront of Geotechnical engineers carry
changing methods to ensure out testing and analyse risk for the
that crops are less vulnerable design and construction industry.
to drought and more resilient They use their specialist knowledge
to pests and diseases, and to of rock, water and soil structure to
improve the capacity to grow assess the risk to humans and the
crops in shortened seasons environment from earthquakes,
with more erratic weather. rock falls, sink-holes and landslides.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

Knowledge organiser
The Earth is made of different layers: The Earth’s crust is a thin,
• crust crust solid layer on the outer surface;
(8 to 40 kilometres) humans live on this layer. The
• mantle
mantle mantle is a very thick layer
• outer core (2900 kilometres) underneath the crust. It contains
• inner core. outer core
oxides of silicon, magnesium and
(2250 kilometres) iron. It is solid but can flow very
slowly, transferring heat from
inner core
(1300 kilometres)
Earth’s core towards the surface.
The Earth’s core is very hot. It
contains the elements nickel and
iron. The outer core is liquid
and the inner core is solid.

There are three different types of rock:

Type of rock igneous sedimentary metamorphic
Examples granite, basalt, pumice, sandstone, limestone, marble, slate, gneiss
obsidian shale, mudstone
Features • no layers • often crumbly • hard wearing
• no fossils • contain grains • no fossils
• randomly arranged crystals • can contain fossils • crystals are often
• usually hard to break • found in layers aligned in one direction

The rock cycle shows how intrusive

exposed metamorphic
rock (e.g. marble) exposed sedimentary
the Earth’s rocks are slowly igneous rock (e.g. limestone)
(e.g. granite)
recycled into other types of weathering
exposure
rock over millions of years. cooled
above erosion and transport
surface
Exposed rocks are
weathered over time – extrusive
igneous deposition sea
cooled below heat and
pieces break off and are (e.g. basalt) surface pressure
transported by wind or water. uplift sediments
igneous rocks
Biological weathering can be uplift
cooling
caused by animals, including
melting metamorphic rocks
humans, wearing away sedimentary rocks burial and
heat and
the rock, or by plant roots magma pressure
compression

growing down into cracks

in the rock. As the roots get
bigger, the rock cracks open. Chemical weathering can be caused by acid rain reacting with limestone
and chalk rocks. Physical weathering can be caused by waves pounding the cliffs and hurling rocks
around, or by repeated freezing and thawing of water that has seeped into cracks in the rock. Water
expands as it freezes. The heat from the sun and the cool nights in deserts can cause expansion and
contraction of the rock.
When wind, river or sea currents slow down they deposit weathered rock fragments. Over millions of
years, they are buried under more sediments and cemented to form sedimentary rocks.
The movement of tectonic plates can cause rocks to be pushed below Earth’s surface. Here, heat and
pressure can change the rocks to form metamorphic rocks. They can also be melted to form magma,
which cools to form igneous rock.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

The Earth’s crust and the upper Key vocabulary

part of the mantle are known as
atmosphere the mixture of gases around the Earth
the lithosphere. The lithosphere
is broken into about 20 different cement to stick together sediments in the process of
pieces called tectonic plates. making sedimentary rock
compact to press together sediments in the process of
making sedimentary rock
core the hot inner layer of the Earth; it is divided into
the inner core and outer core
crust the rocky outer layer of the Earth; it is the surface
on which humans live
crystal a solid with a tightly ordered structure, usually
with a characteristic shape
deposition the laying down of sediment grains that are
being carried by wind or water, for example
when river water slows down
These move about slowly, causing erosion the wearing away of rocks or other surfaces such
the Earth’s surface to change over as soil
time. When tectonic plates meet, extrusive igneous rock formed from magma that cooled
they can push or move under or igneous at the Earth’s surface; it cooled quickly to form
over each other. Earthquakes and small crystals
volcanic eruptions can happen at
grain a small particle in sedimentary rocks
these points, and the crust may
crumple to form mountain ranges. igneous rock a type of rock made from cooled magma
inner core the very hot, solid, innermost layer of the Earth
Earth is surrounded by a layer of intrusive igneous rock formed from magma that cooled
gases called the atmosphere. igneous inside the Earth’s crust; it cooled more slowly and
The Earth’s atmosphere consists has bigger crystals than extrusive igneous rock
mainly of nitrogen (78%) and lava molten rock that has reached the surface of
oxygen (21%). There is also a small the Earth
amount of argon (1%) and even lithosphere the rocky outer section of the Earth, consisting of
smaller amounts of other gases, the crust and the upper part of the mantle; it is
e.g. carbon dioxide (0.04%). broken into tectonic plates
magma molten rock found within the Earth
The Earth’s atmosphere has mantle the thickest layer of the Earth; it sits between the
remained about the same for the hot outer core and the crust
past 200 million years. Before metamorphic a type of rock formed when other rocks are
then, it was very different. Around rock heated and put under a lot of pressure
4 billion years ago, the atmosphere outer core a very hot liquid layer inside the Earth; it sits
is believed to have contained between the inner core and the mantle
around 95% carbon dioxide, with
rock cycle the cycle in which rocks are changed into other
water vapour and small amounts of
types of rock
ammonia and methane. The oceans
formed when the Earth cooled sedimentary a type of rock made from layers of sediment
to below 100 °C, allowing the rock grains that have been compacted and cemented
water vapour to condense, around together; often contains fossils
3.8 billion years ago. When life tectonic plate a section of the Earth’s crust that moves slowly
forms first appeared about 3 billion relative to other plates
years ago, they used up carbon uplift the upwards movement of Earth’s surface
dioxide to make food and transfer in response to natural processes such as
energy, and started to release earthquakes; it can form mountains from rocks
oxygen into the atmosphere. that were previously buried beneath the surface
weathering the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals by
physical, biological or chemical processes

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

The carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere is part of carbon dioxide in

a cycle called the carbon cycle. Processes such as the atmosphere
respiration
combustion, respiration, photosynthesis and in decomposers
decomposition cause carbon to move between the living respiration
combustion
and non-living parts of the Earth in a cycle that takes
place over many years. Carbon dioxide from the air organic
compounds death
respiration
enters food chains through photosynthesis and is used in animals
by living organisms to make their body tissues. When carbon in photosynthesis
carbon
photosynthesis waste compounds in
these organisms die, decomposers such as bacteria and fossil fuels dead organic
fungi help to return carbon to the atmosphere as carbon matter and
animal waste
dioxide. If the conditions required for decomposition are feeding

not present, then carbon remains trapped in the dead fossilisation

body. Over millions of years, this trapped carbon is organic compounds death
in green plants
changed into fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas).

Combustion releases carbon in to the 450

atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Many human
activities currently rely on the combustion of
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ppm)

400
fossil fuels because this process releases useful
energy. When fossil fuels are burned, they
release carbon that has been trapped 350
underground for millions of years. Carbon
dioxide stays in the Earth’s atmosphere for a
300
long time. Since humans began using fossil
fuels in the industrial revolution, which began
around 1750, the levels of carbon dioxide in 250
1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
the Earth’s atmosphere have increased. Year

The impact of global warming on The greenhouse effect allows the Earth to be warm
the Earth’s climate is causing changes enough to support life. Without it, the Earth’s air temperature
such as: would be around −18 °C. The greenhouse effect relies on
• the melting of polar ice sheets greenhouse gases, which trap heat radiated from the Earth’s
• rising sea levels surface. Only some of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are
• an increase in severe weather events greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide and methane are examples
of greenhouse gases. When more greenhouse gases are
• reducing the availability of water in
present in the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect is stronger
some areas
and the Earth heats up.
• longer growing seasons and faster
crop growth in some regions Human activities have increased the levels of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. This is causing a stronger
• an increase in pests and diseases
greenhouse effect, which has caused the Earth’s temperature
such as malaria.
to increase over the last century. This is known as global
warming. The increase in temperature affects the Earth’s
The Earth provides us with many weather systems, an effect known as climate change.
resources, from the air we breathe
and the wood and rocks used for Natural greenhouse effect
most heat escapes
Human-enhanced greenhouse
effect less heat escapes
building, to the minerals that we Sun
into space into space
some Sun
refine into metals. Life as we know it reflected
more
reflected
would not be possible without these heat
so

heat
so
la

la
rr

precious resources, but as we process more

rr
ad

greenhouse re-radiated
ad

greenhouse re-radiated
ia

them, pollution is produced. Some gases CH4

ia

heat
tio

gases CH heat
tio
n

N2 O 4
n

of the resources that humans use N 2O

CO2
cannot easily be replaced. They are CO2
Earth
non-renewable. Using resources in atmosphere
atmosphere
Earth

this way is not sustainable.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Examples of unsustainable Key vocabulary

activities include
biodiversity the range of different organisms within an
deforestation, overfishing
ecosystem
and oil extraction. Deforestation
is carried out to increase the carbon cycle the way in which carbon atoms pass between living
amount of land for farming, organisms and their environment
to allow mining, to flood land carbon total amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the
to create hydroelectric power footprint actions of a person, group or company
stations or to enable mining.
It reduces biodiversity and climate change a significant and lasting change in weather patterns
increases carbon dioxide levels over time
in the atmosphere. combustion the reaction of a fuel with oxygen that transfers
thermal energy to the surroundings
decomposer an organism that breaks down dead animal or plant
tissue
deforestation the removal of large numbers of trees for use by
humans, and/or to make space for human activities
down-cycling the loss of viability or value in a product as it is
recycled
emission the release of something, for example, a
greenhouse gas
Materials can be recycled to
reduce the demand for natural finite a resource that is not renewable; it will eventually
resources. Recycling plastic run out
can reduce the demand for fossil fuel a fuel formed from the compressed remains of
fossil fuels. It can also reduce plants and other organisms that died millions of
pollution, greenhouse gas years ago (coal, natural gas and crude oil)
emissions and the amount
fuel any material that can be burned to release energy
of waste sent to landfill. Less
energy is needed to recycle global warming the gradual increase in the average temperature of
some materials, such as metals, the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans
compared to mining and
greenhouse the trapping of the Sun’s infrared radiation by the
extracting raw materials from
effect Earth’s atmosphere
the Earth.
greenhouse gas any gas in the Earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon
Some disadvantages of dioxide, that reduces the transfer of heat away from
recycling are that recycling sites the Earth
may cause pollution, be unsafe peer review evaluation of scientific work by others working in
or be unhygienic. The costs of the same field
setting up recycling plants can
be high, and some processes photosynthesis the process carried out by green plants and algae in
use a lot of energy. The which sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are used
separation of different materials to produce glucose and oxygen
can also be difficult. The quality pollutant a harmful substance in the environment
of recycled material is not
recycling the process of changing waste materials into
as good, so some materials
something useful
have to be down‑cycled
into products that cannot respiration the process in living things that releases energy
themselves be recycled. For from food and carbon dioxide into the environment
example, soft-drink bottles
sustainable the use of a resource in such a way that it will be
made from PET (a plastic) end
available to future generations
up as polyester fibres in clothes
or carpets.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.1 The Earth

You are learning to:
• recognise the layers that make up Earth
• describe the characteristics of the different layers.

1 The Earth is made of different layers. What are the names of these layers?

2 Complete the sentences using the words list.

atmosphere  lithosphere  magnetic  technical  stratosphere  tectonic
The Earth’s crust and upper part of the mantle are known as the _________i_________, which
is broken into slowly moving pieces. These pieces are called _______ii______ plates.

3 a Label the following sections through the Earth.

ocean
i

ii

6490 km

iii

iv

b Which of these layers is liquid?
c Which of these layers gives the Earth a magnetic field?
d In the diagram, the radius of the Earth is given as 6490 km. What is the diameter of Earth?

4 a Give a similarity between the Earth’s inner and outer core.

b Give a difference between the Earth’s inner and outer core.
c Why is it difficult for scientists to prove what the Earth’s core is made of?

Worked example
Suppose a tectonic plate moves approximately 1.5 cm in a year. How far would the plate
move in 80 years? Give your answer in metres.
Always check if the answer asks for a particular unit. You should also notice whether any
units need to be converted so that they are in the same format as others. This question
gives a distance in centimetres but asks for an answer in metres. You need to convert this
value (1.5 cm) into metres. There are 100 cm in 1 m, so you will divide 1.5 by 100 to
convert the value. This gives you the distance moved in 1 year. The question asks you to
find the distance moved in 80 years, so you now need to multiply the value by 80. You
need to remember to include the unit in your answer.
1.5 cm ÷ 100 = 0.015 m
0.015 × 80 = 1.2 m

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 Questions

5 Tectonic plates move approximately 3 cm a year. How far would a tectonic plate move in
70 years? Give your answer in millimetres.

6 a What is a tectonic plate made of?

i all of the crust
ii all of the crust and some of the mantle
iii all of the mantle
iv all of the outer core and some of the mantle

b Use your knowledge of the Earth’s structure to match each of these parts to its thickness.
crust 125 km

mantle   35 km

tectonic plate 2900 km

7 Density is the mass of a material per unit volume. A dense material has a lot of mass in a given
volume.
a Use the words below to complete the paragraph about the density of the different parts of
Earth.
higher   lower
The average density of rock in the Earth’s crust is 2800 kg/m3. The overall density of the
Earth is thought to be 5500 kg/m3. The Earth’s crust has a ___i___ density than the overall
density of Earth. This means that the mantle and the core must have a ____ii____ density
than the crust.
b If
 the mantle has a density of 4500 kg/m , which of the following figures would you
3

predict to be the density of the core?

i 9200 kg/m3
ii 2700 kg/m3
iii 4300 kg/m3

8 The Lystrosaurus was a herbivore that lived 200 million

years ago. Fossils of the Lystrosaurus have been found
in the continents of India, Africa, Australia and
Antarctica.
Which scientific theories does this piece of evidence
help to support? Choose two statements.
a The crust is a thin, solid layer.
b The tectonic plates have moved apart over time.
c The inner core is a solid and the outer core is
a liquid.
d The Earth’s magnetic field comes from its outer core.
e The different continents were once attached.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.2 The rock cycle

You are learning to:
• describe the rock cycle
• explain how rock can change from one type to another
• describe the properties of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rock.

1 Complete the table with the names of the three main types of rock i to iii, matching each
description.
Rock type Description
i made of crystals which are randomly arranged; no layers or fossils
ii made of grains which are cemented together; contains layers and
sometimes fossils
iii made of crystals which are often aligned in a particular direction; no
fossils

2 A student is given a the rock shown in the photograph below. They draw a diagram of the
rock and note down their observations. Which type of rock does the student have?

fragments of rock

The rock is made of fragments of other rocks

that have been stuck together.

3 Deposition is part of the rock cycle.

a Which sentence describes deposition?
i The laying down of sediment grains that are being carried by wind or water, for
example when river water slows down.
ii The upwards movement of Earth’s surface in response to natural processes such as
earthquakes.
iii The transport of small rock pieces by wind, water or ice, away from the original rock.
b What type of rock does deposition help to form?

4 Weathering is part of the rock cycle.

a Name the three types of weathering that occur in the rock cycle.
b What type of rock does weathering help to form?
c Choose one type of weathering of rock and describe how it happens.

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 Questions

5 Match the key words from the box below to the correct number shown on the rock cycle
diagram.

deposition  magma  sedimentary  weathering  igneous  metamorphic

exposed metamorphic
intrusive rock (e.g. marble) exposed sedimentary
igneous rock (e.g. limestone)
(e.g. granite)
1
cooled exposure
above erosion and transport
surface

extrusive
igneous 2 sea
(e.g. basalt)

cooled below uplift sediments

6 surface uplift
cooling

melting 4
3 burial and
heat and compression
pressure
5

6 Processes in the rock cycle can change metamorphic rock into igneous rock, or into
sedimentary rock.
a Describe how metamorphic rock can be changed into igneous rock.
b Describe how metamorphic rock can be changed into sedimentary rock.

7 Processes in the rock cycle can change igneous rock into sedimentary or metamorphic rock.
a Describe how igneous rock can be changed into sedimentary rock.
b Describe how igneous rock can be changed into metamorphic rock.

8 Which of the following keep the rock cycle going?

a climate change c heat from the inner core
b weathering and erosion d photosynthesis and respiration
9 The temperature on Mars is thought to range between 0 and −100 °C during a 12-hour time
period.
a How might this affect rocks found on the surface of Mars?
b Why do these temperature fluctuations mean it would be difficult for green plants to
survive on Mars?
c Images from the surface of Mars indicate the possible presence of dried-up rivers, extinct
volcanoes and mountain ranges. Explain why it is possible that all three rock types may
exist on Mars.
10 The rate at which lava or magma cools determines the size
of the crystals in an igneous rock. If the rate of cooling is
fast, the rock will have small crystals. If the rate of cooling is
slow, the rock will have large crystals.
Obsidian is an igneous rock that has no or very few crystals.
It looks like black glass.
a What does this information tell you about how quickly
the molten rock cooled to form obsidian?
b In which of the environments below might obsidian
have formed? Explain your answer.
i a volcano under the sea iii deep underground below a mountain range
ii a desert iv a temperate forest
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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.3 The atmosphere

You are learning to:
• state what the Earth’s atmosphere is
• describe the composition of today’s atmosphere
• recognise that the Earth’s atmosphere has changed over time.

1 Which statement correctly describes the Earth’s atmosphere?

a a layer of gases that surrounds the Earth
b the rocky outer layer of the Earth
c a thin layer of gases that absorb harmful UV radiation
d a layer inside the Earth that generates the magnetic field

2 Which letter on the diagram shows the Earth’s atmosphere?

i ii iii iv v

3 a Which of the following is the odd one out?

i carbon dioxide ii methane iii ammonia iv air
b Why was this one odd?

4 Name the two gases that account for approximately 99% of the Earth’s atmosphere.

5 The pie chart shows the composition of the Earth’s gas A

atmosphere.
a What is the name of gas A?
b What percentage of the atmosphere does gas A all other gases
make up?
c What is the name of gas B?
gas B
d What percentage of the atmosphere does gas B
make up?
e Name a gas that would be present in the 1% ‘all other gases’ shown in the diagram.

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 Questions

6 The diagrams on the right show the different gases commonly found in the Earth’s
atmosphere. Match each one with its name in the table below.

A
Substance Chemical Diagram
formula letter B
oxygen O2
C
carbon dioxide CO2
D
water vapour H2O
nitrogen N2
argon Ar
E

7 Read the passage below about the Earth’s early atmosphere. Use the information to answer
the questions that follow.
The Earth’s early atmosphere was very different to today’s atmosphere. Around 4 billion years
ago, the atmosphere is believed to have mostly contained carbon dioxide, with water vapour
and small amounts of ammonia and methane. The temperature of the Earth was also much
higher than it is today. Over time, the Earth cooled to below 100 °C, and the levels of gases
changed to those we would recognise today.
a The amount of which of the gases in the Earth’s early atmosphere would have decreased
when green plants evolved?
b Explain your answer to part a.
c Explain how the oceans formed on the Earth.

Worked example
The amount of water in the Earth’s atmosphere changes because it is affected by factors
such as temperature. If the amount of water vapour changed from 1.0% to 0.8%, what
would be the percentage change?
In science, you often need to compare two sets of data, for example, before and after
a chemical reaction, or before and after a period of time has passed. You can do this
by calculating the percentage change, which allows values to be compared. A positive
percentage change means there has been an increase and a negative percentage change
means there has been a decrease.
To calculate the percentage change, you need to know the original figure and the final figure.
Use the equation: (new figure – initial figure) ÷ initial figure × 100 = percentage change
0.8 – 1.0 = –0.2
–0.2 ÷ 1.0 = –0.2
–0.2 × 100 = –20%
(This is a percentage decrease because the answer is a negative number).

8 The early atmosphere contained 95.00% carbon dioxide. Today’s atmosphere contains 0.04%
carbon dioxide. Calculate the percentage decrease in carbon dioxide levels.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.4 The carbon cycle

You are learning to:
• describe the carbon cycle
• describe how human activity increases the amount of carbon in the
atmosphere
• understand the role of decomposers in the carbon cycle.

1 Complete these sentences about carbon dioxide using the words below.
carbon dioxide    oxygen    fossil fuels    combustion
photosynthesis    energy

Human activities add _____i____ to the atmosphere. The main human activity that does this is
burning _____ii_____. This is known as ____iii____. Humans carry out this process because it
releases useful ____iv____.

2 Select the correct statement from the list below:

a Carbon is a compound made by burning wood.
b Carbon is a non-metal element.
c Carbon is taken in by plants through their leaves for photosynthesis.
d Carbon is a gas found in the atmosphere.

3 Which statements about photosynthesis are true? Choose two answers.

a Photosynthesis happens in animals.
b Photosynthesis happens in plants.
c Photosynthesis makes carbon dioxide and water from glucose (sugar).
d Photosynthesis makes glucose (sugar) from water and carbon dioxide.

4 Which of these processes would not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
a respiration b combustion c volcanic eruptions d photosynthesis

5 Name the process labelled X in the diagram of the carbon cycle below.
carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere
X
X

organic
compounds
X
in animals

carbon in carbon
fossil fuels compounds in
dead organic
matter and
animal waste

organic compounds
in green plants

6 We can use the term hydrocarbons to describe fossil fuels. Hydrocarbons are substances that
contain only carbon and hydrogen. Where did the carbon in fossil fuels come from?

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 Questions

7 a Name one process that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
b Name two processes that add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
c For thousands of years in the Earth’s history, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
did not change very much. Explain what must have been true about the processes you
have named in parts a and b during this time.
8 Carbon is found in all living organisms. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins all contain carbon.
a How does our body obtain enough carbon for us to be able to grow?
b When a plant dies, what happens to the carbon contained in its tissues?
c What could occur if all the decomposers became extinct?
9 Human activities release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. An example is burning fuels,
such as fossil fuels and wood, to heat homes.
a Gas is a fossil fuel used to heat many homes in the UK. Which statements below are
correct? Select all that apply.
i Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years. iii Fossil fuels are limited resources.
ii Fossil fuels are renewable sources of energy. iv Fossil fuels are made from fossils.
Homes
 can be heated by burning different fuels. The table shows the amount of carbon
dioxide produced by burning 1 kg of common fuels. It also shows the amount of energy
released by each fuel. The energy in fuel is measured in kilowatt-hours (kW h). The higher the
value, the more energy is released when the fuel is burned.

Fuel Amount of carbon dioxide released Energy contained in 1 kg

when 1 kg of fuel is burned (kg) of fuel (kW h)
wood 1.86 4.5
propane gas 2.99 13.8
heating oil 3.00 12.0
natural gas 2.75 15.4

Worked example
How much wood would be needed to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as 1 kg of
heating oil? Use the table above.
From the table you can see that 1 kg of wood produces 1.86 kg of carbon dioxide and 1 kg of
heating oil produces 3.00 kg. To find how much wood would produce the same amount of
carbon dioxide, you need to calculate the ratio of the amount produced by heating oil to the
amount produced by wood.
3.00 ÷ 1.86 = 1.61 kg
1.61 kg of wood would produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as 1 kg of heating oil.

b  alculate how much wood would be needed to produce the same amount of carbon
C
dioxide as 1 kg of natural gas.
c Which fuel releases the most energy when 1 kg of it is burned?
d A student states that using natural gas to heat a house to the same temperature produces
more carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere than wood. Is the student
correct? Use the data in the table to justify your answer.
e Is natural gas a renewable or non-renewable energy source?
f Is wood a renewable or a non-renewable energy source?
g Another student states that burning natural gas increases the total amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere over time, whereas burning wood does not. Explain why this
statement is correct, using your knowledge of the carbon cycle.
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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.5 Climate change

You are learning to:
• describe examples of human activity that produce carbon dioxide
• describe the greenhouse effect
• describe the effects of global warming
• explain the consequences of global warming for living things.

1 Which two statements about greenhouse gases are correct?

a Greenhouse gases keep the Earth warm enough to support life.
b All gases in the Earth’s atmosphere are greenhouse gases.
c Greenhouse gases are concentrated in the ozone layer.
d Greenhouse gases reflect heat, which keeps the Earth cool.
e Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect.

2 The Earth’s atmosphere contains many different gases. Which of these gases in the Earth’s
atmosphere is not a greenhouse gas?
a water vapour b carbon dioxide c methane d nitrogen

3 Which sentence describes how the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere affects the
Earth’s climate?
a As carbon dioxide levels decrease, the air temperature will increase.
b As carbon dioxide levels increase, the air temperature will increase.
c As carbon dioxide levels decrease, there will be more variability in the weather.
d Carbon dioxide levels do not affect the Earth’s climate.

4 When a scientist collects data relating to global warming it will not initially be accepted by the
scientific community. A different group of scientists must check the evidence first.
a What is this process called?
b Give two reasons why this process is needed.

5 This graph shows the amount

450
of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s
atmosphere since 1700. The
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ppm)

unit used for the amount of 400

carbon dioxide is ppm, which

stands for ‘parts per million’. 350
a About how much carbon
dioxide was in the Earth’s
300
atmosphere in the year
1700?
250
b About how much carbon 1700 1720 1740 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
dioxide was in the Earth’s Year

atmosphere in the year 2020?

c Describe the trend shown in the graph.
d Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that stays in the Earth’s atmosphere for a long time.
Describe how your answer to part c may affect the greenhouse effect.

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 Questions

6 Put these steps in the greenhouse effect into the correct order.
a The sun’s radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere.
b Heat is trapped in the atmosphere, causing it to warm up.
c The radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
d The Earth radiates heat from its surface.
e The radiation is absorbed or reflected by greenhouse gases.

7 a What is climate change?

b How is climate change related to global warming?

8 Malaria is a disease that is spread by mosquitoes. It is currently found mainly in regions of the
world with higher temperatures, for example, parts of Africa and Asia. Why is there a concern
that global warming may increase the number of deaths from malaria across the world?

9 The amount of carbon 420

Amount of carbon dioxide (parts per million)

dioxide in the Earth’s A

atmosphere is measured by 400

scientists at the Mauna Loa
Observatory in Hawaii. Data 380

from the observatory is

360
shown in the graph. The
amount of carbon dioxide 340
follows a regular pattern. It
is lowest in the summer of 320
each year and highest in the
300
winter.
a What does the line 280
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
labelled A represent on Year
the graph?
b Use the line labelled A to describe the trend between 1960 and 2020.
c Green plants use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Suggest why the amount of carbon
dioxide is lowest in the summer of each year and highest in the winter.

10 Solubility is the amount of a solute that dissolves in a

solvent at a particular temperature. A group of 0.35
students measured the solubility of carbon dioxide in
water at different temperatures. 0.30
Solubility (g/100 g water)

a What conclusion can the students make from the 0.25

graph of their results?
b  alculate the change in carbon dioxide solubility
C 0.20
when the water temperature changes from 10 °C
to 15 °C. 0.15

c Global warming is causing the temperature of the 0.10

oceans to increase. What effect might this have
on the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the 0.05
oceans? Explain your answer.
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (°C)

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

12.6 Sustainable development

You are learning to:
• describe some of the limited resources that the Earth provides
• explain how human activity threatens these resources
• describe the benefits and limitations of recycling.

1 Complete the sentences about the Earth’s limited resources using the words below.
renewable   non-renewable   replaced   extracted
A limited resource is a ____i____ resource. When it is used, it cannot be easily ____ii____.

2 Many human activities use resources that are limited.

Which of these resources are limited resources?
a wood b iron c coal d vegetables

3 An advert described the fish in a seafood product as being sustainable, which means that the
fish will be present in the area for future generations to benefit from.
a Why do sustainable practices help us to manage the limited resources of the Earth?
b Which two of these principles would help to show that the fish was sustainably caught?
i No more fish are caught than can be replaced naturally by the population.
ii No other species or habitats are damaged when the fish are caught.
iii No fishing nets or fishing lines were used to catch the fish.
iv No fish are removed from the ocean.

4 The flow chart shows some of the processes involved in the life cycle of a metal.

Mining metal ore from ground

Extraction of metal from its ore

Recycling of some waste metal

Manufacturing metal products

Metal product is thrown away

Waste metal in landfill

a Explain two reasons why recycling of metals is important. Use the flow chart to help you.
b A local council would like to recycle more metal. Suggest two disadvantages to the
council of collecting unwanted metal items from householders along with their waste bins.

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 Questions

5 The photograph shows a solar farm that is used to generate electricity.

a Suggest two advantages of using solar energy to produce electricity compared to using
fossil fuels such as coal, oil or gas.
b Suggest two disadvantages of using solar energy to produce electricity compared to fossil
fuels in the UK.

6 A town council needs to replace a small bridge over a stream. It has decided to use a frame
made from either aluminium or wood.

Aluminium Wood
Limited resource yes no
Possible lifespan (years) 45 20
Cost per kg £0.92 £2.60
Mass of material required (kg) 20 78

Worked example
 alculate how much the bridge would cost per year if it was made from wood.
C
The table shows that wood will last for 20 years. The cost of the wood to build the bridge can
be calculated using: mass required × cost for 1 kg. Then this figure is divided by the number of
years to find the cost per year.
£2.60 × 78 kg = £202.80 for materials
£202.80 ÷ 20 years = £10.14 a year

a Calculate how much the bridge would cost per year if it was made from aluminium.
b Give three reasons why the council may choose to make the bridge from aluminium.
c Give one reason why the council may choose to make the bridge from wood.

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 12 Earth and atmosphere

Maths and practical skills

1 A student weighed four similar shaped pieces of rock, A to D, and noted down their masses. They
placed the rocks in a bowl of water for 1 hour. They then reweighed the rocks.

Rock sample Initial mass (g) Final mass (g) Observations

A 35.5 35.5 none
B 22.3 25.8 bubbles were seen rising from the rock
C 27.2 28.4 two bubbles were seen
D 27.1 27.1 none

a Explain why rocks B and C increased in mass after being soaked in water.
b What type of rock are B and C?
i igneous    ii metamorphic    iii sedimentary
c How much mass did rock B gain?
d How much mass did rock C gain?
e Calculate the percentage change in mass for rock C using the equation:
(final mass – initial mass) ÷ initial mass × 100

2 Scientists make observations and ask questions. A good scientific question is one that can be
answered by carrying out further observations or experiments; we say it is testable.
a Is the following a scientific question?
Is a red car made of more recycled materials than a silver car?
b Explain your answer to part a.
c Complete the table.
Question Is it a scientific question? yes/no
Is recycling good for us?
What is the best gas in the atmosphere?
Are metamorphic rocks harder than
sedimentary rocks?
Do decomposers break down plant material
faster than animal material?

3 Minerals are the chemicals that rocks are made from. Mineral name Mohs scale
Friedrich Mohs was a scientist who studied minerals. He diamond 10.0
developed a scale that ranked the hardness of different
minerals. The larger the number on the scale, the harder corundum 9.0
the mineral. The table below shows some minerals and topaz 8.0
their hardness on the Mohs scale. quartz 7.0
a Steel has a hardness of 6.5 on the Mohs scale. Which of orthoclase 6.0
these minerals are harder than steel? apatite 5.0
i apatite    ii orthoclase fluorite 4.0
iii diamond   iv quartz calcite 3.0
b Harder minerals can scratch softer minerals when they gypsum 2.0
are rubbed together. Which minerals can scratch topaz? talc 1.0

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 Questions
c Suggest why scratching one mineral against another is not a very accurate way of measuring
the hardness of a mineral.
d Some metamorphic rocks contain calcite and others contain quartz. If uplift brings these rocks
to the surface, which will weather the quickest? Explain your answer.

4 A student wanted to view the formation of crystals underneath a microscope. They planned an
experiment using salol, which is a chemical that cools to form crystals. Salol melts at 45 °C. Their
method is shown below.
• 50 g of salol was warmed in a water bath at
50 °C.
• A clean microscope slide was placed in the freezer
and a second slide was placed in hot water at 60 °C. cover slip
melted salol drop
• One drop of warm salol was placed on the
cold slide and a cover slip added
microscope slide
• A stopwatch was started when the slide was placed
under the microscope.
• The time at which crystals began to form and the time at which no further changes were seen
were recorded.
• The process was repeated using the heated microscope slide.
a Write a suggested equipment list for this experiment.
b Write a suitable scientific question that this method would test.
c Design a suitable table to record the results.
d Why do crystals form in the salol?
e Predict which microscope slide will produce the biggest crystals of salol.
f Predict which microscope slide will start to produce crystals first. Explain your answer.
g This experiment models part of the rock cycle. Which type of rock is represented by salol?

5 A scientist investigated the

0.039
level of carbon dioxide in Mean crop height
the air at different distances
0.038
above the ground in a field
of crops. Normal CO2 level
0.037
a At what height did the
scientist record the 0.036
% carbon dioxide

lowest levels of carbon

dioxide in the field? 0.035

b At what height did the 0.034

maximum rate of
photosynthesis occur? 0.033
c What did the scientist
record as the normal 0.032
level of carbon dioxide
concentration in the 0.031
air?
0.030
d Suggest a reason why 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
the level of carbon Height above ground (cm)
dioxide was above the
normal figure at ground level.

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 13 Forces

13 Forces road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

13.3 Levers and moments

• describe turning effects
• calculate the moment of a force
• apply turning effects to simple machines
• explain how levers can be balanced

13.2 Forces in action

• describe forces
• use force arrows
forces as pushes and pulls • identify force direction
• measure forces
contact and non-contact forces
investigate how things move 13.1 Describing
when different forces act motion
• calculate speed
simple machines • understand motion
on graphs
• compare movement

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

13.4 Stretch and compression

• describe how forces deform objects
• explain load and extension of a spring
• apply Hooke’s Law
• describe energy changes

13.5 Pressure in solids

• understand pressure as a force forces and motion
• calculate pressure
forces and elasticity
nes • explain how pressure can be altered
momentum
13.6 Pressure in fluids energy changes in a system
• use the particle model work done and energy transfer
• explain pressure increases
forces and their interactions
• apply ideas about pressure
particle model and pressure
13.7 Using moments
• calculate work done
• explain bigger forces and smaller movement KS4
13.8 Forces, motion and equilibrium
• describe balanced forces and equilibrium
• calculate the effect of several forces
• identify the effect of unbalanced forces

Maths and practical skills

planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables

calculating results and converting between different units
analysing data and identifying anomalous results
using equations to calculate answers
rearranging equations to change the subject

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 13 Forces

13 Forces
Forces are all around you, but you cannot see, touch or smell them. When
forces cause movement you can see what they do, but when something is
not moving there are still forces at work.

What can you see?

Describe or name the forces you can see in action in these images. Suggest what the effect of each of
these forces is.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an air traffic controller?

Being an air traffic controller distances and speeds,
is challenging, but exciting and at problem
and fulfilling. You work under solving. Working
pressure and you have to make as a team is crucial
quick and accurate decisions to too – and you’ll
keep aircraft safely separated need good verbal
from each other. There’s a communication
lot of training but you need skills to give clear
to be good at understanding instructions to pilots.

Materials engineers help

design cars to improve
performance whilst
maintaining the safety aspect.
This includes reducing
the weight to reduce the
energy needed to run the
car, absorbing the impact
energy during accidents, and
increasing the recyclability of
Lorry drivers need to car components. Mechanics use their
understand relative motion knowledge of how different
to judge how to drive forces work together to
safely. Speeds are higher on understand how machines
motorways but the speed work. They can then make and
relative to other vehicles will fix things that people rely on
be lower than on an ordinary every day to make their lives
main road. easier.

Bus timetablers use lots of

information about distance
and time to schedule bus
services and make the best use
of vehicles.

This excavator forces fluid Aircraft maintenance staff

through pipes to move the have to service the engine so
arm and bucket. Design and it can provide enough thrust
maintenance engineers to overcome the friction of
need a good understanding of the aircraft moving through
forces, machines and systems. the air.

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 13 Forces

Knowledge organiser
A force applied to an object Forces can be Key vocabulary
can stretch, compress, contact forces,
air resistance frictional resistance when
twist or try to snap it, or such as water or
something moves through
cause it to speed up, slow air resistance, or
the air
down or change its direction non‑contact forces,
of motion. such as gravity. elastic when a material returns to its
behaviour original shape and size after
a stretching or compressing
Forces can be shown by arrows. The direction of the force is removed
arrow shows the direction of the force and the length of
effort the force applied when using
the arrow indicates the size of the force.
a machine
elastic limit the maximum force that can
Hooke’s Law says The moment of a force is its
be applied for a material to
that if an object is turning effect. Its size is the
remain elastic; if this limit is
loaded then the force multiplied by the distance
exceeded the extension will
extension will be from the turning point.
no longer be proportional to
proportional to the distance
the force
load as long as the to fulcrum
elastic limit is not extension the amount by which an
exceeded. elastic material has got longer
friction a force that opposes
movement
fulcrum the point about which
something turns; also called a
weight pivot
lever a machine that either
increases the size of a force
Speed is calculated using the equation:
or the distance over which
speed = distance ÷ time the force acts; this is done by
The average (mean) speed for a journey is the total using the turning effect of a
distance divided by the total time. force around a fulcrum (pivot)
moment size of turning effect of a force
A journey can be displayed on a distance–time around a fulcrum (pivot) – the
graph, with distance on the vertical axis and time direction of the moment can
on the horizontal axis. The gradient of the line shows be clockwise or anticlockwise
the speed. newtonmeter a device that uses the
stretching of a spring to
12
measure force
not moving normal the force that acts when an
10
contact force object touches a surface; it
d

8 is at right angles (90°) to the

ee
Distance (m)

sp

surface
dy

6 relative speed movement of one moving

tea
ts

object in relation to another

ga

4
object
vin
mo

2 speed how fast something travels;

measured in metres per
0 second (m/s)
0 2 4 6 8 10 weight the force of gravity acting on
Time (s) an object

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 Knowledge organiser
Forces

An unbalanced force is needed to get an object to move, to Key vocabulary

stop it from moving, to change its speed or alter its direction.
atmospheric the pressure on a
This change will depend on the size and direction of the
pressure surface exerted by
different forces.
the weight of air
above that point
balanced forces on an
forces object that act
in opposite
directions and
where the total
force in one
10 N 7N
direction is equal
If all the forces are balanced, a moving object will continue at the in size to the
same speed and in the same direction. total force in the
opposite direction
Objects float because If opposing forces equilibrium a state of rest or
of balanced forces. act on an object balance due to
The weight of the they may hold it opposite forces
object is balanced by in equilibrium. being equal
the upthrust provided An example of this is
by the water. a weight suspended gravitational the force that
on a spring. force pulls masses
towards one
Pressure is calculated using the equation another
pressure = force ÷ area newton (N) the standard unit
If the force is measured in newtons and of force
the area in square metres the pressure will
reaction

pressure the force acting

weight

be in newtons per square metre (N/m2). divided by the

area over which
The higher in the atmosphere, the the force acts;
lower the atmospheric pressure on measured in N/m2
a surface. This is because the pressure is unbalanced forces acting on
caused by the weight of the air above forces an object where
that surface. the total force
acting in one
The deeper down in a liquid, direction is not
the greater the pressure tall cylinder water comes equal in size to
becomes, because there is more out of the the total force
liquid above that point. holes acting in the
opposite direction
upthrust the upward force
that a fluid exerts
on an object in it
work done energy transferred
by a force moving
a load, measured
pressure is highest in joules (J)
water
at the bottom

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 13 Forces

13.1 Describing motion

You are learning to:
• calculate speed from distance and time
• understand how motion is represented on a distance–time graph
• use the idea of relative motion to compare the movement of various
moving objects.

1 Which of these is the correct way of calculating speed?

a distance × time    b distance + time    c distance ÷ time    d distance − time

2 Motorcycles A and B both travel 50 km. Motorcycle A takes 1 hour and motorcycle B takes
75 minutes. Which has the lower average speed?

3 Car C travels 25 km in half an hour and car D travels 30 km in one hour. Which has the higher
average speed?

4 On a distance–time graph a straight line sloping upwards indicates:

a no movement   b steady speed   c speed increasing   d speed decreasing.

5 A group of students is going to investigate the motion of a trolley down a ramp and calculate
its average speed. Suggest a suitable piece of equipment to measure:
a the length of the ramp
b the time taken for the trolley to run down the ramp
c the angle of the ramp.

6 Calculate the average speed in m/s of:

a a dog running 70 m in 10 s
b a car traveling 300 m in 15 s
c an aircraft travelling 3600 m in 15 s.

7 Calculate the average speed in m/s of:

a a train travelling 60 km in 40 minutes
b a racing car completing a 5.4 km lap in 3 minutes
c a long-distance runner covering 30 km in 4 hours. Give this answer to 2 decimal places.

8 Two cyclists are waiting at a red traffic light. One is on an ordinary bicycle and the other is on
a racing bicycle. When the cyclists move off, the racing bicycle builds up speed quicker and
pulls away from the ordinary bicycle.
a Describe how the racing bicycle would appear to move to the person on the ordinary
bicycle.
b The cyclist on the racing bicycle glances over her shoulder at the ordinary bicycle. Describe
how the ordinary bicycle appears to be moving to her.

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Worked example
50
 his distance–time graph shows a journey in two
T
stages. The first stage is shown by the line from point A B C
40
to point B and the second stage by the line from

Distance (m)
point B to point C. 30
a Calculate the speed during the section AB.
20
b Describe the speed during the section BC.
For part a, read the values and units from the graph 10
axes. You can see that the distance increases from 0 to
40 m so the object has travelled 40 m. You can also 0 A
see that this happened as the time increased from 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 to 4 s, so the time taken was 4 s. Time (s)
distance
a speed =
time
40 m
= = 10 m/s
4s
b  In section BC the graph is a horizontal straight line, which means that the distance is not changing,
and therefore the object is stationary (not moving).

9 On a distance–time graph a horizontal straight line indicates:

a no movement   b steady speed   c speed increasing   d speed decreasing

10 Look at this distance–time graph:

9
a The first part of the journey lasts
8
for 4 hours. Calculate the speed
of the object in km/h during this
7 section.
b During the first part of the
6 journey is the speed increasing,
constant or decreasing?
Distance (km)

5
c Describe the motion of the object
4 during the second section,
starting at t = 4 hours.
3 d Compare the third part of the
journey (after t = 10 hours) with
2
the first part of the journey. Refer
to both the speed and direction
1
of travel.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (h)

11 Khalid’s group is going to investigate how changing the gradient of a ramp will affect the
speed of toy cars travelling down the ramp. They have a 1 m long wooden ramp, a selection
of supports to hold up one end of the ramp, various toy cars and a stopwatch.
a Describe a procedure they could use to determine the speed of a toy car down the ramp.
b This procedure will give them a value for the average speed of the journey. Explain why
this is.
c Explain why it would be a good idea to take repeat readings in this experiment.

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13.2 Forces in action

You are learning to:
• describe examples of contact and non-contact forces
• use force arrows in diagrams
• identify the direction of friction and air resistance forces
• measure forces in newtons (N).

1 Identify ✓ which of these are examples of contact forces and which are examples of
non-contact forces.
Example Contact? Non-contact?
i finger rubbed on bench surface
ii pencil case pulled downwards when allowed to fall
iii magnet picking up paper clips
iv stool pushed across floor
v pieces of tissue paper being attracted to a balloon that
has been charged by rubbing it on a jumper

2 This parachutist is jumping out of an aircraft. They

are being pulled downwards by a force.
a What is the name given to this force?
b Is this a contact or a non-contact force?
c Suggest another force the parachutist will
experience as soon as they start to fall.

3 This person is travelling downhill on a toboggan.

a State the direction in which friction is acting.
b Suggest why the person travels faster if they are
lying down on the toboggan rather than sitting
upright on it.

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Worked example
A boy holds a bucket of water. Draw a diagram of the bucket force applied
and show the forces that are acting on it by adding arrows and by boy
labelling them.
The direction of each arrow shows the direction of the force.
The force of weight acts downwards and the force applied by
the boy acts in the opposite direction. Make sure the force
arrows touch the object that the force acts on. weight of
bucket

4 This apple is falling through the air. Draw an outline of the apple, then add and
label two arrows to show the forces acting on it as it falls.
5 Draw and label force diagrams to show:
a the horizontal forces acting on a supermarket trolley being pushed along
b the vertical forces acting on a firework rocket shooting upwards.
6 A girl kicks a football. Identify what forces act horizontally on the football after it is kicked.
7 Sharks have a shape that reduces friction and makes
movement through water easy.
a In what direction do drag forces act on a shark
that is swimming forwards?
b Use the photo to identify what features the shark has
that reduce the drag forces acting on it as it swims.
8 A group of students is investigating how friction varies for different types of trainers. They use
three different designs of trainer, each the same size. Each trainer is placed in turn on a carpet
tile. Weights are placed inside the trainer and a newtonmeter is used to measure the force
needed to drag the shoe across the carpet.
trainer, with
newtonmeter
weights inside

carpet tile

a Make a simple copy of the diagram and add arrows to show the pulling force applied to
the trainer by the newtonmeter and the force of friction.
b Describe how the students made the experiment a fair comparison between the trainers.
c Explain how the readings obtained would indicate which trainer has the best grip.
9 A group of students is investigating the drag force on objects moving through water. They
have a large clear plastic bottle filled with water. They also have some modelling clay, a top
pan balance, a stopwatch and a ruler. The idea they are exploring is how the shape of a piece
of clay will affect the time it will take to reach the bottom of the bottle.
a Describe how the students could use the equipment to see if the shape of the clay affects
how quickly it reaches the bottom of the bottle.
b Explain how the shape of a piece of clay could affect how quickly it falls through the water.
c Explain why it is important that each piece of clay has the same weight.

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13.3 Levers and moments

You are learning to:
• describe how a force can produce a turning effect
• calculate the moment of a force
• apply the idea of turning effects to explain the actions of simple machines
• apply ideas about clockwise and anticlockwise moments to explain how a
lever can be balanced.

1 Give two examples of moments in action in a kitchen.

2 Identify what acts as the fulcrum when a cupboard door is opened.

3 State the two ways of increasing the turning effect of a force.

Worked example
The devices shown in the picture, called tap turners, are attached
to the tops of ordinary taps to make them easier to turn on and
off. They are often used by people who have less strength in their
hands.
Explain how tap turners reduce the force needed to turn a tap on
or off.
When asked for an explanation, make sure you include a reason
for what is suggested. It’s a good idea to use connectives such as
‘because’ or ‘therefore’.
The force that turns the tap is applied by twisting the handle. This produces a turning force or moment. The
size of the moment depends upon the size of the force and the distance between the force and the fulcrum
(the centre of the tap). People with weaker hands can’t apply a large force but the longer handle of the tap
turner increases the size of the moment, so less effort is needed.

4 A gardener wants to lift a fallen log. The log is heavier than the maximum effort the gardener
can exert, so they decide to use a metal bar as a lever. Explain why the gardener is able to lift
the log using the metal bar.

5 Write down the equation used to calculate the moment of a force.

6 Agnes is trying to use a spanner to undo a wheel nut on her car. The nut has been done up
very tightly and is difficult to turn. She wonders if using a longer spanner might make the job
easier but then thinks that she can’t push down on a long spanner any harder than on a short
one. Explain whether you think using a longer spanner would help.

7 Explain how a pair of scissors can be used to cut a piece of string. Explain why it is easier to
cut the string if it is placed close to where the blades are joined together. Use the words
pivot, effort and force in your answer.

8 Explain in each of these situations where the effort is being

applied, where the fulcrum is and where the lever applies the
force:
a a person levering open the lid on a paint tin with a
screwdriver blade
b a crowbar being used to force open a door.

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9 Look at the balanced see-saw in the

diagram. Explain why, in order to get the
see-saw to balance, the heavier child has
to sit nearer to the fulcrum.

small large
weight weight
large small
distance distance

Worked example
A 30 cm long spanner is being used to apply a force of 20 N to turn a nut. Calculate the size of
the moment being applied to the nut.
moment = force applied × distance from turning point
distance = 30 cm = 0.3 m
moment = 20 N × 0.3 m
= 6N m

10 Calculate the turning effect of a 50 N force applied to a bolt using a 30 cm long spanner. Use
the equation:

turning effect of a force = force applied × distance

11 A shop counter has a hinged flap that can be raised to allow staff through and then lowered to
form part of the counter. The flap is 600 mm from its hinge to the edge. Lifting the flap at its
end needs a force of 15 N. Calculate the turning effect of this force at the hinge.

12 The door between the dining area of a restaurant and the kitchen is sprung so that it can be
pushed open and then swing back into place. It takes a force of 28 N to open the door if it is
pushed at the edge opposite to the hinges.
a Calculate the force needed to open the door if it is pushed at a point halfway across the
door instead of at the edge.
b Explain your reasoning.
13 Tower cranes have a counterweight to balance the jib counterweight
effect of the load. The counterweight can be moved
towards the tower or away from it in order to balance
the structure. More counterweights can also be added.
a Explain why a tower crane needs a counterweight. load
tower
b The counterweight weighs 5000 N and the right-
hand side of the jib is 10 m long. Calculate the
maximum possible clockwise moment.
c The counterweight is moved so that it is 6 m from
the tower and the load is 24 m from the tower.
Calculate the maximum load that the crane can lift.
d If the crane was going to be used to lift lighter loads, suggest two ways of adjusting the
counterweight to balance the structure.
e The load is suspended from a small trolley which can be moved along the jib. If the load is
moved towards the tower, which way would the counterweight have to be moved to
continue balancing the crane?
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 13 Forces

13.4 Stretch and compression

You are learning to:
• describe how forces can deform objects
• explain the relationship between load and extension of a spring
• apply Hooke’s Law to various situations involving springs
• describe the energy changes when a spring is stretched or compressed.

1 a Name a material that will stretch when a force is applied to it.

b Suggest what would happen eventually if you kept on loading it.
c Name a material which, if loaded, wouldn’t seem to stretch but would break.

2 A group of students is going to compare how different elastic bands stretch when the weight
attached to the bands is increased.
a State the two values they will need to measure each time a different weight is added.
b The students decide they need to calculate the extension of the elastic band. Explain how
they could do this.
c State two possible hazards if the elastic band suddenly snapped.
d Describe two safety precautions that the students should take to reduce the risk of harm
to themselves if this happened.

3 A wildlife keeper uses an elastic catapult to fire food high into the air to feed birds of prey.
Describe the changes in energy when the stretched catapult is released.

Worked example
35
A group of students hung a spring from a hook and
measured its length. They then hung a load from the
30
spring and measured its length again. They repeated this
process for more loads. They calculated the extension for
25
each force applied and plotted a graph of force against
Extension (mm)

extension. 20
a Describe what the graph shows about the way that the
force causes the spring to extend. 15
The graph shows that if twice as much force is applied to
10
the spring then the extension is twice as much. For example,
the line of best fit shows that if the load is doubled from
5
40 N to 80 N, the extension doubles from 16 mm to
32 mm. The extension is directly proportional to the force, 0
as indicated by the straight line through the origin. 0 20 40 60 80 100
b 
Explain what would happen if the students exceeded Load (N)
the elastic limit of the spring.
The graph shows that the students have not exceeded the elastic limit of the spring because the line
is straight. Exceeding the limit would cause the line to curve after a certain load.

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 Questions

4 A spring stretches by 3 cm when a force of 10 N is applied to it. If it behaves according to

Hooke’s Law and its elastic limit is not exceeded, how far would you expect it to extend when
the following loads are attached to it?
a 20 N b 70 N c 2N

5 Look at this graph showing how the weight added to a 10

spring produces an extension.
a Describe the relationship between weight and 8
extension up to a weight of 1.5 N.

Extension (cm)
6
b Use the graph to find how much force is needed to
extend the spring by 7 cm.
4
c How much will the spring extend by if a force of
1 N is applied to it?
2
d Suggest approximately what size of force is needed
to exceed the elastic limit of this spring.
0
e Suggest how the spring’s length would compare to 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
its original length if it was loaded to the largest value Weight (N)
shown and then unloaded.

6 Explain in your own words what is meant by the phrase ‘exceeding the elastic limit of a
material’.

7 A group of students was investigating how loads added to a spring caused it to be extended.
Their results are shown in the table below.
Load (N) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Extension of spring 0 6 11 17 22 28 35 44 55
(mm)

a Plot a line graph to display the data. Plot the load on the x-axis and the extension on the
y-axis. Include a line of best fit.
b State what can be concluded from the graph about the relationship between extension
and force for this spring.
c Suggest the load that was the elastic limit of the spring.

8 A group of students is investigating the relationship between the load being carried by a
plastic carrier bag and the amount the bag stretches. They decide to compare a cheap, thin
carrier bag with a higher priced long-life bag. They will gather data and plot graphs to find
out how the bags compare.
a Suggest how the students could design the investigation to produce a valid comparison
between the two bags.
b The students decide to plot the data for both carrier bags on one graph instead of drawing
two different graphs. Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of doing this.
c One of the students suggests that they should test not just one bag of each sort but, say,
ten bags of each sort, and then take the average (mean) of the readings. Comment on
whether this would improve the experiment.

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 13 Forces

13.5 Pressure in solids

You are learning to:
• understand pressure as the force applied per unit area
• calculate pressure from force and area
• explain how force and area can be changed to alter the pressure applied.

1 Complete the table below using the units and abbreviations listed.

newtons  N/m2  square metres  N  newtons per square metre  m2

Quantity Unit Abbreviation
area
force
pressure

2 Complete this sentence: The smaller the area that a force acts over, the
the pressure will be.

3 Explain how snow shoes enable people to walk on soft snow. Use the words area, force and
pressure in your answer.

4 Which of the following is the correct equation for calculating pressure?

a pressure = force × area
b pressure = force ÷ area
c pressure = force + area
d pressure = force – area

5 If a pressure is calculated using force in newtons and area in square millimetres, state the unit
the answer should be in.

6 Calculate the pressure exerted on soft ground by a piece of wood with a base area of 5 m2 and
weighing 40 N.

7 A group of students is finding out how the pressure exerted by a block of stone on the ground
underneath it will vary. The block can be turned so that different faces are in contact with the
ground. The block has dimensions of 40 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm. It has a weight of 40 N.
a Calculate the pressure (in N/cm2) the block exerts on the
10 cm
ground if the face in contact with the ground measures:
i 40 cm × 5 cm 5 cm
40 cm
ii 40 cm × 10 cm
iii 10 cm × 5 cm
b The ground the block is stood on is rather soft and muddy. When stood on one of its faces
the block starts to sink into the ground. Suggest which of the faces was in contact with the
ground for this to happen.

8 A concrete base for a child’s swing has a weight of 2500 N and an area of 20 m2. Calculate the
pressure it exerts on the ground.

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 Questions

9 Which exerts the least pressure – a crate weighing 600 N acting on a surface of 8 m2 or one
weighing 420 N acting on a surface of 6 m2? Give a reason for your answer.

Worked example
A bridge needs to take loads up to 45 000 N. The pressure on the ground must not be greater
than 5000 Pa or the bridge will sink into the ground. Calculate the total area needed for the
bridge supports.
Remember that pressure = force ÷ area. If you know what the values of two of the quantities in
the pressure equation are, you can calculate the third quantity by rearranging the equation.
area = force ÷ pressure or force = pressure × area
If the force is in newtons, N, and the pressure is in pascals, Pa, the area will be in square metres, m2.
area = force ÷ pressure
= 45 000 ÷ 5000 = 9 m2

10 A hide is going to be constructed in a wetland area to enable people to watch birds without
disturbing them. The ground is soft so the structure will have a wide wooden base to stop it
from sinking. The structure has a weight of 6000 N and the engineer estimates that the
maximum pressure the ground can take is 80 N/m2. Calculate the area that the base of the
hide should be.

11 Mio wants to lay paving slabs in her garden. Each slab is 600 mm by 600 mm. She doesn’t
want the slabs to sink into the liquid cement while it is setting. If the wet cement can support
a pressure up to 50 N/m2, calculate the maximum weight of each slab.

12 Different designs of skis are used for different purposes. The skier on the left is going over deep
powder snow, which is loose. Their skis are 160 cm long and 12.5 cm wide. The skier on the
right is racing down a slope of firm, tightly packed snow. Their downhill skis are 200 cm long
and 8 cm wide. Both skiers have a weight of 720 N.

a Calculate the surface area in metes squared of a pair of deep powder snow skis.
b Calculate the surface area in metes squared of a pair of downhill skis.
c Suggest why the skis designed for use on powdered snow have a larger surface area than
those used on tightly packed snow.
d Calculate the pressure applied by each skier on the snow in Newtons per square metre.

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 13 Forces

13.6 Pressure in fluids

You are learning to:
• use the particle model to explain what causes pressure in fluids
• explain why pressure increases with depth in fluids
• apply ideas about pressure to various situations.

1 A person blows air into a balloon to inflate it and ties a knot in the neck of the balloon to keep
the air in.
a Draw a simple diagram of the balloon and add arrows to show how atmospheric pressure
is acting on the outer surface of the balloon.
b Now add more arrows to show the pressure acting on the inside surface of the balloon,
caused by the air trapped in the balloon.

2 A child is playing with a plastic ball in the bath. They hold the ball under the surface of the
water and then release it. Name the force that makes the ball rise to the surface.

Worked example
A mountaineer climbs to the top of a high mountain and measures the pressure of the atmosphere.
They find the pressure is less than it was at the foot of the mountain. Explain why this is so.
At the top of a mountain there is less air above the mountaineer and so the weight of the gases pressing
down on a surface is less.

3 When a submarine dives deeper in the ocean there is more pressure upon it. Explain why this is.

4 This diagram shows a model of the arrangement of particles

of water in a tall container.
a Suggest two ways in which this is a good model of the
water particles.
b Suggest two ways it is not a good model of the water
particles.
c If you measured the pressure at point A and compared
it with the pressure at point B how would the two
values compare?
d Explain your answer to part c. A

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 Questions

0
5 The diagram shows a metal block suspended above a 7 N 1
6 2
container of water.
5 3
4
a The block is now lowered into the water so that it is
completely immersed. Which of these statements about
the reading on the newtonmeter will be true?
A The reading will now be zero.
B The reading will be more than zero but less than 7 N.
C The reading will be 7 N. weight 7N

D The reading will be more than 7 N.

b Explain your answer to part a.

6 A scientist on a TV programme is explaining how pressure under water increases with depth.
a First, the scientist inflates a balloon by blowing air into it and then tying the neck. She says
that it is air pressure that keeps the balloon inflated. Using ideas about particles, explain
what the air is doing to keep the balloon inflated.
b The scientist then gets into a swimming pool with the balloon and dives down, holding
the balloon deep under the water. The balloon is now smaller and she explains that if she
could dive deeper and push the balloon lower its volume would decrease even more.
Using ideas about particles, explain why the balloon is now smaller.

7 A teacher carries out a demonstration to show the force on a surface due to atmospheric
pressure. They connect a vacuum pump to a metal can and pump the air out of it. As they do
so, the sides of the can collapse inwards. The diagram shows the can before and after the air is
pumped out.
to pump, which
removes air from
Before the can
After

a Copy the diagram and add arrows to show how the atmosphere applies pressure to the
sides of the can:
i before the air is removed
ii after the air is removed.
b Explain why the can was crushed.
c One of the students said that the sides of the can had been sucked in. Explain why this is
not a very scientific explanation.

8 This is a weather balloon. It is being released so that it can take and transmit measurements of
conditions in the upper atmosphere. The balloon is filled with helium, which is lighter than air.
The balloon is closed so the gas is trapped inside. The balloon
will rise up to a height of around 30 000 m and then explode,
and the transmitter will return to Earth attached to a small
parachute.
a Explain why the volume of the balloon will increase as it rises
through the atmosphere.
b Explain why the balloon will explode at a high altitude.

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 13 Forces

13.7 Using moments

You are learning to:
• calculate the work done by a force
• apply ideas about work to explain how a simple machine produces a bigger
force for a smaller movement.

1 State the equation used to calculate the moment, or turning effect, of a force.

2 A hammer is being used to pull a nail out of a piece of wood.

Describe what happens to the size of the force that needs to be
applied if the hammer has a longer handle.

Worked example
A conveyor belt at an airport uses a force of 5 N to move a suitcase 50 m. Calculate the work done.
Give your answer in joules (J).
work done = force × distance moved
= 5 N × 50 m = 250 N m
1 N m equals 1 J, so work done = 250 J

3 Calculate the work done when:

a a woman uses a force of 60 N to push a box 10 m along the floor
b four people use a combined force of 5000 N to push a car a distance of 50 m.

4 How much work is done by the engine of a car that applies a force of 25 000 N to move the
vehicle 2 km?

Worked example
A pair of scissors is a simple machine. It can produce a bigger
force on the object being cut (the load), than the force
applied on the handles (the effort).
Use the idea of work done to explain how a pair of scissors
increases the force being applied.
When scissors are used to increase the size of the force, the
object being cut is placed close to the fulcrum. The force exerted
on the object is greater than the effort force. However the effort is applied further from the fulcrum so the
effort has to move through a greater distance. As the amount of work done is the same for each force, the
value of force × distance moved must be the same. The small force moves a greater distance and the bigger
force moves a smaller distance.

5 A student says that if a machine can turn a small force into a larger one we are ‘getting
something for nothing’. Use what you know about the distances that each force moves to
explain why the student is wrong.

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 Questions

6 In Josh’s kitchen there is a pedal bin. It has a lid which is

opened by pressing on the pedal. Josh notices that he
only has to push the pedal a short distance and the lid
moves a long way.
Compare the force Josh applies to the pedal with the
force this applies to the lid and explain your answer. Use
the idea of work done.

7 The man in the diagram is using a lever to move a

crate. He is pushing down on the lever to apply
an upwards force on the crate.
a He is pushing down with a force of 250 N at a
distance of 1 m from the fulcrum. Calculate
the moment he is producing.
b State the size of the moment being applied to pivot
the crate.
c The distance from the fulcrum to the contact point with the crate is 10 cm. Calculate the
size of the force on the crate.
d Consider your answer to part c and explain why the man is using a lever rather than just
lifting the crate.
e Compare the work done by the man and the work done by the lever.

8 This diagram shows two people using a revolving door.

The view is from above. They are both pushing on the
door. As the door turns they can pass into or out of the
building. The man on the left is pushing with a force of
40 N at a place on the door 60 cm from the turning
point. The woman on the right is pushing with a force
of 60 N at 40 cm from the turning point.
a Calculate the moment of the force the woman
applies to the door. State the direction of the
moment.
b Calculate the moment of the force the man applies
to the door. State the direction of the moment.
c Calculate the total moment being applied to the
door, and its direction.
d Explain what would happen if one person was trying
to push the door in the opposite direction. Assume
they apply the same force at the same distance from
the turning point.

9 Khalim and Misbah are sitting on either side of a see-saw and trying to make it balance.
Khalim weighs 200 N and Misbah weighs 150 N. The see-saw is 4 m long and the fulcrum is in
the centre. Misbah sits right at the end on one side. Calculate the position Khalim must sit at
to balance the see-saw.

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 13 Forces

13.8 Forces, motion and equilibrium

You are learning to:
• describe how balanced forces can hold an object in equilibrium
• calculate the effect of several forces acting in opposing directions
• identify the effect of unbalanced forces that don’t cancel each other out.

Worked example
A person is standing still on the floor. There is a force on them due to their weight. This force acts
downwards. What other force is acting on the person? Explain why the person is stationary.
There is a force acting upwards on the person as they are in contact with the floor; this force is called the
normal contact force. This force is equal in size to the person’s weight and acts in the opposite direction to
their weight. This results in them being stationary (not moving).

1 An apple is resting on a table. Explain why the apple is not moving.

2 Explain why a coat hanging on a peg is an example of forces in equilibrium.

3 A teacher is demonstrating static charge. They have combed their

hair with a plastic comb to charge the comb. The comb then
attracts some pieces of tissue paper.
a Draw and label a diagram to show the forces acting on one of
the pieces of paper as it rises up to the comb.
b Explain why the teacher has to tear the tissue paper into small
pieces to see any effect.

Worked example
A train is travelling along a straight section of track. It is accelerating due to the power generated by
the diesel engine.
a Identify the forces acting horizontally on the train.
There is a force in the forwards direction due to the power of the engine. There are two forces in the
opposite direction: one due to friction and another due to air resistance.
b Suggest what must be true about the size of the force being applied by the engine compared
with the size of any opposing forces.
The train is travelling forwards, so the force due to the engine must be greater than the total of the
forces due to air resistance and friction.

4 This cyclist is pedalling along a straight, level road at a

constant speed.
a Describe the various forces acting on a bicycle being pedalled
at a steady speed.
b Explain why the bicycle is not accelerating.
c The cyclist now stops pedalling and his speed decreases.
Explain why this happens by referring to the forces acting.

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 Questions

5 This boat is accelerating forwards.

a Describe the forces acting on the boat.
b Explain how the force due to the engine compares in size
and direction with the forces opposing the motion.

6 Draw force diagrams to show the forces acting on:

a a plastic bowl floating in a bath of water
b the same bowl now carrying some marbles and floating in a bath of water
c a rubber duck which usually floats but is being held under water.

7 Look at the diagram on the right. In each case the pushing force
8N
friction The friction is between
the bottom surface of
object is already moving towards the left when the 8N the object and the top
of the road/track.
pushing force shown is applied. Suggest what the
motion of the object will be in each case.
10 N
Pushing force is greater
5N
8 A parachutist has his parachute open and is than the friction.

descending at steady speed.

a Describe the forces acting on the man and the 5N
Pushing force is equal
parachute, indicating the direction of each one. 5N to the friction.

b Suggest what is true about the size of the forces

if the parachutist’s speed and direction are not changing.

Worked example
Sahid is cycling along a level road at a steady speed. The force he is applying to the pedals to cause
the forwards motion is 100 N and the motion of the bicycle is opposed by frictional forces of 20 N.
He is also having to work against air resistance. Calculate the size of the air resistance. Include your
reasoning.
If his speed is constant, the forces in the forward and opposite directions are equal – they are balanced. The
forwards force is 100 N so there must be a total force in the opposite direction of 100 N. Therefore, the air
resistance is 100 N.

9 A freight train consists of a diesel engine pulling a number of wagons. The engine can provide
a force of 50 000 N to move the train along the track, but this force is opposed by 4000 N of
air resistance and 6000 N of friction acting on the engine. Every wagon adds a further force
due to air resistance of 1000 N and a friction force of 4200 N. Calculate the number of wagons
the engine can pull.

10 Think about an archer, firing an arrow from a bow.

a When an arrow is fired straight ahead (horizontally), what effect will the downward force
of weight have?
b What effect will air resistance have on the flight of the arrow?
c An arrow is fired vertically upwards. Describe the force(s) that act after the arrow is fired.
d Why does pulling the string back further on the bow affect how far the arrow flies?

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 13 Forces

Maths and practical skills

1 The picture shows a 10 cm ruler.

Which of the following is the reading indicated by the arrow on the scale?
a 7.3 cm b 7.8 cm c 8.2 cm d 8.7 cm

2 A door handle is 15 cm long and a force of 25 N is applied at the end of the handle. Calculate
the moment of this force on the pivot in newtonmetres. Use the equation: moment = force ×
distance from fulcrum.

3 A table is being pushed across a floor from one side of the room to the other. The room is
12 m across and the force being applied to the table is 40 N. Calculate the work being done.
Use the equation: work done = force × distance moved.

4 Fatima is plotting a graph and knows that she needs to get the dependent and independent
variables the right way round. Copy and complete this sentence to remind her:

The __________i__________ variable goes on the x-axis and the _________ii_________ variable
goes on the y-axis.

5 Salim’s group is investigating the extension of a spring and are adding 10 g masses to increase
the load. Salim’s job is to measure the length of the spring each time the load is increased.
These are the lengths he writes down. He makes a mistake with one measurement. Identify
which measurement is incorrect.

10.4 cm, 12.2 cm, 12.0 cm, 12.8 cm, 13.6 cm, 14.4 cm

6 A concrete block with a weight of 160 000 N is standing on the ground. The block is a cube
with sides of length 2 m. Calculate the pressure applied on the ground.

7 A door measures 70 cm from the handle to the hinges. A force of 8 N is needed to open the
door. Calculate the moment of the force at the hinge in newtonmetres.

8 A teacher has shown a class of students that a newtonmeter has a spring inside it. She shows
them that when a force is applied to the instrument the spring is stretched and the pointer
moves along a scale.
She then asks the students to test different springs to see which would be the most suitable for a
newtonmeter used to measure forces between 0 and 10 N. The students have a selection of
springs, slotted masses (100 g), a ruler and a stand for supporting the springs. The weight of a
100 g mass is 1 N.
a Describe how the students could collect data to compare the springs.
b They find that all the springs they test are extended by a 10 N load. Suggest how they
should select the most suitable spring for use in the newtonmeter.
c They have now selected a spring they think is suitable. How could they find the resolution
of their newtonmeter?

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 Questions

Worked example
A truck is driving along a motorway at 70 km/h and is being overtaken by a car doing 80 km/h. In
the other carriageway a motorcycle is travelling at 90 km/h in the opposite direction.
a Calculate the speed of the car relative to the truck.
The car and the truck are travelling in the same direction, so the speeds are subtracted.
80 – 70 = 10 km/h
b Calculate the speed of the motorcycle relative to the truck.
The motorcycle and the truck are travelling in the opposite direction, so the speeds are added.
70 + 90 = 160 km/h

9 A person sets off jogging along a cycle path at 4 km/h at the same time as a cyclist sets off
from the same place and travels in the same direction at 10 km/h.
a Calculate how far each one will travel in a quarter of an hour.
b Calculate their relative speed.
c Suggest how the cyclist would appear to be moving to the jogger as they both travel along.

Worked example
A group of students is investigating the motion of a toy car down a ramp. They are going to explore
how altering the gradient of the ramp will affect how far the car travels across the floor when it
leaves the bottom of the ramp. Identify the independent variable, the dependent variable and any
control variables.
The independent variable is the one the students will change and select values for. The dependent
variable is the one that will change as a result of the independent variable. The control variables are
things that could change but which the students should keep the same so that only one variable is
allowed to affect the dependent variable.
Independent variable: gradient of ramp
Dependent variable: the distance the car travels across the floor from the bottom of the ramp
Control variables: could include the material of the surface of the ramp, the mass of the vehicle, the vehicle
itself

10 The diagram shows an experiment that a

group of students is carrying out. They dynamics pulley
trolley
are exploring how a force acting on a clamp
trolley will affect its final speed. They are string
going to vary the force by adding masses
to the hanger on the right-hand side. The
trolley is stationary at first but will start to mass
hanger
move as the mass drops.
a Identify the independent variable, the
dependent variable and any control
variables.
b Suggest what precautions the students should take to reduce the risk of equipment falling
on their feet.
c Explain why altering the number of masses on the hanger will affect the motion of the trolley.

11 The gas tap in a school science lab is 45 mm long. The maximum force that can be applied to
the lever on the tap is 50 N. Calculate the moment of this force.
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 13 Forces

12 Calculate the speed in metres per second of a motorcycle that travels 1.25 km in 1 minute.
Give your answer to one decimal place.

13 Calculate the average speed in m/s of the following objects:

a a snail covering 6 cm in one minute
b a runner travelling 1.2 km in 10 minutes
c a rocket travelling 27 000 km in an hour.

Worked example
a A train is travelling between Bristol and Exeter, a distance of 144 km, at an average speed
of 120 km/h. Calculate the time taken for the journey.
If you know the distance and the speed you can calculate the time by rearranging the
equation speed = distance ÷ time to give time = distance ÷ speed.
time = distance ÷ speed
144 km ÷ 120 km/h = 1.2 h
b  he train then travels on to Plymouth at the same average speed, in 42 minutes. Calculate
T
the distance between Exeter and Plymouth.
If you know the time and the speed you can calculate the distance by rearranging the
equation: distance = speed × time.
time in hours = 42 ÷ 60 = 0.7 hours
distance = speed × time
= 120 km/h × 0.7 h = 84 km

14 Complete the missing values in the table.

Object Distance travelled Time taken Speed

toy train on circuit of track 50 cm 4s _______i_______m/s
car driving along road 450 m 1.5 minutes _______ii_______m/s
jogger 1 km _______iii_______s 2 m/s
space rocket _______iv_______m 0.2 s 300 m/s
high speed train 200 km _______v_______s 50 m/s

15 Complete the missing values in the table.

Situation Force applied Distance from force Turning effect of
to turning point the force
screwdriver levering 40 N 25 cm
open paint tin _______i_______Nm
jack used to lift car to 50 N 30 cm
change wheel _______ii_______Nm
spanner used to tighten 50 cm 40 N m
wing nuts _______iii_______N
crowbar prising apart 60 N 30 N m
pieces of wood _______iv_______cm

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 Questions

16 A group of students is investigating the friction between a rectangular block and the ramp it is
placed on. The apparatus they use is shown in the diagram. A rectangular block is placed on
the slope and the angle of slope increased until the block starts to slide down. The covering of
the slope can also be altered.

object

covering

plank angle of slope

a Suggest what kind of coverings could be investigated using this equipment.

b Suggest how the type of covering will affect the angle at which the block starts to slide.
c Identify the independent and dependent variables and a control variable.
d Describe how the students should carry out the investigation to make it a fair test.
e The block was placed on the ramp. Starting with the ramp at an angle of 0° the angle is
increased until the block starts to slide. The experiment was then repeated with a different
covering and the block started to slide at a smaller angle. Suggest what conclusion can be
drawn from these results.
f The students tested six different coverings and recorded the angles at which the block
started to slide. Explain why it would be appropriate to display the results as a bar chart
rather than as a line graph.

17 Sam is investigating moments and see-saws. He is using a metre rule that has been balanced
on a fulcrum at its midpoint.

On one side of the see-saw he places a 1 N load, 20 cm from the fulcrum.

a Suggest the size of the load that would have to be placed 10 cm the other side of the
fulcrum to balance the see-saw and explain your answer.
b Suggest the size of the load that would have to be placed 40 cm the other side of the
fulcrum to balance the see-saw and explain your answer.
c Sam decides to find out if the 1 N load can be balanced by two loads on the other side of
the see-saw but in different positions. He puts a 2 N load 5 cm from the fulcrum and a
0.5 N load 20 cm from the fulcrum. Predict whether these loads will balance the 1 N load.
Explain your answer.

18 Jess is measuring the time it takes for a marble to roll down a short slope. She measures the
length of the slope using a 30 cm ruler and the time using a stopwatch. The teacher asks her
to think about sources of error in her readings, and which errors might be random and which
systematic. Jess’s ruler is a plastic one and is getting a bit twisted. She knows that her reaction
time affects starting and stopping the stopwatch at exactly the right times.

Which of the rows in the table below correctly identifies the types of error Jess may be making.
Use of ruler Use of stopwatch
a random random
b systematic random
c random systematic
d systematic systematic

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 14 Energy

14 Energy road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
14.2 Heating
and cooling
• compare transfer
of energy
• apply ideas to reduce
unwanted transfers
food as a source of nutrition for animals,
including humans 14.1 Energy in
fuels and food
light travelling from a source, such as • recognise energy
a bulb, to our eyes stores
sound being made from vibrations and • classify resources
detected by a microphone or our ears • measure energy
changes
objects being pushed, pulled, • compare power
stretched or twisted ratings
materials being heated

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

energy changes in a system, and the ways

14.3 Processes involving energy is stored before and after such changes
energy transfer
• identify start and end stores conservation and dissipation of energy
• identify processes national and global energy resources
• calculate costs
energy transfers

14.4 Conservation internal energy and energy transfers

of energy
• use Sankey diagrams
• apply the law of KS4
conservation of energy

Maths and practical skills

presenting data using tables and graphs

interpreting observations and data
carrying out practical work safely
observing and measuring
presenting reasoned explanations
evaluating data, including being aware of possible errors

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 14 Energy

14 Energy
Energy can be stored in fuels or food, in something that’s moving, in
something that’s been raised up or in other ways. When anything happens
there is always an energy change and energy is transferred from a source to
another place. When energy is transferred, useful things can happen.

What links food storage and energy?

Look at these food containers. They are all designed to keep food hot. For each container, suggest
one advantage and one disadvantage.

Why is energy transfer important

when cooking food?
Think about each of these methods of cooking food. Suggest one
advantage and one disadvantage of each method.

gas cooker microwave

wood-fuelled oven spirit burner

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a renewable energy engineer?

You research how renewable each location, such as increased
energy technologies can be wear of the mechanical parts
used in different locations. An and the impact of extreme
example of a project would temperatures on the lubrication.
be exploring the use of wind Another example is to
turbines in a desert in a Middle investigate replacing fossil
Eastern country. You have to fuel power stations in a city in
analyse the climate of the area, Central America with renewable
suggest a suitable location for energy sources to improve the
a wind farm and then identify air quality. In this job, you use to work in a team and be able
how the turbines might fail. You maths to model situations to to explain your ideas to non-
need to identify the main risks of predict problems. You have scientists.

Thermal insulation engineers survey Solar panel installers design and fit
buildings using thermal imaging cameras photovoltaic panels to buildings that will
to plan where to install insulation or how to generate electricity from energy transferred by
remove draughts, based on how energy is sunlight. They need to work out how to place
radiated and absorbed. This can cut fuel bills the panels to maximise the energy gathered.
and keep people warm.

Sales managers and

mechanics for electric
vehicles need to understand
the improvements that
are being made to battery
technology so that the cars
can travel further on each
charge.
Data analysts work for
the National Grid, using
Nutritionists know about past patterns of demand for
the energy content of electricity but also monitoring
different foods and how they usage by the minute. They
contribute to a healthy diet. have to know which power
They can advise a person to stations they can call on to
change their eating habits start generating electricity
according to their energy quickly if there is more
requirements. demand.

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 14 Energy

Knowledge organiser
Stored energy is called potential energy. Energy Key vocabulary
can be stored in several different ways:
conduction the transfer of energy by
• chemical potential energy (for example, in passing on energy to nearby
fuels and food) particles
• elastic potential energy (for example, in a
energy the potential to do work or
stretched or compressed spring)
produce heat
• gravitational potential energy (for example,
an apple on a tree) energy the passing on of energy from
transfer one energy store to another
• kinetic energy (for example, a moving car)
• thermal energy (for example, a hot cup of tea) food a substance that provides
– it is responsible for the temperature of an object. living things with nutrients
and energy
Energy transfer We measure energy in fuel a material that is burned to
is the passing on of joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ). release its stored energy
energy from one
joule (J), unit of energy; 1000 J = 1 kJ
store to another.
Power is the rate at which kilojoule (kJ)
Energy can be
energy is transferred. It is
transferred between kilowatt-hour the energy transferred in 1 h
measured in watts (W) and
stores in various (kW h) by an electrical appliance with
kilowatts (kW).
ways including a power rating of 1 kW
heating, doing
non-renewable energy from a source, such as
mechanical work, by Different foods contain
energy a fossil fuel, that will run out
an electrical current different amounts of
because it cannot be replaced
or by waves. energy per gram.
quickly enough
power amount of energy that
something transfers each
second; measured in watts (W)
radiation energy given out in the form
of a wave; it can pass through
a vacuum
Thermal (heat) energy is transferred through a
material by conduction. The vibrating particles renewable energy from a source that will
within the material transfer energy by colliding with energy not run out, such as the sun
their neighbours. A material that conducts heat is or wind
called a thermal conductor, a material that does temperature the measure of how hot
not is called a thermal insulator. or cold an object is; unit is
degrees Celsius (°C)
Electricity can be Gas and electricity companies thermal a material that allows energy
generated using calculate the cost conductor to pass through it quickly
renewable energy of home by the process of thermal
sources, such as energy use conduction
the wind, or non- using the unit
thermal a material that does not
renewable energy kilowatt-
insulator allow energy to pass through
sources, such as gas. hours (kW h).
it quickly by the process of
thermal conduction
The cost of using an electrical appliance can be
watt (W), unit of power; 1000 W = 1 kW;
calculated using the equation:
kilowatt (kW) 1 W is equal to a joule per
cost = power (kW) × time (hours) × price (per kW h) second (1 J/s)

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 Knowledge organiser
Energy

When energy is transferred, not all Key vocabulary

of the energy is useful for the
chemical the energy store
intended purpose. We say that any
potential that is emptied
energy transferred to a store
energy during chemical
where we cannot use it is wasted
reactions
energy. This can happen, for
example, when friction heats up elastic the energy store
two surfaces that rub together, or potential of an elastic
when a hot object heats up the air energy object when it
around it. is stretched or
compressed
When energy is being Whenever energy is transferred energy a diagram with
transferred, we can keep no energy is ever ‘lost’ or ‘used transfer arrows showing
track of the increase or up’. The quantity of energy diagram how energy
decrease in the amounts stored before the change is the is transferred
of energy in each store by same as the quantity stored after between energy
drawing an energy transfer the change. This is called the law stores
diagram. of conservation of energy.
gravitational the energy store
potential of an object
Thermal (heat) energy can energy because of its
be transferred from a hotter height above
object to a cooler one by the ground
thermal radiation. The kinetic the energy
energy is transferred as a energy stored in a
wave, and does not require moving object
the presence of particles to
travel through. law of energy cannot
conservation be created
of energy or destroyed,
only stored or
transferred; this
means that the
The energy supplied to and the energy outputs from a system can total energy is
be represented on a Sankey diagram. This shows which of the the same before
outputs are useful. The width of each arrow represents how much and after a
energy is transferred, so the diagram also shows the proportion of change
the input energy that is useful and that the total amount of energy
is conserved. Sankey an energy
diagram transfer diagram
Start Finish
that shows what
80 J transferred proportion of
to thermal store the input energy
in water
100 J transferred is transferred
from starting as useful or as
20 J transferred
source
to thermal store wasted output
of surroundings
thermal the energy store
energy filled when
an object is
warmed up

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 14 Energy

14.1 Energy in fuels and food

You are learning to:
• recognise that energy is stored in fuels and as food
• classify energy resources as renewable or non-renewable
• measure energy changes in joules (J) and kilojoules (kJ)
• compare power ratings of appliances in watts (W) and kilowatts (kW).

1 Which row of the table correctly groups energy resources as renewable or non-renewable?

Response Renewable Non-renewable

a solar, tidal, wind coal, oil, gas
b wind, oil, gas coal, solar, tidal
c coal, oil, gas solar, wind, geothermal
d coal, oil, tidal gas, solar, wind

2 Which of these is the correct unit to measure energy?

a watts b joules c newtons d volts

3 Copy the table, but reorder the applications so each is matched to the correct fuel.

Fuel Application
petrol car
natural gas lighting
wood fireplace for heating
candle (paraffin wax) cooking

4 The portable camping stove in the picture uses propane.

When the propane is burned, the energy released is used to
heat drinks or cook food.
a Where is the energy stored in this stove?
b Where is the energy transferred to when the stove is used?
c Suggest why this is a very practical way of cooking for
people who are camping and hiking.
d Suggest why this is unlikely to be a way that people would
cook in their home.

5 Two electric kettles are on display in a supermarket. Both have a capacity of 3 litres. Kettle A
can boil this amount of water in 90 s, whereas kettle B takes 3 minutes.
a Compare the two kettles in terms of the rate at which they can transfer energy.
b Use your answer to suggest how the power ratings of the kettles compare.

6 What is the rate of energy transfer in joules per second (J/s) for a 10 W light bulb?

7 One light bulb is labelled 10 W and another is labelled 15 W. Explain the difference between
these bulbs in terms of how quickly they transfer energy.

8 Which transfers energy at a greater rate, a 250 W television or a 2 kW electric kettle?

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 Questions

9 The table shows the energy content of three Fuel Energy Average cost
different fuels used to provide heating in homes. (kJ/g) (pence/MJ)
a The energy content is measured in kJ/g.
fuel oil 44 1.5
Explain what this unit means.
natural gas 37 1.4
b The table shows that the energy content of
wood is relatively low. Suggest why some wood 12 2.5
people still use wood to heat their homes.
c Which fuel releases the least energy per gram?
d Which would be the best fuel to keep costs down?
10 A solar panel on the roof of a family’s campervan
Appliance Power needed
can provide a maximum power of 100 W. The
to run (W)
table shows the power needed by each of the
appliances the family has taken with them. mobile phone charger 5
laptop computer 50
a Calculate the power needed to run all the
TV 30
appliances at the same time.
games console 45
b How many laptops can the family plug in at
once, if no other devices are being used?
c Suggest three appliances that the family can run at the same time.

Worked example
A small packet of shortbread fingers has an energy content of 900 kJ and a mass of 40 g.
Calculate the energy content of the shortbread per 100 g.
When doing a calculation, it is important to show your working. When a calculation has more
than one step this can help avoid careless mistakes, such as dividing when a multiplication is
required.
energy content per 100 g = energy in 1 g × 100 = (energy in 40 g ÷ 40) × 100
energy content of shortbread per 100 g = (900 kJ ÷ 40) × 100 = 2250 kJ

11 This food label shows the different nutrients in a

food. Calculate how much energy (in kJ) there is in
100 g of the food.

12 A student is researching foods that will supply her with energy to sustain her when running a
marathon. She finds out that running a marathon will require an additional 12 000 kJ. The
energy contents of three foods that she researches are shown in the table.
a Rank these foods in terms of the energy Food Energy content Mass of
content per 100 g, from most to least. per serving (kJ) serving (g)
b For the food with the greatest energy per chocolate 1000 50
100 g, calculate how much Freya would
need to eat to replace the additional raisins 315 25
energy transferred by running the
bananas 350 100
marathon.
13 A student is doing some circuit training and his coach says that an exercise will use 1890 kJ.
If a 25 g packet of raisins contains 315 kJ, how many packets will the student need to eat to
replace this energy?

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 14 Energy

14.2 Heating and cooling

You are learning to:
• compare the transfer of energy by thermal conduction and by radiation
• apply ideas about radiation, conduction and insulation to reduce unwanted
energy transfers.

1 How is energy being transferred to this boy from the fire?

2 Put the following objects in order of temperature, with the hottest first.
A – typical temperature for bath or shower
B – boiling water
C – body temperature of a healthy person
D – mixture of ice and water
E – typical temperature of a warm room

3 Describe, using examples of each, the difference between a thermal conductor and
a thermal insulator.

Worked example
Two beakers are placed on the table in a room that is at 18 °C. Beaker A is filled with water at 40 °C
and beaker B with water at 5 °C. Explain what will happen to the temperature of the water in both
beakers over the next few minutes.
Beaker A is warmer than the surroundings so energy will be transferred out of it, causing its temperature
to fall. This will continue until its temperature is the same as the temperature of the room. Beaker B is
at a lower temperature than the surroundings so energy will be transferred into it until it reaches room
temperature.

4 A blacksmith heats a piece of metal then plunges it

into a bucket of water at room temperature.
a State the effect this will have on the temperature of
the hot metal.
b State the effect this will have on the temperature of
the water.
c At the end of the day, the water in the bucket is at
the same temperature as it was at the start of the
day. Suggest why this is.

5 A person buys a wrapped parcel of fish and chips and an open bag of chips from a takeaway
on a cold evening. By the time they get home, the chips in the open bag are cold but the fish
and chips wrapped in the parcel are still hot. Explain this difference in temperature using ideas
about energy and insulation.

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 Questions

6 A group of students has carried out an Material Starting Final

experiment to compare different types of temperature temperature
insulating material. The group is provided of bottle (°C) of bottle (°C)
with a small hot water bottle, which they
expanded
fill with hot water and try to keep hot for
polystyrene 55 39
as long as possible by covering it in an
beads
insulating material. The temperature of
the bottle was measured and recorded at crumpled
46 32
the start and again after 20 minutes. The paper towels
table shows their results. cloth 51 36
a Calculate by how much the wood
61 43
temperature fell in each case. shavings
b Place the materials in order of the size of the temperature change, from largest to smallest.
c Suggest why it is not necessarily the case that the material that gives the largest
temperature change is the worst insulator.

7 Describe how energy is transferred when a metal rod is heated at one end.

8 Twenty minutes after being made from boiling water, a cup of tea is lukewarm.
a Explain why the temperature has changed.
b A student says ‘If you leave that tea for another 20 minutes it will have frozen over!’
Explain why this is unlikely to be true.

9 The manager of a takeaway shop is thinking of changing the containers in which hot food is
served. She is going to compare containers made of polystyrene, cardboard, aluminium and
plastic to see which is most effective at keeping food hot.
a Suggest any other equipment the store manager might need.
b Describe a procedure she could use to make a fair comparison between the different
containers.
c Suggest other reasons for selecting a particular container, apart from its insulating properties.

10 A mug of hot chocolate is at a temperature of 80 °C.

a Describe two different ways in which energy is transferred out of the drink.
b Suggest how the rate of energy transfer could be reduced.

11 Explain how a vacuum flask can keep a drink cold on a hot day. plastic
Refer to the diagram in your answer. cap

silvered
surfaces

vacuum

12 A double-glazed window has a layer of air trapped between two panes of

glass. Explain why this reduces the amount of energy transferred through
the window from the inside to the outside, compared to a single-glazed
window.

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 14 Energy

14.3 Processes involving energy

transfer
You are learning to:
• identify the start and end stores when energy is transferred
• identify processes that transfer energy between stores
• calculate the cost of using electrical appliances.

1 Match each of these systems with the store of energy it holds.

System Store
hot water bottle full of hot water gravitational potential
charged battery thermal
lift at top of lift shaft chemical potential

2 Match each of these systems to the transfer of energy stored in that system.

System Transfer of energy

petrol in fuel tank as car travels along road from thermal store to (different) thermal store
apple falling from tree towards ground from chemical potential store to kinetic store
hot cup of tea standing on table from gravitational potential store to kinetic store

3 Write the word or phrase that will correctly complete each of these sentences.
a As a mobile phone is charged up, its store of ________ energy is increased.
b As a lift rises to a higher floor in a building, its store of ________ energy is increased.
c As hot soup cools down, its store of ________ energy is decreased.
d As a worker on a building site shovels sand, their store of ________ energy is decreased.

4 Describe the energy transfers between stores when:

a a saucepan of water is heated on a gas flame
b a person dives off a diving board
c a toy airplane is launched by a stretched elastic band.

5 When a battery is recharged its store of chemical energy increases. Select the process that
transfers energy to this store.
a heating b applying a force c using an electric current

Worked example
This candle is warming a water–oil mixture so that the scent diffuses more quickly into the
room. Draw an energy transfer diagram to show how energy is being transferred between
stores.
You draw the transfers between stores as arrows. Thermal store of oil
Energy has been transferred from the store of chemical Chemical store of
candle and oxygen and water
potential energy in the candle (the chemical store) to
Thermal store of dish
stores of thermal energy (thermal stores) in the water– and surrounding air
oil mixture, and in the dish and the air that surrounds
it. As there are transfers to two thermal stores, you draw two arrows.

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 Questions

6 A girl is about to go down a slide.

Draw energy transfer diagrams to show how energy is being transferred between stores:
a as she starts to slide down
b as she gets to the end of the slide.

7 The immersion heater in a hot water tank has a power rating of 3 kW. If electricity costs 12 p
per unit, calculate the cost of heating the water for 1.5 hours.
Use the equation: cost = power (kW) × time (hours) × price (per kW h)

8 a When a kettle boils, how is energy transferred to the surroundings?

b When a hairdryer is switched on, how is energy transferred:
i to its motor? ii to its heater?

9 Look at the toy in the photograph. Pulling this toy down stretches the
spring. When the spring is released, the toy moves up and down several
times and eventually comes to rest.
a Draw an energy transfer diagram for the process of stretching the
spring.
b Draw an energy transfer diagram for when the toy starts moving.
c Explain where the energy has gone when the toy comes to a rest.

10 A child is on a swing.
Identify at which points on her journey she will:
a be at the greatest height
b be travelling at the highest speed
c have the most gravitational potential energy
d have the most kinetic energy.

11 A pendulum, shown in the diagram, is set swinging to

and fro.
a Describe how the speed of the mass on the end of
the string varies during one oscillation (the journey to
and fro).
b Describe how energy is transferred between the A C
gravitational potential and kinetic stores during an
B
oscillation.

12 Calculate the cost of running a 50 W laptop for 2 hours if electricity costs 12 p per kW h.

13 Calculate the cost of using a 1.2 kW toaster for 3 minutes if electricity costs 12 p per kW h.

14 Darren wants to work out whether it is cheaper to heat a meal using a microwave oven or an
electric oven. Heating the meal in a 1 kW microwave oven takes 6 minutes whereas in a 2 kW
electric oven it would take 30 minutes. Electricity costs 12 p per kW h.
a Calculate the cost of cooking the meal in:
i the microwave oven ii the electric oven.
b Calculate the difference in the cost of electricity.

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 14 Energy

14.4 Conservation of energy

You are learning to:
• use Sankey diagrams to represent energy transfers, including useful and
wasteful outputs
• apply the law of conservation of energy.

1 State the unit that kinetic energy is measured in.

2 A worker left his torch turned on and the battery is flat. Select the statement that is true.
a The chemical potential store in the battery has increased.
b There is now less energy overall.
c The energy that was stored in the battery has all gone and no longer exists.
d All the energy that was stored in the battery has been transferred to the surroundings.

3 Complete these sentences to explain what happens to energy when a lamp lights a room.
Energy is being transferred from one [room / store] to another.
[All / Some] of the energy exists afterwards.
You [can / cannot] end up with more energy than you had at the start.
This is the law of [conservation / wasting] of energy.

4 Which of these statements best explains what is meant by the law of conservation of energy?
a People should use energy responsibly and not waste it.
b Energy cannot be made or destroyed but only transferred from one store to another.
c You can create new energy to replace lost energy, such as by recharging a battery.
d Energy disappears unless you prevent all ways of wasting energy.

Worked example
An electric kettle is being used to heat water. The electricity supply is from a hydroelectric power
station where electricity is generated by forcing falling water through turbines.
Of every 100 J of energy supplied, 80 J is transferred to the thermal store in the water and 20 J to the
thermal stores of the kettle and the surroundings.
a Represent this on a Sankey diagram, showing the useful and wasted outputs.
Note that on a Sankey diagram the useful
Start
output (energy transferred to the thermal 100 J transferred
Finish
80 J transferred
store of the water) is shown horizontally from gravitational light
to thermal
and the wasted output (energy transferred potential store of store in water
water in HEP
to the thermal stores of the kettle and station heat
the surroundings) is shown pointing
downwards. To draw an accurate Sankey Finish
diagram on graph paper you need to make 20 J transferred to
thermal stores of
the width of each arrow proportional to kettle and
how much energy is transferred. surroundings

b Explain how your diagram shows that energy is conserved.

The diagram shows that energy is conserved because the two outputs add up to the input:
80 J + 20 J = 100 J

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 Questions

5 An electric cement mixer is being used on a building site. Every second, the mains supply
provides 1000 J and 650 J is transferred to the kinetic store of the cement mixer’s motor. The
remaining energy is transferred to the thermal store of the surrounding air.
a Identify which of the outputs are useful and which are wasted.
b Assuming that the electricity is generated from a gas power station, represent the energy
transfers as a Sankey diagram.
c Explain how your diagram shows that energy has been conserved.

6 When the fan shown in the picture is used, only half of the energy from the
battery goes into making the air move. The remaining energy is wasted,
increasing the thermal store of the surroundings.
a Draw a Sankey diagram showing what happens to each 100 J of energy
transferred from the battery.
b Explain how your diagram shows that energy is conserved.

7 The photograph shows a cliff railway used to transport

people between two different levels. The two carriages
are attached to each other by a long cable that goes
around a pulley. As one carriage goes down, it pulls up
the other carriage on the parallel track. Except for a
brief initial acceleration, the two carriages move at a
steady speed.
a Which carriage increases its store of gravitational
potential energy?
b Which carriage decreases its store of gravitational
potential energy?
c This railway uses a motor to supply additional energy to pull up the bottom carriage. If
there was no friction in the railway, explain why no motor would be needed to lift a
carriage of the same weight to the same level as the carriage that started at the top.

8 The diagram shows a roller coaster ride. At the start, the train is pulled up to the highest point on
the track by an electric motor. From this point an unbalanced force acts on the train due to its
weight. The train travels down the remainder of the track and brakes to a halt at the start point.
Train rolls down rest
Train is
of track from this
pulled up
point
this slope
by electric
Train
motor
starts
from here

a At what point in the journey will the train’s store of gravitational potential energy be at a
maximum?
b Describe how energy is transferred between stores during the climb of the train to the
highest point.
c By the end of the journey, the train is back at ground level and is stationary. Explain how
energy has been conserved during the journey.

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 14 Energy

Maths and practical skills

1 Which two of these are units of energy?
a watts b joules c kilowatts d kilowatt-hours

2 One kilojoule (1 kJ) is a unit of energy. Select which of these is equivalent to 1 kJ.
a 0.001 J b 1J c 1000 J d 1 000 000 J

3 Gavin is investigating how a rubber ball bounces. He tries dropping it from different heights and
seeing how far back up it bounces. The table shows his results.

Height ball is dropped from (cm) 20 40 60 80 100

Height ball bounces back up to (cm) 12 24 36 48 60
a Describe what the results show about the height the ball bounces back to when dropped from
a greater height.
b Describe what the results show about the height the ball bounces back to compared with its
starting point.
c Suggest why the readings for the starting point will be more accurate than the readings for
the height the ball bounced back to.

4 The equipment in the diagram is used to measure

the amount of energy transferred by burning a
peanut. The peanut is stuck on a needle, ignited and thermometer
used to heat the water in the boiling tube.
a What will happen to the thermometer reading
during the experiment?
b What is the store of energy at the start of this water
experiment?
c Where is this energy transferred to during the
experiment?
d Suggest two other foods that could be tested in
this way.
e Suggest two foods that you couldn’t test in burning food
this way. on mounted
needle
f If a number of different foods were tested in this
way, how would the data suggest which foods
store the most energy?
g Suggest what you could do to make the experiment a fair comparison of different foods.
h The results from the investigation were much lower than the actual amount of energy stored
in a peanut of this size. Suggest two possible reasons for this.

5 Energy is transferred into an electric food mixer at the rate of 2000 J/s. Calculate the power rating
of the appliance in kW.

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 Questions

6 The graphs below both display data about the energy content of different fuels in kJ/g.

Wood
Coal
Natural gas
Hydrogen Paraffin Paraffin
Petrol Natural gas
Aviation fuel
Diesel Coal
Diesel
Aviation Wood
fuel Petrol
Hydrogen
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Energy (kJ/g)

a Explain what is meant by the unit kJ/g.

b Use the data to estimate how many times greater the energy content of hydrogen is
compared to petrol.
c These graphs show the same information but in different ways. Suggest which one is more
useful and why.

7 A group of students is investigating the energy content of different fuels. They place a
thermometer in a boiling tube that contains a measured amount of water and clamp the tube in a
stand. Beneath the boiling tube they place a metal dish, into which 1 g of each fuel being tested
can be placed in turn and ignited.
a Draw and label a diagram to show how the equipment should be set up.
b Describe how the students could collect data that would enable them to compare the energy
content of the different fuels.
c Suggest two possible sources of error in this experiment.
d Suggest three types of fuel that could be tested using this equipment.

8 The figure shows the energy bill for a home. Meter readings (E = estimate, C = customer, A = actual)

Home energy is measured in kilowatt-hours Electricity readings

(kW h) rather than joules. Period Meter no. Previous Present Rate kilowatt-hours

4 Sept 14 to 12 Nov 14 S08B 06654 12549 E 12757 C Normal 208

a How does the supply company know
how many kilowatt-hours of energy from Gas readings
gas and electricity the customer has Period Meter no. Previous Present Units kilowatt-hours

used? 30 Aug 14 to 12 Nov 14 674215 02938 A 02954 C 16 m3 converts to 178

Charges
b How much energy from electricity has
been used? Electricity charges
4 Sept 14 to 12 Nov 14 £43.69
c How much does 1 kW h of energy from 208 kilowatt-hours (kWh) used at 12.66p each £26.33
electricity cost? Standing charge – 69 days at 25.16p per day £17.36

d How much energy from gas has Gas charges

been used? 30 Aug 14 to 12 Nov 14 £26.33

Gas 178 kilowatt-hours (kWh) used at 3.981p each £7.09

e If gas is a cheaper supply of energy, why Standing charge – 69 days at 27.89p per day £19.24

do you think this customer is obtaining

Total charges
more of their energy from electricity
Total electricity and gas charges (excluding VAT) £70.02
instead of gas?
f There is a standing charge that has to be paid for each energy source. This is a fixed amount
and is in addition to the charge for the amount of energy used. Is it true that if the customer
had used twice the amount of electricity and twice the amount of gas in that period, their bill
would be twice as high? Explain your answer.

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 15 Waves

15 Waves road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
15.3 Hearing and sound
• describe sound detection
• describe frequency
• compare audible ranges
• describe ultrasound

15.2 Making
sound waves
• explain how sounds
sounds are made by something vibrating;
are made
the vibrations travel through a medium
• describe reflections
(such as air) to the ear and absorptions
the pitch and the volume of a sound • apply ideas
relate to the vibrations that produced it about speed

we see objects because they give out or

15.1 Observing
reflect light into the eye waves
shadows are formed when the light • understand how
is blocked by a solid object waves travel
• compare waves
• describe wave
reflections
KS2

KS3

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 Road map

15.4 Energy and waves

• describe ultrasound
• give examples of waves 15.5 How light travels
transferring energy • identify similarities and
• describe energy transfer differences
• recognise light travelling
transverse and longitudinal waves
through a vacuum
• use diagrams properties of waves
• describe examples
types of electromagnetic waves
15.6 Vision and images properties of electromagnetic waves
• recognise light refraction
• use ray diagrams uses and applications of electromagnetic waves

15.7 Exploring
coloured light KS4
• describe lights of
different colours
• describe spectrums
• explain white light on
different objects

Maths and practical skills

carrying out scientific enquiries to test predictions

planning an investigation, identifying and managing the variables
suggesting improvements to practical work
interpreting observations and data
evaluating data, including being aware of possible errors

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 15 Waves

15 Waves
Waves cannot always be seen but they are extremely useful, carrying energy
in many different ways. Microwave ovens, TV remote controls, mobile
phones and being able to see are all only possible because of waves. Waves
also carry sound and make many types of communication possible.

Waves as carriers of energy – sound waves

Imagine wearing boots and walking along the path in the picture.
The further you go along the path the louder your footsteps sound, and when you get into the tunnel
it sounds really loud.
• Try to explain why this happens.
• Suggest what this tells you about sound.
• What is it about these surfaces that makes this happen?

Waves as carriers of energy – light waves

Look at these pictures of bright objects. Compare how light travels from these objects into your eyes.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a sound engineer?

As a studio sound engineer, live events. Those are great fun
your job is to plan recording but very hard work; you have
sessions with musicians. You to try and ensure that every
have to set the equipment up so member of the audience can
you can record each instrument hear the show. Speakers have
separately. You then edit the to be correctly positioned – you
recorded tracks. When the tracks have to know how sound will
are mixed the level of each input be absorbed or reflected as this
has to be adjusted so nothing will change the effect. Some
gets lost. You sometimes modify sounds may be pre-recorded,
sounds as well, such as adding which needs organising. You They have to be able to hear
some echo to an instrument. also have to manage which the other instruments – and
Working in a recording studio is sounds performers will hear themselves as well.
great but you also may work on through a stage monitor system.

Lighting engineers work in theatres, concert halls, shops and

factories to make sure that buildings and activities are well lit. You have
to understand how light is reflected and absorbed but also know how
to get particular effects by using different types of lights and coloured
filters. Sometimes the light needs to be even across a space, but on
other occasions it might be useful to use colour or shadow to achieve
particular effects, such as highlighting an area.

Sound pollution can be dangerous as well as being unpleasant. Health

and safety officers monitor sound levels in businesses to see if sound
levels are dangerously high and whether regulations are being broken.
Airports, busy roads and factories all need to be checked and made to
comply. As well as recording data and drawing conclusions, they help
businesses assess risks and manage the workplace so that employees
are protected.

Photographers use cameras and lighting equipment to take pictures that

tell stories. To take a great photograph, they have to understand how to
capture light and create particular effects. In a studio they might use lights
and reflectors to soften light for a portrait or they might want bright lights
and shadows to create drama.

One of the most common uses of lenses is in spectacles and contact lenses.
Optometrists help people to improve their eyesight by finding out what
type of lens will work best for them.

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 15 Waves

Knowledge organiser
Waves can travel through water; the water Key vocabulary
rises and falls but the wave moves on. This is a
amplitude the maximum displacement
transverse wave.
of a point on a wave from its
Water waves can be reflected. undisturbed position
If two sets of waves meet they can add to each other auditory the range of sound frequencies
or cancel each other out. range from the lowest to the highest
water level when direction of travel of the wave
that an animal or human can
the water is calm
crests of hear
the wave
echo the reflection of a sound wave
troughs of
the wave from a surface
the water goes up and down as the wave passes through frequency number of waves that pass a
point, or are emitted, in one
second; unit hertz (Hz)
hertz (Hz) unit of frequency; equal to one
wave per second
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. The wave
longitudinal a wave in which the vibrations
travels in a direction parallel to the vibrations of the
wave are parallel to the direction of
material that the wave is travelling through. Sound
energy transfer
waves can vary in frequency, which is measured in
hertz (Hz). Sound waves can be reflected (an echo) loudspeaker apparatus that converts electrical
or absorbed. impulses into sound waves
microphone a device for changing effect of
Waves carry energy Sound waves need vibrations from sound waves
from one place to a medium to travel into electrical signals
another. The energy through so it cannot oscilloscope a device that allows sound
transferred by travel through a waves that have been turned
ultrasound waves can vacuum. Sound travels into electrical signals to be
be used to clean objects faster in solids than in viewed as waveforms
and for physiotherapy. liquids, and it travels
pitch how high or low the frequency
slowest in gases.
of a sound is
reflection when a wave, such as a sound
The range of frequencies that humans or animals can
or light wave, bounces off a
hear is known as the auditory range. This range is
surface
different for different animals.
superposition when two waves meet each
other at the same point
Sound is produced by objects vibrating, such as
the flexible cone in a loudspeaker. Sound is transverse wave in which oscillations are
detected as the effect on, for example, eardrums and wave at right angles to direction of
microphones, of vibrations sent through the air. energy transfer
The energy transferred by sound waves is converted ultrasound sound with a frequency higher
by a microphone to an electrical signal carrying than 20 000 Hz
information about the sound.
wavelength distance along a wave from one
point to the next corresponding
point where the wave motion
begins to repeat itself – for
example crest to crest
vacuum a space where there are no
particles of matter

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 Knowledge organiser
Waves

Light can travel through some materials but it may Key vocabulary
also be absorbed, scattered or reflected.
angle of the angle between the normal
incidence and the incident ray
angle of the angle between the normal
reflection and the reflected ray
convex lens a lens that is thicker in the
middle and bends light rays
towards each other
concave a lens that is thinner in the
Each colour of light has its Objects look coloured lens middle and spreads out light rays
own range of frequencies. because they reflect image the picture of an object that we
White light is a mixture of or absorb the see in a mirror or through a lens
different colours, which different colours in or system of lenses
can be separated by a white light. lens a specially shaped piece of
triangular prism. transparent material that refracts
The absorption of light passing through it to form
white light
enters the prism light as energy is how an image
light is detected by normal a line at right angles to a surface,
a camera or by the from which angles of reflection
prism
light-sensitive cells on or refraction are measured
the retina of the eye. opaque material that allows no light to
Some electrical pass through
devices can detect
prism a three-dimensional shape with
light by producing
(triangular) five flat faces, two of which are
an electrical current
triangles and the other three of
when energy from
which are rectangles
light is absorbed.
ray a line with an arrow to show
how a light wave travels as it is
The speed of A key difference between light reflected off a mirror or passes
light is much waves and sound waves is that through a transparent material
higher than light does not need a medium to
refraction a change in the direction of a
the speed of travel through. Light waves can
wave such as light when it hits a
sound. travel through a vacuum.
boundary between two different
media at an angle, for example,
Ray diagrams show normal when a light ray passes from air
how light is reflected angle of angle of into a glass block
incidence reflection
by a mirror, and how retina a layer at the back of the eye
a pinhole camera with light-detecting cells, where
forms an image. incident ray reflected ray an image is formed
scattering when light from a particular
mirror
direction reflects from a rough
surface in all directions
Light can be refracted through lenses and prisms. spectrum a continuous range of values of
Ray diagrams show how light is refracted, including in frequencies or wavelengths, for
the eye. example in the visible spectrum
the cornea refracts light
image formed of light
object
on the retina
(upside down) translucent a material that lets some but not
all light pass through
refraction happens at
both sides of the lens optic nerve
transparent a material that allows light to
pass through

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 15 Waves

15.1 Observing waves

You are learning to:
• understand how waves travel on the surface of water
• compare transverse and longitudinal waves
• describe how waves are reflected.

1 Copy the diagram of a wave on water and mark on it:

a the crests
b the troughs
c a straight line to show the undisturbed position of the water.

2 Look at the four diagrams of waves.

A B

C D

If the size of each square in the grid is 1 cm:

a measure the amplitude of each wave
b put the four waves in order, from greatest amplitude to least.

3 Two waves are travelling across the surface of water, starting from
different places.
Describe what will happen where the waves meet if:
a a crest meets a crest b a crest meets a trough.

Worked example
A teacher ties one end of a length of rope to a door handle. They make a single wave travel along
the rope by raising and lowering the free end.

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 Questions

a Sketch the shape of the rope and mark an arrow on it to show:

i the direction that one part of the rope moves in as the wave travels along the rope
ii the direction in which the wave travels.
Imagine a ribbon tied to one part of the rope. Mark this spot with a dot. It will move only up
and down without moving along the rope. The wave travels at right angles to this.
one spot on the rope
moves only up and down

wave travels in
this direction

b State what type of wave this is.

Transverse wave

4 These diagrams show two different ways, X and Y, of making waves using a ‘slinky’ spring.
X
direction of wave movement

Y
direction of wave movement

a Which diagram shows a transverse wave and which shows a longitudinal wave.
b Compare these two waves in terms of the direction in which energy is transferred to the wave.

5 A teacher is showing a class how water waves are reflected by a solid barrier. He sends a series of
straight waves towards a barrier. This diagram shows the barrier and the first few waves.

a Copy and complete the diagram to show more waves as they reach the barrier and are
reflected.
b The diagram includes an arrow showing the direction of the waves. Complete this arrow on
your diagram to show the direction of the waves as they are reflected.
c Describe the relationship between the direction of the waves as they approach the barrier and
their direction after they are reflected.

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 15 Waves

15.2 Making sound waves

You are learning to:
• explain how sounds are made and how sound waves travel through a
medium
• describe examples of sounds being reflected and absorbed
• apply ideas about speed to calculations about the speed of sound.

1 Some surfaces are better than others at reflecting sound.

a Give two examples of surfaces that are good at reflecting sound.
b Give two examples of surfaces that are poor at reflecting sound.

2 Sounds are made by something vibrating. Suggest what is vibrating when each of the
following makes a sound:
a drum
b guitar
c trumpet.

3 A teacher tells the class that ‘sound needs a medium to travel through’. One student is not
quite sure what this means. How could you explain this?

4 Two students are talking about how sound travels. Student 1 says that sound can travel through
solids as well as through the air. Student 2 thinks that sound cannot travel through solids.
a Suggest a simple demonstration Student 1 could do to prove that sound can travel
through solids.
b The students then write a description of how sound travels through a solid. Choose the
correct word from each pair to complete the sentences.
Sound travels as a wave, by passing on i [a vacuum/vibrations] from one place to
another. This means that sound waves ii [need/do not need] a medium to travel through.
Sound travels well through a solid because the particles in a solid are iii [close together/
far apart]. This means the particles can iv [absorb/transmit] energy quickly and easily
when they are pushed together.

5 A family is moving house and they have cleared their living room of furniture and curtains. The
room is now completely bare.
They notice that their voices sound different in the empty room; they describe it as being
‘echoey’. Explain why you think this might be so.

Worked example
If sound travels at 340 m/s in air, how far will a sound wave travel in 30 s?
Use the equation distance = speed × time
distance = speed × time = 340 m/s × 30 s = 10 200 m or 10.2 km

6 Sound travels in air at 340 m/s. Using the equation distance = speed × time, calculate the
distance that sound will travel in:
a one second b 10 seconds c one minute

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 Questions

7 A student is listening to someone playing drums on a stage. She notices that the sound is quieter
on the other side of the thick stage curtain. Suggest what has happened to the energy of the
sound wave.

8 The 1979 film Alien was advertised using posters that included the statement ‘In space no one can
hear you scream’.
a State whether this is true. b Explain your answer.

9 Explain why sounds get quieter the further away you are from the source.

10 The table shows the speed of sound in Material Speed of sound (m/s)
various different materials.
air (at room temp) 343
a Identify the material in which sound
aluminium 5100
travels the fastest.
diamond 1200
b Identify the material in which sound
travels the slowest. steel 5060
water (at room temp) 1430
c Using the examples given in the table,
compare how fast sound travels through solids and gases.
d Suggest an explanation for your answer to c.

11 The starting pistol is fired for a 100 m race. If sound travels at 340 m/s and a spectator is sat 170 m
from the starter, calculate the time interval between the pistol being fired and the spectator
hearing it.

Worked example
Students are investigating echoes and how fast sound travels in air. They are standing on the
school playing fields, opposite the end of the school hall. There are no other buildings around.
One student bangs two cymbals together. Shortly afterwards they hear an echo.

If sound travels at 340 m/s and they hear the echo 1.5 s after the student bangs the cymbals
together, how far away are the students from the hall?
distance = speed × time = 340 m/s × 1.5 s = 510 m
T he sound has travelled from the students to the wall and back again, so 510 m is the distance there
and back. The distance to the hall is half of that, or 255 m.

12 Sonar is a system used on boats to detect objects in the water below by transmitting a pulse of
sound waves into the water and measuring the time between when the pulse was sent and when
a reflection is recorded.
A boat records a sonar echo from the seabed 0.4 s after sending the signal. How deep is the
water? The speed of sound in water = 1500 m/s.

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15.3 Hearing and sound

You are learning to:
• describe how sounds are detected by microphones and ears
• describe what is meant by the frequency of a sound wave and state the
units
• compare the auditory range of humans and different animals
• describe what ultrasound is.

1 Which of these is the unit used to measure frequency of a wave?

a hertz b metres c metres per second d seconds

2 Which of these is the best definition of ultrasound?

a very loud sound b very quiet sound
c very high frequency sound d very fast travelling sound

3 Which of these is a typical value for the highest frequency that a human can hear?
a 20 Hz b 200 Hz c 2000 Hz d 20 000 Hz (20 kHz)

4 A person has their hearing tested and is told that the highest frequency of sound that they can
hear is 12 kHz. Which of the following statements best describes what this means?
a They cannot hear very loud notes. b They cannot hear very low notes.
c They cannot hear very high notes. d They can only hear very high notes.

5 The diagram shows the inside of a microphone. Describe how the diaphragm would move for
a high pitch sound compared to a low pitch sound.
flexible
diaphragm
attached
to coil

incoming
sound
waves

6 Write 28 kHz as a frequency in hertz (Hz).

7 A dog whistle emits a sound with a frequency of 28 kHz and is used to summon dogs. Explain
why dogs can hear this whistle but humans can’t.

8 A person standing in another part of the room is talking and you can hear what they are
saying. Describe how:
a the sound is made b the sound travels to you c the sound is heard.

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 Questions

9 A musician is playing a guitar and singing.

a If they play a higher note on the guitar what does this mean about the frequency of vibration
of the guitar string?
b She is using a sound system that consists of a microphone, an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
Complete these sentences about the function of the microphone.
Sound waves are ___i___ waves. When sound waves enter the microphone, they make the
diaphragm of the microphone ___ii___ . The higher the note she sings, the ___iii___
the diaphragm moves. The microphone converts the variations in the movement of the
diaphragm into an ____iv___ signal for the amplifier. The amplifier amplifies this signal
and makes the cone of the loudspeaker ___v___ .

10 If two different musical notes have different frequencies, describe the link between their
frequencies and how they would sound.

11 The eardrum is part of the inner ear. A

a Describe what happens to your eardrum when a sound reaches it.

b Explain why a hole in your eardrum would mean you would have
difficulty hearing.
B
12 The diagram represents three different sound waves, A, B and C.
a State which of these sounds has the highest frequency.
b Suggest which of these sounds would sound the lowest.
C
13 If a person has an auditory range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, which of these
sounds could they hear?
a 10 Hz b 100 Hz c 1000 Hz d 10 000 Hz e 100 000 Hz

14 The table shows the audible range of ten different species of animal.

Species Approximate hearing Species Approximate hearing

range (Hz) range (Hz)
human 64–23 000 mouse 1000–91 000
dog 67–45 000 bat 2000–110 000
cat 45–64 000 elephant     16–12 000
cow 23–35 000 canary     250–8 000
rabbit 360–42 000 owl    200–12 000
a Which of these animals can detect the lowest frequency?
b Which of these animals can detect the highest frequency?
c Which of these animals has the greatest audible range?
d Which of these animals could hear a sound with a frequency of 80 kHz?

15 Bats use sound waves to find their way in the dark and to locate prey, such as moths. This is
known as echolocation. The bat makes a high-pitched sound and listens for the reflected sound.
The frequency of sound bats emit is typically in the range 20 kHz to 60 kHz.
a Why are these sounds not audible to humans?
b If a bat receives an echo 0.02 s after it transmits an ultrasound pulse, how far away is the
moth? (Speed of sound in air = 330 m/s.)
c What else does the bat need to determine to be able to locate a moth?
d Cats typically have a hearing range of 45 000 Hz to 64 000 Hz. Suggest whether cats can hear
the sounds the bats make.

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 15 Waves

15.4 Energy and waves

You are learning to:
• describe how ultrasound can be used for cleaning and physiotherapy
• give examples of how waves transfer energy from a source
• describe how energy transferred by sound waves is turned into an electrical
signal.

1 Select which of the following statements are true.

Statement True or false?

a Ultrasound is high frequency sound.
b Ultrasound waves are transverse waves.
c W
 aves can transfer energy from one location
to another.
d S
 ound waves carry particles of matter from
one location to another.

2 The picture shows an ultrasonic bath. It is used to remove dirt

from parts of metal objects that are difficult to reach, using only
sound waves transmitted though water.
Complete the sentences to explain how ultrasound is used
for cleaning.
a All waves transfer ___i___ from a source. Ultrasound waves
have a ___ii___ frequency. When ultrasound waves travel
through water this makes the particles in the water ___iii___
at the same frequency as the ultrasound. The ultrasound waves
transfer ___iv___ to the object, making it vibrate.
b Suggest why this is a good way of cleaning objects that have a complex shape, such as
parts of machines or jewellery.
flexible
3 The diagram shows the inside of a microphone. diaphragm
attached
Select which two statements are true.
to coil
a The incoming sound waves make the
diaphragm vibrate.
b The supply of electricity through the wires
makes the diaphragm vibrate. incoming
sound
c The microphone converts information from waves
sound waves to electrical signals.
d A microphone converts a smaller sound into a
larger sound.

4 Ultrasound is sometimes used in physiotherapy to warm tissues in the body, such as muscles.
The ultrasound device is held against the skin and produces high frequency sound waves. Use
the idea of energy transfers to explain how the ultrasound warms muscles.

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 Questions

Worked example
The calculator in the picture has a small photovoltaic cell below the screen.
Explain how the cell transfers energy to an electric current in the circuit.
Remember that ‘explain’ means you have to say what happens and also why it
happens.
Light falling on the cell produces a current. This happens because energy is being transferred
by waves from the sun (or another light source)

. 5 The house in the picture has been fitted with

photovoltaic cells (also called solar or PV panels).
a What is the light source for the current
produced by these cells?
b Suggest why the householder now has lower
electricity bills.
c Explain why it is useful for such systems to
include a storage battery.

6 A group of students is investigating the output of photovoltaic cells. They are interested in finding
out if the angle at which sunlight shines on a cell affects the transfer of energy from the sunlight
to the production of electricity. They place a photovoltaic cell face up and flat on a bench, and
connect it to a voltmeter. They are going to use a lamp clamped to a stand 50 cm from the cell.
They begin their investigation with the light directly down onto the cell, and then gradually tilt
the solar cell.
a In this experiment, which is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable?
b State the headings the students should use for their results table. Include the units.
c Identify two variables which will be kept the same.
d Explain why this investigation is relevant to an architect designing a new house.

7 The photo graph shows a solar

water heater mounted on the roof
of a house. The panels are made up
of pipes filled with water. In sunlight
the water gets hot and can be
pumped indoors for uses such as
washing clothes and dishes.
a Describe the energy transfers
that take place in this system.
b Compare the energy transfers in
this system with those in a
photovoltaic cell system used to
generate electricity.
c Suggest why a south-facing roof
is a good location for this
system for a house in the UK.

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 15 Waves

15.5 How light travels

You are learning to:
• identify similarities and differences between light waves and other types of
wave
• recognise that light can travel through a vacuum
• use diagrams to show what happens when light is reflected
• describe examples of how light can be scattered.

1 When a ray of light bounces off a mirror, what is the correct term for this?
a absorption b division c reflection d refraction

2 Why is it always important to include arrows on the light rays drawn in ray diagrams?

3 The picture shows a shadow being formed on a wall. The light source is low down and the
person is between the light and the wall. The shadow is larger than the person.

State what has to be true about an object for it to form a shadow.

4 Give:
a two examples of transparent materials
b two examples of opaque materials.

5 Light travels as waves, and so does sound. Which one of these statements is false?
a Both light and sound waves can be reflected.
b Light and sound both travel as waves, but light travels much more quickly than sound.
c Light can travel through a vacuum but sound cannot.
d Light and sound are both examples of transverse waves.

6 The diagrams show light being reflected from two different surfaces.

A B

a Which diagram, A or B, shows how light is reflected by the surface of a mirror?

b Which diagram, A or B, shows scattering of light?
c Which diagram, A or B, explains why you can see your reflection in a shiny surface?

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 Questions

Worked example
A student wants to find out what happens if light is shone towards a mirror at different angles.
Draw a diagram to show how the student should measure the angle of the ray approaching the
mirror and the angle of the reflected ray.

light box
mirror

ray travelling to the mirror

ray reflected from the mirror

sheet of white paper

normal
You should draw a dashed line at right angles to
the surface of the mirror at the point where the
incoming ray meets the mirror. This is called the
ray travelling
normal. You should measure the angles of the rays reflected ray
to the mirror
from the normal.
mirror

7 A group of students carried out an investigation into the Angle of Angle of

reflection of light by a plane mirror. On a sheet of white incidence (°) reflection (°)
paper, they set up a ray box with a slit to produce a
single ray of light which they shone at the mirror. They 10 10
used a pencil to draw a line along the mirror, a line along 20 18
the incident ray of light and a line along the reflected ray 30 30
of light. They measured the angle at which the ray
40 43
approached the mirror and the angle at which it was
reflected. 50 50
Their results are shown in the table.
a Draw a labelled diagram to show how they should measure the angles of incidence and reflection.
b The angles of reflection are not always the same as the angle of incidence. Assuming the
students did not make a mistake, suggest two possible reasons for this.
c Describe the pattern in the results.

8 Which statement explains why no reflection of the trees can be

seen on the water in the photograph?
a No light rays are travelling from the trees to the water’s surface.
b No light rays from the trees are reflected by the water surface.
c Light rays from the sun travel to the water’s surface and are
reflected at many different angles.
d Light rays coming from the trees are reflected at many different angles by the water surface.

9 Optical fibres are long, extremely thin strands of solid glass or

plastic that carry light from one place to another, no matter
how curved the fibre is. The diagram shows how a ray of light glass
travels along a single fibre. air
light ray
Use the diagram to describe and explain what happens each
time the ray of light reaches the edge of the transparent fibre.
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 15 Waves

15.6 Vision and images

You are learning to:
• recognise when light is being refracted and how convex lenses form images
• use ray diagrams to show how light is reflected and refracted
• use ray diagrams to explain how the pinhole camera and the eye work.

1 Draw a diagram to show how a single ray of light reaches your eyes from:
a a light bulb b the page of a book
Include in your answer a description of what is happening in the diagram.

2 The photograph shows three rays of light passing through a glass block.
Which effect does this photograph show?
a absorption b scattering
c reflection d refraction

3 Which two parts of the eye refract light as it enters?

a cornea b iris c lens d retina

4 The picture shows a convex (converging) lens making an image.

Complete the following sentences to explain how the image is
formed.
Rays of ___i___ from the lamp pass through the lens where they
are made to converge on the ___ii___ . The rays are refracted by
the ___iii___ .
The ___iv___ formed is smaller than the object and is upside
down.

5 A teacher sets up a ray box with ray box lamp light ray convex lens
three slits so that it produces three
rays of light. They then put a glass
block shaped like a lens across the
path of the rays. The picture shows
a top-down view of the equipment.
Complete the following sentences
to describe how the lens affects the
rays of light.
When the light rays from the lamp pass through the lens they cross over, showing they have
changed ___i___ . This is called ___ii___ .
The lens brings the rays together to one point, called the ___iii___ point. This type of lens is a
converging lens, also called a ___iv___ lens.
box screen
6 The diagram shows how a pinhole
camera works.
Light from the object enters the
light rays
camera via a small hole in the box
and an image is formed on the screen
at the back of the camera.
hole in the box
Explain why the image is upside down. upside down image

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 Questions

7 A group of students is investigating how the direction of a

ray of light is affected by passing through a rectangular glass block.
They shine a single ray of light into a block as shown in the picture.
Select the row that is an accurate description of what happens
when the light enters and leaves the block.
Response As the light enters As the light leaves
the block it: the block it:
a is refracted towards the is refracted towards the
normal. normal.
b is refracted towards the is refracted away from
normal. the normal.
c is refracted away from is refracted towards the
the normal. normal.
d is refracted away from is refracted away from
the normal. the normal.

8 The diagram shows some of the parts of a human eye.

Match the name of each part of the eye to its function. Part of eye Function
pupil a focuses light rays on
retina
the retina
cornea
cornea b made of light-
sensitive receptor
cells to detect light
and produce
pupil nervous impulses
lens c hole in iris to let
lens light through and
control amount
entering
retina d transparent region
of the front of the
eye; protects eye
and refracts light

9 The photo shows a pencil in a glass of water. The pencil is

not broken or misshapen; the effect is due to refraction.
Select the statement that is false.

a Light is refracted when leaving the water.

b Light is refracted when leaving the glass.
c Light is refracted when entering the glass.
d Light is refracted when entering the pencil.

10 Both the eye and the pinhole camera produce images. There are similarities and differences in the
way that they do this. Compare the eye and the pinhole camera.

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 15 Waves

15.7 Exploring coloured light

You are learning to:
• describe what is different about light of different colours
• describe how a spectrum can be produced from white light
• explain why different objects have colours when white light shines on them.

1 Which one of these colours is not one of the colours seen in the visible spectrum?
a blue b green c grey d orange

2 White light can be split into colours by using a triangular prism. What is the scientific term for
this band of colours?

Worked example
a What colour or colours of light go through a blue filter?
A blue filter will remove every colour apart from blue – it is blue light that will go through.
b What colour or colours in white light will not be absorbed by a blue t-shirt?
The blue material will absorb everything except blue – it is blue light that is reflected into your eyes.

3 What colour light will pass through a red filter?

a blue b green c red d white

4 Which colour or colours in white light are not absorbed by a green filter?
a blue b green c red d white

5 What colour or colours in white light are reflected from the surface of a red t-shirt?
a blue b green c red d white

6 What colour does a blue shirt appear in red light?

a black b blue c green d red

7 Complete the sentence.

White light is a mixture of many different colours, each with a different ___________ .

8 The diagram shows light entering and leaving a triangular prism.

Which one of the following conclusions cannot be made from white light
enters the prism
this diagram?
a White light can be split up into many different colours of prism
light.
b A ray of light entering glass at an angle changes direction.
c Red light is refracted more than any of the other colours.
d Violet light is refracted more than any of the other colours.

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 Questions

9 A student is controlling the lighting for the school play. He has learned
how to put coloured filters in front of lights to produce different colours
of light. He is adjusting the position of three spotlights – a red one, a
green one and a blue one. The three lights are shining on the wall and
their light overlaps. He notices that where all three colours overlap, the
result is an area of white light, as in the picture.
Which one of the following statements is not supported by this
observation?

a White light can be made by mixing red, green and blue light.
b Mixing any two of the colours produces a different colour.
c The more colours of light you mix, the darker the product.
d Mixing red and green light produces yellow light.

10 On a sunny day, a teacher sets

up the experiment shown in thermometer
Sun
the diagram.
infrared rays
She positions a piece of black
card with a small hole in it so
that sunlight passing through visible light
the hole falls on a triangular
prism. The light is split into a
spectrum of colours. She then ultraviolet rays
puts a thermometer in front of
screen
the screen, just beyond the red
end of the spectrum. The prism
reading on the thermometer
rises above room temperature. When the thermometer is placed within the area of coloured light,
the temperature does not rise above room temperature.
Which one of the following conclusions can be drawn from this experiment?
a Shining visible light on the thermometer makes it hot.
b Refracting light through a prism makes the glass hot.
c No energy is absorbed from light in the visible part of the sun’s spectrum.
d More energy is absorbed from red light than from blue light.

11 Rainbows occur because of the way that raindrops affect

light. The diagram shows how the path of a ray of light
changes when it enters a drop of water.
a Describe at what point or points the light is refracted.
b Describe at what point or points the light is reflected.
c As well as being changed in direction, what else
happens to the white light entering the raindrop?
d Use the diagram to explain why a person looking in
the direction of the sun has no chance of seeing a
rainbow when it is raining.

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 15 Waves

Maths and practical skills

1 The protractor in the image is being used to measure the angle between a light ray and the
normal. The normal is on the 0° line and the light ray is at the position marked by the arrow.
80° 90° 100° 1
70° ° 100° 90° 80° 7 10° 12
° 0°
60 0° 110 60 0° 1
° 2 ° 30
50 0° 1 50 °
°
1 3

14 0°
40 °
0° 1 40
°

4
0° 30
15 ° 20
60° 0°

0°
170° 1 0° 3
15

160 10°
10° 2

° 170°
°
0°180° 0° 180°

Select the correct value for the angle being measured.

a 10° b 12° c 17° d 22°

2 A teacher uses a slinky spring like the one in the diagram to produce transverse waves.

One end of the slinky is held firm; the teacher gives the other end a single shake. A wave
travels along the spring and back to the teacher.
a If the length of the slinky is 2.5 m, how far has the wave travelled when it gets back to the
teacher?
b The teacher asks a number of students to measure the time taken for the wave to
complete this journey. Their results are: 2.4 s, 2.5 s, 3.9 s, 2.3 s and 2.4 s. Which of these
results is anomalous?

3 Match up the units with the quantities being measured.

Quantity Unit
frequency metres per second
amplitude hertz
speed metres

4 A group of students is studying the reflection of a light ray by a mirror. They have measured
the angle of the ray approaching the mirror and the angle of the ray reflected by the mirror.
They decided to measure the angle of the reflected ray three times and calculate the mean.
Their results are shown in the table.
Angle of ray Angle of the reflected ray (°) Mean angle of the
approaching Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 reflected ray (°)
mirror (°)
10 11 9 10
20 18 20 22
30 21 29 31

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 Questions

a Calculate the mean value of the angle of the reflected ray when the ray is approaching the
mirror at:
i 10° ii 20°

b When the ray is approaching the mirror at 30°, one of the values for the angle of reflection
is an anomaly. Give its value.
c Suggest what the students should do to get an accurate value for the angle of reflection
when the light ray approaches the mirror at 30°.

5 How far away is a quarry if the sound of blasting is heard 3.5 s after the explosion?
Use the equation: distance = speed × time; the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.

6 A fishing boat is trying to locate a shoal of fish using sonar. The boat sends a signal directly
downwards and an echo is received 0.6 s later. If the sonar waves are travelling at 1500 m/s,
calculate the depth of the fish. Use the equation: distance = speed × time.

7 A group of students is exploring whether the distance between a photovoltaic cell and a lamp
affects the potential difference produced by the cell.
a Describe a procedure they could use to investigate this.
b State what is the dependent variable and what is the independent variable.
c State the column headings the students should use in their results table, including the
units.
d Suggest what else might affect the results and should be controlled.

8 A group of students is investigating which materials are suitable for reflective clothing. The
materials should be good at reflecting light from cars so that at night the person wearing the
clothing will be visible to motorists. The students are working in a small room with no
windows, and have a torch, a selection of materials of different colours and surfaces, and a
tablet device to take photographs.
a Write a plan to show how the students could use the equipment to select the best
material. The plan should show how the experiment will be a fair test of the materials.
b The students test the following four materials: black velvet, grey cotton cloth, smooth
white plastic and aluminium foil. Make and justify a prediction for:
i which of these materials will reflect the most light
ii which of these materials will reflect the least light.
white light
9 A group of students is exploring how light is affected by passing enters the prism
through a triangular glass prism. They know that the white light
entering the prism will be refracted and that the white light will be prism
split into a spectrum of colours. They are trying to find out the angles
at which the red and violet lights emerge.
a Plan a procedure the students could use to find out, for a
particular angle at which a ray of white light enters the prism:
i the angle at which the red light emerges
ii the angle at which the violet light emerges.
b Suggest the potential sources of error when measuring these
angles.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16 Electricity and magnetism

road map
Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
16.3 Current electricity (2)
• describe differences between series and
parallel circuits
• explain what resistance is
• describe how current is shared in circuits
describe magnets as having
two poles 16.2 Current electricity (1)
• describe a current as a flow of charge
know that magnetic forces • explain how electrons receive energy
can act at a distance • describe how current and potential
difference are measured
know that magnets attract some
• describe how good conductors
materials and not others
have a low resistance
identify common appliances
that run on electricity
construct and analyse simple
series electrical circuits 16.1 Static electricity
• recognise effects of charges
compare how electrical • understand electron transfer
components function • explain an electric field

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

16.4 Magnetism
and • describe attraction
and repulsion
• describe plotting shape current, potential difference
cuits and direction and resistance
• describe the Earth’s series and parallel circuits
magnetic field
16.5 Magnetic effects domestic uses and safety
e
of a current energy transfers
• describe magnetic effects
• explain making electromagnets permanent and induced magnetism,
• describe effects of a magnetic field magnetic forces and fields
the motor effect

KS4

Maths and practical skills

presenting data using tables and graphs

interpreting observations and data
carrying out practical work safely
observing and measuring
presenting reasoned explanations

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16 Electricity and
magnetism
Electricity affects how we communicate, travel, are entertained, cook our
food and power our homes. Magnetism has a key role in this; homes have
dozens of motors, including in the fridge, vacuum cleaner, computer,
printer and washing machine.

Making connections
Two students have each built a circuit. Their teacher told them that in order to work, their circuit has
to have a battery, a bulb and a complete conducting path.

This is student A’s circuit. Explain why it does This is student B’s circuit. Explain why it does
not work. not work.
Suggest whether they have followed Suggest whether they have followed the teacher’s
the teacher’s instructions. instructions.

Which of the following statements about

circuits are true?
• If the battery is flat, the circuit will not work.
• A circuit has to have a switch in it or it will not work.
• There has to be a complete circuit with a battery for the lamp to light.
• If the bulb is placed next to the battery in the circuit (instead of after the switch) it will be brighter.
• The battery has positive and negative terminals.
• The battery has to be the right way around in the circuit for the bulb to light.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an electric vehicle mechanic?

There’s going to be a huge identify the fault but sometimes
change over the next few years you have to figure things out
as more people switch to electric yourself.
vehicles. To be an electric You need to qualify as a
vehicle mechanic it helps if mechanic before going on a
you are good at understanding specialist training programme.
circuits and being able to find You learn about the common
faults. Part of being a good faults of electric vehicles, how
mechanic is finding which the motor works and how to
component might need use the diagnostic software which use a 400 V battery to
replacing or repairing. You start programme. The course also power the motor and a 12 V
off by connecting a diagnostic covers the types of risk involved system for the lights, sound
system to the car and this may in working on electric vehicles, system and wipers.

Electronic repair technicians maintain

and repair computers, which contain
complex circuit boards made from millions
of tiny components. They need to be good
at problem solving and interpreting circuit
diagrams. Circuit designs change as new
Health and safety processors are developed and specifications
consultants monitor the improve, so they have to be good at
hazards of equipment that keeping up to date with changes.
companies use, and risks
such as electric shock, fire
or explosion due to static
electricity charge and Commercial electricians design,
discharge. A consultant install and maintain wiring systems in
assesses the risks that people buildings. They have to understand
are exposed to and advises how devices such as motors are used in
the business on how to air-conditioning systems and automatic
take action. They need to doors, and be able to measure current
understand the law, be and voltage in circuits and test
prepared to be assertive about continuity of conductors. Teamwork is important as they need to
keeping people safe and be liaise with other professionals about systems such as alarms, fire
good at suggesting solutions. sprinklers and electronic sensors.

Electrical project managers oversee the Paramedics use a defibrillator to send an

design, installation and supply of electrical electrical shock to restart someone’s heart.
systems that supply electricity to homes and They need to understand how this works and
businesses, or key functions such as street lights when it is needed, so they have to be good
and traffic lights. at interpreting data on the patient’s cardiac
They also work rhythm and also
on renewable know how to
energy projects or prevent the risk of
gas-fired power electric shock to
stations. themselves and
others.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

Knowledge organiser
When some materials are rubbed An uncharged object has an Key vocabulary
together, the surfaces become equal number of positive and
electron a tiny negatively
electrically charged. This means negative charges. Bringing
charged particle
that electrons have been a charged object near to an
in an atom
transferred from one surface uncharged object attracts the
to the other. Objects with like opposite charges and repels electrostatic the non-contact
charges repel each other and the like charges. The charged force force between
those with opposite charges object and the uncharged two charged
attract each other. object will now attract. objects
negatively an object that
The space around a charged charged has gained
object is called an electric electrons as
field. Any charged objects in a result of a
the field experience a force. charging process
parallel an electric circuit
Electric current is measured circuit in which each
using an ammeter. The unit component
of measurement is amperes is connected
(A). Current is a flow of charge. separately in its
own loop
Some materials allow a current Potential difference
positively an object that
to pass through easily; these are is measured using a
charged has lost electrons
electrical conductors. Materials voltmeter, in volts (V).
as a result of a
that do not allow a current to pass Batteries and bulbs are
charging process
through easily are insulators. rated in volts.
resistance the property
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω); it is the ratio of the potential of an electrical
difference across a component to the current passing through it: component
resistance = potential difference/current that makes
Increasing the resistance in a circuit decreases the current. it difficult for
charge to pass
through; unit of
A series circuit has the components
When charges move measurement is
connected in a single loop, one after
round a circuit there the ohm (Ω)
the other.
is an electric current. series circuit circuit in which
In a metal, the all components
charged particles that are connected
flow are electrons, one after the
which have a other in a loop
negative charge.
static an imbalance
A parallel circuit has the components
electricity between positive
in separate branches; the current from
When a circuit is and negative
the battery is divided between the loops.
switched on, energy charges on the
A
is transferred from surface of a
the battery or power material
B
supply to the charges
to make them move.
The moving charges
transfer energy to the
circuit components.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

The Earth has a magnetic field, which nearly lines Key vocabulary
up with the geographic north and south poles. The
compass an instrument that
magnetic field can be detected using a compass which
shows the direction of a
points in the direction of the field. Using a compass you
magnetic field
can work out which compass direction you are facing.
electromagnet a type of temporary
north south magnet that is magnetic
geographic magnetic only when an electric
pole pole current passes through it
compass
magnetic is attracted by a magnet
magnetic field a region in which a
S magnetic material feels
a force
pole an end of a magnet; may
be the north pole or the
south pole
solenoid a cylindrical coil of wire
N acting as a magnet when
carrying electric current

north south
A current through a wire produces a
magnetic geographic
pole pole magnetic field around the wire.
This effect is used in electromagnets and
in motors.

Every magnet has a north pole and a south pole. Like

poles repel and opposite poles attract.

S N S N

The area between magnetic poles is a magnetic field.

Magnetic fields can be explored by moving a compass
in the field. The shape and direction of the field can be
represented by field lines.
S N

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16.1 Static electricity

You are learning to:
• recognise how positive or negative charges affect each other
• understand how objects may acquire a static charge as a result of electron
transfer
• explain that an electric field exists around a charged object, producing a
force on other charged objects.

1 How many types of charge are there?

a one
b two
c four
d ten

2 Which one of these statements is true?

a A positively charged object will attract a negatively charged object.
b A positively charged object will attract another positively charged object.
c A negatively charged object will repel a positively charged object.
d A negatively charged object will attract another negatively charged object.

3 A student has long straight hair and notices that when they comb their hair vigorously and
then hold the comb near to their hair, the hair is attracted to the comb.

Identify the words needed to complete this explanation.

Combing the hair has caused a transfer of ________i_______ The comb has one kind of
charge and the hair the ________ii_______ kind. Opposite charges ________iii_______ so the
________iv_______ is attracted to the comb.

4 If an object has a negative charge, which of these statements is true?

a It has acquired additional electrons.
b It has lost electrons and is now short of them.
c It has neither an excess nor a shortage of electrons.

5 An object has been charged up and now has a negative static charge. Explain this in terms of
electron transfer.

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 Questions

6 The photograph shows a piece of charged amber.

Amber is fossilised tree resin and when it is rubbed
against wool it becomes charged.
a If the amber becomes negatively charged when
rubbed against wool, what kind of charge does
the wool gain?
b State where electrons have been transferred from
and to.

7 The painter in the photograph is using an

electrostatic paint sprayer which sends out a spray of
droplets of paint and gives each of them a positive
charge. The piece of metal he is painting has a
negative charge. The metal ends up with a very even
covering of paint.
a Describe the direction of the force between a
droplet of paint and the metal.
b Describe the direction of the force between the
droplets of paint.
c Explain why very little paint ends up on the floor.
d Explain why the paint covering is very even.

8 If you walk across a nylon carpet and then touch a metal object you might experience a small
electric shock. Explain why.

9 A student inflates a balloon and rubs it on his sweatshirt.

a Suggest how they could tell if the balloon has become charged.
b If the balloon has become negatively charged, where have electrons been transferred from
and to?
c It is a damp day and the student notices that 10 minutes later the balloon no longer has a
charge. Suggest what has happened.

10 A student tears some tissue paper into small pieces and puts them in a thin transparent plastic
box. They put the lid on the box and rub it vigorously. Using the idea of an electric field,
explain why the pieces of paper have been attracted to the lid.

11 State two similarities and two differences between magnetic forces and electrostatic forces.

12 A student has charged up the hair on their head by vigorously brushing it. The strands of hair
have become positively charged.
a Explain why, if they then hold the hairbrush near some pieces of tissue paper, it will attract
the paper.
b Explain why, after a few minutes, the strands of hair will gradually settle down again.
c The student finds that if they do this experiment on a dry day it takes longer for their hair
to settle down again. Suggest why this might be.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16.2 Current electricity (1)

You are learning to:
• describe a current as a flow of charge (electrons in a wire)
• explain that a battery transfers energy to the electrons
• describe how current is measured in amps, using an ammeter, and how
potential difference is measured in volts, using a voltmeter
• describe that good conductors have a low resistance to electric current.

1 What is the unit of current?

2 Pencil lead is made not of lead but of a material called graphite. If a piece of graphite is placed
in a circuit with a battery and a bulb, the bulb will light up.
a What does this show about graphite?
b Graphite is a non-metal; why might this result be unexpected?

3 A student has constructed a circuit with a battery and a bulb. Her teacher has asked her to
measure the current through the bulb and has provided her with an ammeter. Should she
connect the meter in series with the bulb or in parallel with it?

4 Look at the circuit diagram.

Give the name of the component represented by each of these symbols:

a      b      c

5 A student wants to measure the current through a bulb and the voltage across it. Which of
these rows shows the correct way to connect an ammeter and a voltmeter?
The ammeter should be The voltmeter should be
connected: connected:
a in series with the bulb in series with the bulb
b in parallel with the bulb in series with the bulb
c in series with the bulb in parallel with the bulb
d in parallel with the bulb in parallel with the bulb

6 A student’s torch contains a simple circuit consisting of a battery, a switch and a bulb.
a Draw a circuit diagram to represent this circuit using the correct symbols.
b Draw a circuit diagram to show how to connect a voltmeter to measure the potential
difference across the bulb.

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 Questions

7 AA batteries provide a potential difference of 1.5 V. They are to be used to light a 6 V bulb.
a How many batteries should be used to make sure the bulb is brightly lit but not
overheated (which might break the bulb)?
b Should these batteries be connected in series or in parallel?
c Explain how the terminals of each battery should be connected to the next battery, and
why this is important.

8 Two light bulbs are part of a complete circuit with a battery. Which two statements are true?
a Electrons in the wire move round the circuit when the battery is connected.
b When electrons in the wire pass through the battery, energy is transferred to them.
c When there is no current, there is no charge in the wires.
d When the circuit is switched off, there is still energy being transferred to the electrons from the
battery.

9 Some students are using a continuous loop of rope to model an electric circuit. One of the
students plays the role of the battery and grips the rope, pulling it through their hands with
their left hand and pushing it out with their right hand so that it travels through everybody
else’s hands. The other students hold the rope loosely, guiding it but not holding it. The
movement of the rope represents an electric current. The diagram shows what this might look
like, viewed from above.

bulb

battery

a What does the push and pull of the person playing the part of the battery represent?
b As the rope slips through the hands of each of the other students, their palms start to feel
warm. What does this represent in a real circuit?
c Describe how the model could be modified to represent a conductor with more resistance.
d Describe how this would feel for the student playing the part of the battery.
e Identify one strength and one weakness of the rope model as a representation of current
in a circuit.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16.3 Current electricity (2)

You are learning to:
• describe the difference between series and parallel circuits
• describe the relationship between resistance, potential difference and
current
• describe how current is shared between the loops in a parallel circuit.

1 Look at these two circuits:

Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.
a The circuit on the left is a parallel circuit.
b If one of the bulbs in the circuit on the right breaks, the other bulb would go out.
c In both circuits the battery has to be connected the right way round to get the circuit to
work.

2 Look at the circuit diagram.

bulb A bulb B
2A 2A

The current through bulb A is 2 A and the current through bulb B is 2 A. If an ammeter was
put in the circuit at X, what would the reading be?
a 0 A      b 2 A     c 4 A     d 6 A

3 The diagram shows a parallel circuit.

a Ammeters A2 and A3 both show readings of 0.15 A. What will
the reading be on ammeter A1? V1

b Voltmeters V2 and V3 each show a reading of 1.5 V. What

reading will voltmeter V1 show? A1

c A third bulb is now added in parallel to the first two and also
draws a current of 0.15 A.
i What reading will A1 now show? A2
ii What reading will V1 now show?
V2

A3

V3

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 Questions

4 Identify which one of these statements about a series circuit is false.

a There is the same current through all of the components in a series circuit.
b If there is a break anywhere in the circuit, the current stops everywhere in the circuit.
c If there are a number of identical bulbs connected in series to a battery, the bulb nearest
to the battery will always be brighter.
d The potential differences across each of the components in a series circuit add up to the
potential difference supplied by the battery.

Worked example
A teacher sets up the circuit shown in the diagram to demonstrate the relationship between
potential difference, current and voltage.

The voltmeter shows a reading of 0.5 V and the ammeter shows a reading of 0.1 A.
Calculate the resistance of the resistor.
It is important to give a unit with your calculated answers. In this case, the potential difference is in
volts and the current is in amps, so the resistance will be in ohms (Ω).
resistance = potential difference ÷ current = 0.5 V ÷ 0.1 A = 5 Ω

5 The circuit shown in the diagram is set up with a light bulb and a battery. There is a voltmeter
across the bulb and an ammeter in series with the bulb. The variable resistor is included so
that the potential difference across the bulb can be altered.

The table shows the readings of the potential difference and current as the variable resistor is
adjusted.

Potential difference (V)   1.0   2.0   3.0   4.0   5.0   6.0

Current (A) 0.10 0.19 0.28 0.36 0.44 0.00

a Comment on the way that the current varies as the potential difference across the bulb
increases.
b There is no current reading for a potential difference of 0 V. Suggest what it would have
been.
c Calculate the resistance of the bulb when the potential difference across it is 1 V.
d Suggest why the current through the bulb was 0 A when the potential difference across it
was 6 V.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16.4 Magnetism
You are learning to:
• describe how magnetic poles cause attraction and repulsion
• describe how to plot the shape and direction of a magnetic field
• describe the Earth’s magnetic field and how it can be detected.

1 Which one of these statements is true?

a A north pole will attract another north pole.
b A north pole will attract a south pole.
c A south pole will repel a north pole.
d A south pole will attract another south pole.

2 Which one of these statements about magnets is false?

a Every magnet has a north pole and a south pole.
b Either pole is capable of attracting magnetic materials such as steel paper clips.
c Around every magnet is a magnetic field.
d Magnets attract all types of metallic objects.

3 The diagram shows the magnetic field pattern around a bar

magnet. Select which two of these statements are true.
a The magnetic field is stronger where the field lines are
closer together. N
b The direction of the magnetic field lines is from south pole
to north pole.
c The magnetic field lines never cross each other. S
d The magnetic field lines are always drawn going from the
top of the diagram to the bottom.

4 A class is exploring how to make a compass using a magnetised needle placed on a leaf
floating on a bowl of water.
a Explain how this would work as a compass.
b State what else they would need to know about the needle to be able to use this
equipment as a compass.

Worked example
A teacher is demonstrating how to plot the magnetic field
around a magnet. They set up a bar magnet with a number of
plotting compasses around it, as shown in the photograph on
the right.
a Identify the north pole and the south pole of the magnet.
b Draw the magnetic field lines around the compasses.

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 Questions

The needle of a plotting compass points from the north pole

to the south pole of the magnet. The compass needles show
the direction of the line of force in that place; the tip of one
needle points to the next needle, so continuous lines can be
drawn as shown. Make sure the lines do not cross each other. S N
You should put arrows on the field lines, pointing from the
magnet’s north pole to its south pole.

5 A student is exploring the magnetic field pattern around a

horseshoe magnet. They put a number of plotting compasses
near to the magnet and observe the directions in which the
needles point. The arrangement of the magnet and compasses
is shown in the diagram.
i Copy the diagram and add lines to show the magnetic
field lines in the area.
ii Add arrows to show the direction of the field lines. N S

6 The diagram below is a representation of the Earth’s magnetic

field. It also shows the geographic North Pole and South Pole,
which are found where the imaginary axis about which the
Earth rotates meets the Earth’s surface.

Geographic
North Pole
Magnetic
South Pole

Magnetic
North Pole
Geographic
South Pole

a Describe what the diagram shows about the position of the magnetic poles compared
with the geographic poles.
b A compass is a small magnet and points north to south. A compass needle’s north pole
points north. Explain why this diagram is correct in showing the geographic North Pole as
a magnetic south pole.
c Compare the shape of the Earth’s magnetic field with that of a bar magnet.

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

16.5 Magnetic effects of a current

You are learning to:
• describe the magnetic effect of an electric current
• explain how to make an electromagnet and vary its strength
• describe the effect of a magnetic field on a current-carrying wire or coil.

1 State two similarities and two differences between an electromagnet and a permanent magnet.

2 a State when a wire produces a magnetic field.

b Explain how you could show that a magnetic field has been produced around a wire.

3 A student makes an electromagnet by coiling wire around a pencil and attaching the ends of
the wire to a power pack. It works but does not produce a strong magnetic field. Suggest
three different ways of making the electromagnet stronger.

4 A student constructs an electromagnet by wrapping a length of wire around a nail and

connecting the ends of the wire to a power pack.
Select the one statement below that is false.
a The electromagnet has two poles, north and south.
b If the connections to the power pack are reversed, the north and south poles are reversed.
c The electromagnet will attract any metallic object.
d The coil of wire feels warm after it has been on for a while.

5 The electromagnet in the photograph is being used in a scrapyard.

a Explain why it can only pick up certain types of metal.
b State what needs to be done to release the metal and explain your
answer.

6 The equipment in the diagram was set up to make a simple iron nail
electromagnet.
a State two functions of the iron nail in the coil of wire. battery

b Describe how you could use a plotting compass to prove

that the north pole of the electromagnet was, in fact, a
north pole. coil of
c If this equipment was set up as shown, explain why: insulated
wire
i the coil of wire would get warm quickly
ii the battery would quickly become flat.

switch

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 Questions

7 A teacher set up the apparatus shown in the diagram to

demonstrate what happens when a current-carrying wire is
placed in a magnetic field.
battery
When the teacher closes the switch, the wire is forced away +
from the magnet. force
Complete the following sentences:
a The current in the wire produces … switch

b The wire is in the field of a permanent …

c Where the two magnetic fields are in the same direction they add together to make …
d This makes the wire …
e The effect this causes is called …
f The direction the wire is pushed can be reversed in two ways: either by … or …
iron contacts circuit breaker
8 The diagram shows the design of an
electromagnetic circuit breaker. N S
The device will cut off the power to an appliance
if the current in the wire is larger than normal.
The current passes through the coil and through pivot
the contacts. Normally the current is not large
enough to produce a strong magnetic field.
live wire to appliance
a What will happen to the magnetic field if the spring
current increases?
b The right-hand contact is made from steel.
What will happen if a larger current passes
through the coil?

9 The diagram shows the inside of an electric bell. push-button low-voltage

switch battery
When the switch is pushed, the circuit is completed
and an electric current passes through the coil. The A
electromagnet attracts the iron arm, which makes
the hammer hit the gong. The movement of the
iron arm breaks the contact between the strip and
springy
the screw, which breaks the circuit and the iron arm steel strip
springs back. electro- D
magnet C
a Explain step-by-step why, if the switch is kept iron
pushed in, the hammer hits the gong repeatedly armature
iron
and not just once. core contact
b Explain what would happen if the electromagnet screw
B
was replaced with a permanent magnet. make and break
attraction
occurs here
(normally contact
closed)

hammer

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 16 Electricity and magnetism

Maths and practical skills

1 These are all units of measurement: amps, ohms, seconds, volts, watts.
From this list select the unit used to measure:
a current    b potential difference    c resistance.

2 A group of students is exploring how to make an electromagnet. They have been provided
with a variable-voltage power supply, a length of insulated wire, a nail, a pencil and some
paper clips. Which one of the following is not an example of an independent variable that
could be investigated?
a Altering the voltage output on the power supply.
b The number of paper clips the electromagnet will attract.
c The number of turns on the coil.
d Whether the wire is coiled around the pencil or the nail.

3 A student is exploring how balloons behave when charged. They have two balloons and know
that they can charge them up by rubbing them with cloth. The student has two different
types of cloth and wonders if these will give the balloons different types of charge. Suggest a
simple experiment they could do to find out.

4 A group of students is investigating the idea that it is possible to turn a steel bar into a magnet
by stroking it with a magnet. They are exploring whether there is a relationship between the
number of times the bar is stroked and the strength of the magnet it produces. They are supplied
with a number of identical steel bars, a bar magnet, some paper clips and a 30 cm ruler.

N
steel bar

a Describe a procedure the students could use to see whether there is a relationship
between the number of strokes and the strengths of the magnet produced. Include details
of the way they could compare the strengths of the magnets produced.
b State whether the data should be displayed on a bar chart or scatter graph, and explain
why.

5 A group of students is investigating the idea that, although all metal wires are conductors,
some wires might be better conductors than others. Four different thicknesses of copper wire
were tested. They connected 1 m of each wire in turn to the circuit shown in the diagram.
power pack ammeter length of
nichrome
resistance wire
INS
MA

GE
LTA
VO

heatproof mat
crocodile clip

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 Questions

The table shows the results.

Wire Potential difference across wire (V) Current through wire (A)
A 0.2 2
B 0.12 1.6
C 0.16 0.8
D 0.1 2

a Explain why the wire is set up on a heatproof mat.

b Calculate the resistance of each of the wires.
Use the equation: potential difference ÷ current = resistance.
c Use the figures for the resistance to state which wire is the best conductor.
d Place the four wires in order of greatest resistance to least resistance.
e Suggest why it is often desirable to use connecting wires with a low resistance.

Worked example
A resistor is placed in a circuit with a power supply so that current flows through the resistor. The
amount of current and also the potential difference across the resistor are measured.
If the potential difference is 6 V and the current is 15 mA, what is the resistance of the resistor?
resistance = potential difference ÷ current
The current needs to be in amps, so you need to convert 15 mA to amps.
1 mA = 0.001 A, so 15 mA = 0.015 A
resistance = 6 V ÷ 0.015 A = 400 Ω

6 A teacher has provided a group of students with a selection of resistors and asked them to
determine the resistance of each of them. As well as the resistors, they have a 12 V power
supply, connecting wires, a voltmeter and an ammeter. They test each resistor in turn,
recording the potential difference across it and the current flowing through it. Their results are
shown in the table.
Resistor Potential difference Current flow through
across resistor (V) resistor (mA)
A 6 12
B 6 8
C 4 16
D 4 20

a Calculate the resistance of each of the resistors in ohms.

b Place the four resistors in order of resistance, starting with the greatest resistance.

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 17 Matter

17 Matter road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?
17.2 Particle model and
physical changes
compare and group materials together, • use the particle model
according to their state of matter and
their properties
know that some materials change state
when heated or cooled, and find out at
what temperature
17.1 Particle model,
know that some materials will dissolve Brownian motion
to form a solution, and how to recover and density
the material • describe density
• describe Brownian
know that dissolving, mixing and motion
changes of state are reversible changes. • use the particle
model

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

17.3 Energy stored in matter

• describe thermal expansion
• explain temperature changes
• describe heating increases changes of state and the particle model
• describe changes in temperature
and state internal energy and energy transfers
particle model and pressure

KS4

Maths and practical skills

select suitable apparatus and consider accuracy of measurements

calculate results and convert between different units
analyse data to draw conclusions
use equations to calculate answers
rearrange equations to change the subject

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 17 Matter

17 Matter
Scientists are really interested in what makes up the materials around us. It is useful to
think about these in terms of particles and what these particles might be doing when
the material changes state, for example when water changes to ice or steam. The
particle model can also be used to explain why some materials are denser than others.

Living in a material world

Student A is making a cup of coffee. They Student B likes sugar in their coffee.
have a cup of hot water and are dissolving
instant coffee powder into it.

• Suggest three ways in which they could get

the sugar to dissolve quicker.
• Describe the change that is taking place. • Is there a limit to how much sugar they could
• Would it be possible to reverse this change and dissolve in their coffee?
separate the coffee powder and the water?

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be a metallurgist?

Being a metallurgist is a withstand the high forces and
highly skilled job and involves high temperatures in an aircraft
meeting the challenges set by engine for another project.
the modern uses of metals. You You have to be good at maths
need specialist knowledge about to do this job: there are a lot
the properties of metals and of data and graphs to analyse.
recommending how they can Metallurgy is on the border
be used for different purposes. between physics and chemistry,
There is variety to the job – you so you need an understanding
might be advising civil engineers of both these sciences. You also each with their own specialist
investigating thermal expansion have to be good at teamwork knowledge, such as engineers,
in bridges for one project – you’re always working as part chemists and other materials
and then selecting metals to of a group of professionals, scientists.

Metalsmiths need an
artistic flair but also need
to understand the materials
they are working with. Some
metals are more malleable
and can be worked into
A ship’s officer is different shapes more easily.
responsible for organising Oceanographers study Sometimes ductile metals
how the load is distributed ocean currents and explain are needed if they are to be
on a ship. Loading a ship the effect of changes in drawn into a thin strand.
is a skilled business – it’s the sea. They study data
not only a case of the ship and draw conclusions: for
being balanced but the level example, they look at how
at which it floats is crucial. the formation of sea ice
Sea water varies around the affects the salinity of sea
world – the ship will float water; this then affects the
lower or higher in the water movement of water in the
in different places. A fully ocean. They have a key role
loaded ship is more fuel in reporting on changes in
efficient but it has to be safe. the global climate.

When a brewer makes beer or wine, they need Civil engineers turn plans into real structures –
to monitor how far the fermentation process has often really big ones, such as buildings, roads,
progressed and they do this by measuring the bridges and tunnels. They have to understand the
density of the brew. Brewers measure something properties of materials and what makes structures
work. They also have to understand and use ideas
called ‘specific gravity’, which is closely linked
such as density when they deal with the soil in
to density. Part of their job is to use changes in
different places and thermal expansion in the case
specific gravity to monitor the process. These of large rigid structures.
measurements produce They are often out
lots of data and this on site, seeing a large
needs interpreting. Using construction as it is
the data well is crucial to being built and problem
getting a quality product solving when difficulties
for the right price. arise.

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 17 Matter

Knowledge organiser
In a solid the particles are closely packed and Key vocabulary
arranged in a fixed pattern. In a liquid the particles
atom the basic ‘building block’
are still close together but are not in a fixed
of an element; an atom
arrangement. In a gas the particles are much further
cannot be chemically
apart and move around freely in all directions,
broken down
colliding with each other and the container.
boiling point temperature at which a
liquid changes state to a
gas (or a gas condenses)
chemical change an irreversible change
gas liquid solid caused when one
substance combines with
Changes of state occur Metals change another to form a new
when a material goes from shape easily when substance or one substance
one state to another; for a force is applied, breaks down to form two
example, melting is when a because they have others
solid changes to a liquid. The layers of atoms condensation process that happens when
particles do not change apart that slide over each a gas changes into a liquid
from gaining or losing energy other. This makes
and the number of particles of metals malleable density the mass per unit volume;
the substance stays the same. and ductile. unit kg/m3
dissolve the process in which
When a substance dissolves in water, the solution particles of a solute mix
that forms is a mixture of the solute particles and with particles of a solvent
particles (molecules) of water. Dissolving is a physical to form a solution
change and can be reversed by evaporation. evaporation the process that happens
when a liquid changes to
salt a gas at the surface of the
particle
liquid
water
particle
freezing the process in which a
liquid changes to a solid;
it occurs when the liquid
reaches its freezing point
Physical changes such as melting and dissolving
are reversible because no new substance is made. melting point the temperature at which
Chemical changes are irreversible because in a a solid changes to a liquid
chemical reaction atoms are combined in new ways (or a liquid substance
to produce one or more new substances. There freezes)
is conservation of mass in both physical and physical change a reversible change, such
chemical changes. as dissolving and changes
of state
The term particles can refer to both atoms and state (of matter) solid, liquid or gas
molecules. This is because in some substances
the atoms move or are arranged individually but sublimation the process when a solid
in others two or more atoms have combined to turns into a gas, without
form molecules. becoming a liquid first
thermal when particles in a solid
The closeness of particles in solids, liquids and gases expansion or a liquid gain enough
explains why solids are denser than liquids and gases energy to occupy more
are less dense than either. space

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

As a result of energy being transferred by heating there Key vocabulary

may be a change in the temperature of a material, or
Brownian motion the movement of
a change in how close the particles in a material are to
solid particles caused
each other.
by collisions with gas
particles
Changing the internal energy of a material will alter
either its temperature or its state. Melting and boiling conservation of matter cannot be
can take place without a change in temperature because mass destroyed or created,
the additional energy transferred by heating gives just transformed; this
particles energy to move further apart and overcome means the total mass
forces of attraction. does not change
during physical or
chemical reactions
When a substance is heated the internal energy of its
particles increases. This means particles of the material internal energy the sum of the kinetic
have different amounts of internal energy when the energy and the
material is a solid, liquid or gas. chemical potential
energy of all the
As the temperature of a material is increased, its particles in a material
particles move faster.

Most solids expand when heated and contract

when cooled. This is because increasing the
temperature causes the particles to move faster and
so take up slightly more space. Liquids also expand
when heated.

Both these effects cause an increase in the Particles of dust or smoke suspended in a gas
material’s store of internal energy. move randomly in all directions. This is known as
Brownian motion and is caused when the dust
Most materials get less dense when going from specks are hit by the moving particles that make
a solid to a liquid, and more dense when going up the gas.
from a liquid to a solid.
The change from ice to water is different to
other solids when they melt. Unlike other solids,
water expands and becomes less dense when it is
cooled close to its freezing point. This is why ice
floats on water.

dust particle

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 17 Matter

17.1 Particle model, Brownian

motion and density
You are learning to:
• describe what density means and calculate the density of a material
• describe Brownian motion and explain what causes it
• use differences in the arrangements of particles in solids, liquids and gases
to explain differences in density
• use the particle model to explain that the expansion of water when it
freezes is unusual.

1 Select which two of these are not units of density.

a kg/m3
b g/cm3
c N/m3
d N/m2

2 All materials are made of particles. These are arranged differently in solids, liquids and gases.
Suggest words to fill in the gaps and complete these sentences.
When a substance changes state from a gas into a liquid, its density _______i______ . This is
because in a liquid the particles are _______ii______ than in a gas.

3 Specks of dust move about randomly in still air. What is colliding with the dust particles to
produce this motion?

dust particle

4 Most liquids become denser when they freeze, but water expands when it freezes. Using ideas
about particles:
a Describe what happens to the density of water when it freezes
b State what is unusual about the change in density of water as it freezes.

5 Describe a method that could be used to determine the density of olive oil. Include how you
would make sure your measurements were as accurate as possible.

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 Questions

Worked example
Carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers,
as it prevents combustion. Carbon dioxide is
stored in the extinguisher under pressure, as
a liquid.
A fire extinguisher has a mass of 6.8 kg when
fully loaded and 1.8 kg when empty.
a If the volume of liquid carbon dioxide is
5000 cm3, calculate its density in g/cm3.
Use the equation density = mass/volume
It is important to show each stage of your
working. Write the equation down first and
then show how you get the numbers you
need to substitute into it. Remember to
take care with the units; the mass has to be
converted from kg to g.
density = mass/volume
Mass of carbon dioxide equals the mass of loaded container minus mass of empty container:
6.8 – 1.8 = 5.0 kg = 5000 g
Volume = 5000 cm3
Density = 5000 g/5000 cm = 1 g/cm3
b Explain why the density of the liquid carbon dioxide in the extinguisher is much greater than
the density of the carbon dioxide when it is in the atmosphere as a gas.
When the carbon dioxide is a liquid the particles are much closer together so the density of the
substance will be greater.

6 Ice and steam are water in different states of matter.

a An iceberg has a volume of 4500 m3 and a mass of 4 050 000 kg. Calculate its density in
kg/m3. Use the equation density = mass/volume.
b 600 g of water is boiled and turns into steam, filling a 1 m3 container. Calculate its density
in kg/m3.
c Explain why the two answers for density are very different, even though ice and steam are
chemically identical.

7 Air from the atmosphere is compressed to form a liquid and stored in tanks for divers.
a In the atmosphere, air with a volume of 1 m3 has a mass of 1225 g. Calculate its density
in kg/m3.
b A diving bottle has a volume of 0.01 m3 and the air it contains has a mass of 8700 g.
Calculate the density of the liquid air in kg/m3.
c Calculate how many times greater the density of liquid air is than air at normal
atmospheric pressure. Round your answer to the nearest whole number.
d Explain why the two states of the same material have different densities.

8 Brownian motion is named after Robert Brown, who noticed that grains of pollen mixed into
water and observed through a microscope were moving around randomly. Explain why pollen
grains move in still water, and why they change direction randomly.

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 17 Matter

17.2 Particle model and physical

changes
You are learning to:
• use the particle model to explain the difference between chemical and
physical changes
• use the particle model to explain conservation of mass in changes of state
and dissolving
• use the particle model to explain why a solid metal can change shape when
a force is applied.

1 When a piece of solid metal is heated and melts, the arrangement of particles changes. Which
is the best description of the arrangement of particles in each state?
Below melting point Above melting point
a fixed in place and vibrating fixed in place and vibrating
b in random motion and vibrating fixed in place and vibrating
c fixed in place and vibrating in random motion and vibrating
d in random motion and vibrating in random motion and vibrating

2 Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.
a When a solid melts and becomes a liquid, its mass becomes less.
b When a material changes state, there are the same number of particles before and after
the change.
c When a gas condenses to a liquid its mass increases.
d A change of state means the arrangement of particles changes but the mass of the
material stays constant.

3 Evaporation, boiling, condensing and subliming are physical changes.

a Give two more examples of physical changes.
b State two differences between chemical changes and physical changes.
c Is combustion a chemical or a physical change?

4 A student measures the mass of a block of ice.

They put it into an empty beaker and leave it
to melt.
Which statement is true?
a The mass of the water after the ice has melted
is greater than the mass of the ice.
b The mass of the water after the ice has melted
is the same as the mass of the ice.
c The mass of the water after the ice has melted
is less than the mass of the ice.
d We are not told the mass, so we do not know
if it has changed.

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 Questions

5 A student knows that ice is less dense than water. They measure the volume of a block of ice,
put it into an empty beaker and leave it to melt. Suggest, with a reason, whether the volume
of water after the ice has melted will be greater than, the same as or less than the volume of
the ice.

6 A student adds sugar to a cup of tea. They talk to their friends about how this affects the mass
of the tea and the sugar.

Student A says that the mass of the sweetened tea will be less than the mass of the
unsweetened tea plus the mass of the sugar. They say that when sugar dissolves the crystals
disappear, and its mass is reduced.
Student B says that the mass of the sweetened tea will be the same as the mass of the
unsweetened tea plus the mass of the sugar. They say that dissolving the sugar in the tea will
not affect the mass of either the sugar or the tea.
Student C says that the mass of the sweetened tea will be more than the mass of the
unsweetened tea plus the mass of the sugar. They say that when sugar crystals get wet, they
swell up and their mass increases.
a State who has the correct explanation and explain why. Include ideas about particles.
b Respond to the other two ideas and suggest why their reasoning is incorrect.

7 A teacher is demonstrating ideas about the properties of metals. They put several pieces of
thick cardboard in a pile. The teacher asks the class whether this is a good model for
explaining why some metals are malleable and ductile.
Student A says that this is a good model as the layers of cardboard can slide over each other
and this shows how layers of atoms in a metal can move past each other.
Student B says that it is not a good model as it is easy to push one sheet of cardboard over
another whereas working with most types of metal takes a lot of effort.
Student C says that it is not a good model, as metals conduct both thermal energy and
electricity and cardboard does not conduct either.
Discuss whether this model is a good one to explain the properties the teacher is talking
about.

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 17 Matter

17.3 Energy stored in matter

You are learning to:
• describe what is meant by thermal expansion
• explain how temperature changes affect the motion and spacing of particles
• describe that heating increases the internal energy of a material
• describe that increased internal energy can cause a change in temperature,
or a change of state.

1 Does the speed of particles increase, decrease or stay the same when the temperature of a
material increases?

2 An ice cube melts in a dish. The internal energy of the ice increases as it melts. Choose the
correct words to complete the sentences.
a The internal energy increases because the molecules of water in ice need to gain/lose
energy to become liquid water.
b The energy is being used to move the particles closer together/further apart.
c This process requires energy because the molecules of water in ice are held together by
forces that attract/forces that repel.

3 An iron bar is being heated. As it does so its length increases. Explain why.

4 State whether the following statements are true or false.

a Particles in a gas have weaker forces between them than particles in a liquid.
b Particles in a liquid have more internal energy than particles in a gas of the same material.
c Particles in a solid do not have any internal energy because they do not move.

5 A block of concrete is warming up in sunlight. Which one of these statements is true?

a The internal energy of the block is increasing because it is getting hotter.
b The internal energy of the block is not altering as the particles are held in a rigid pattern.
c The internal energy of the block is decreasing because more energy is being supplied
externally.

6 The photograph shows a structure in a railway line called an expansion gap. The gap is
designed to stop damage to the line on a hot day.

Describe what will happen to the gap on a hot day. Give a reason for your answer.

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 Questions

7 The apparatus in the diagram is designed to demonstrate thermal expansion. The horizontal
metal bar is clamped tight on the left-hand side but is free to slide through the support at the
right-hand side. As the bar slides it will push or pull on the lever. Any movement of the lever is
displayed by the pointer moving on the scale.

The bar is heated and the pointer moves towards the right.
a Describe what is happening to the particles in the bar as it is heated.
b State what is happening to the amount of internal energy in the bar as it is heated.
c After being heated for several minutes, the Bunsen burner is turned off. Describe what will
happen in the next few minutes.
d The horizontal bar is then wrapped in a cloth that has been soaked in cold water. Explain
what will happen now.
e Explain why it is important that the left-hand end of the bar is clamped tight.

8 This question is about a bimetallic strip. The strip consists of two pieces of metal, one iron and
one copper, which are attached to each other along their lengths.
iron

copper

The strip is initially straight and horizontal, as shown in the upper picture.
a In the lower diagram, the strip is being heated with a flame and the strip is bending
upwards. Select which of these statements is true.
i The copper is expanding and the iron is contracting.
ii Both the copper and the iron are contracting but the iron is contracting more.
iii Both the copper and the iron are expanding but the iron is expanding more.
iv Both the copper and the iron are expanding but the copper is expanding more.
b Predict what will happen to the strip if it is removed from the Bunsen flame and held
under cold water from a tap. Explain your answer.

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 17 Matter

Maths and practical skills

1 Use the equation density = mass/volume to calculate the density of each of the materials in the
table.
Material Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Density (g/cm3)
a water 50 50
b blood 21.2 20
c granite 260 100
d iron 195 25

2 a Calculate the volume of a block of brass that measures 2 cm by 4 cm by 5 cm.

b Calculate the density of the brass if the mass is 340 g.
Use the equation density = mass/volume.

3 The table shows the densities of a number of common gases.

Gas Density (kg/m3)
air 1.27
carbon dioxide 1.94
hydrogen 0.09
oxygen 1.41

a Explain why, if this information is to be displayed graphically, a bar chart should be used
rather than a scatter graph.
b Draw a graph to compare the densities of the gases in the table.

4 Calculate the density in g/cm3 of a rectangular block of wood which has dimensions of 3 cm
by 3 cm by 10 cm and a mass of 0.225 kg.
Use the equation density = mass/volume.

5 A group of students is measuring the density of an irregular solid. They use a displacement can
to find the volume of the object.
They fill the can with water to the brim and lower the object into the can using a thread tied
to the object. Describe what they need to do to determine the volume of the object.

6 A group of students is exploring how the temperature of candle wax changes as it solidifies.
They place solid wax in a boiling tube, heat it gently and put a thermometer in the wax when
it melts. They then heat the wax to 80 °C and let it cool. They measure and record the
temperature every minute. The table shows their results.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Temperature (°C) 80 76 73 71 70 70 70 70 70 68 65 62

a Plot a graph of temperature against time.

b Draw a line of best fit.
c Use the graph to find the melting point of wax. Give a reason for your answer.

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 Questions

7 The graph shows the relationship between the temperature 1000

of water and its density.

Density (kg/m3)
a At what temperature does water have its maximum 999.9
density?
b State the maximum density the water reaches, to two 999.8
decimal places.
999.7
0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature (°C)

Worked example
Lead has a density of 11.3 g/cm3. Calculate the mass of a lead sample that has a volume
of 150 cm3.
density = mass/volume
If you know what the values of two of the quantities in the density equation are, you can
calculate the third quantity by rearranging the equation:
mass = density × volume or volume = mass/density
If the density is in g/cm3 and the volume is in cm3, the mass will be in g.
mass = density × volume
= 11.3 g/cm3 × 150 cm3
= 1695 g

8 Calculate the missing values in this table of data.

Material Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Density (kg/m3)
a carbon dioxide (solid) 1600      1000
b carbon dioxide (gas) 2000 1 000 000
c ice 4600 920
d steam      1000     0.6

9 A group of students is trying to measure the density of a rectangular block of wood.

a State the relationship between density, mass and volume.
b State how the students could measure the mass of the wood.
c Describe a suitable method for determining the volume of the piece of wood.
d If the block of wood has a mass of 0.4 kg and a volume of 500 cm3, calculate its density
in g/cm3.

10 Over 2000 years ago, a king asked Archimedes to find out whether a goldsmith was cheating
him. The goldsmith had made the king a crown. The king suspected that the goldsmith had
alloyed (mixed) the gold used to make the crown with a cheaper metal. This meant that the
gold would not be pure. Archimedes knew what the mass of the crown was, and also the
density of pure gold. He knew that he could find out whether the goldsmith had cheated if he
could find the volume of the crown. He did this by immersing the crown in a container full of
water and catching the overflow.
a Explain how Archimedes measured the volume of the crown.
b If the volume of the crown was 100 cm3 and the mass was 1800 g, what was the density of
the crown?
c If Archimedes knew that the density of gold was 19.3 g/cm3, what did that mean about
the purity of the gold in the crown?

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 18 Space physics

18 Space physics road map

Where are you in your learning journey and where are
you aiming to be?

18.2 Gravity
• draw force diagrams
know that some forces are non-contact • explain mass and weight
forces, such as gravity • calculate weight

describe the Sun, Earth and Moon as

approximately spherical 18.1 Seasonal
variation
describe the movement of the planets • describe movement
in the solar system • explain causes of time
periods
describe the movement of the Moon • explain seasons
relative to the Earth
explain day and night and the apparent
movement of the Sun across the sky.

KS2

KS3

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 Road map

18.3 Stars and light-years gravity

ms • recognise the Sun as a star acceleration
weight • describe relationships
• describe light-years
our solar system
life cycle of a star
orbital motion, natural and artificial satellites
red shift

KS4

Maths and practical skills

observing and measuring

calculating results and converting between
different units
presenting data using tables and graphs
interpreting observations and data
presenting reasoned explanations
using equations to calculate answers
rearranging equations to change the subject

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 18 Space physics

18 Space physics
Understanding gravitational forces is key to understanding
the Solar System, our Sun and other stars. Our galaxy
is one of many, but both the size of galaxies and the
distances between them are enormous.
The photograph shows the Eagle Nebula, in which
material collapses due to gravity to form new stars.

Watching the neighbours

This photograph is of Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to us (after our Sun). It is 4.3 light-years
away, which means that the light we see from it was emitted 4.3 years ago.

Why do you think we measure distances between stars in units like light-years rather than, say,
kilometres?

Modelling the Solar System

Look at this artist’s impression of the Solar System.

• How could we use a diagram like this to explain:

° what causes day and night on planets?
° what causes the length of a year on planets?
• Suggest:
° ways in which this picture is helpful in understanding the Solar System
° how the picture is inaccurate and could lead to misunderstandings about the Solar System.

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 Unit opener

Using your science skills

Could you be an aerospace engineer?

As an aerospace engineer factor in aircraft design; it
you might be asked to design needs to be kept to a minimum
aeroplanes, helicopters, and be distributed so that the
satellites, planetary rovers, craft is stable. The job also
missiles or rockets. Your job is includes planning, testing and
to design, build and maintain maintenance; aircraft have to be
the aircraft and the parts and as safe and reliable at the end of electronics, aerodynamics
instruments that go inside their lives as at the start. and also production and
them. It is your responsibility There is a lot of teamwork in maintenance. You need to be
to make them safe and fuel this industry; you might work good at maths and science, and
efficient. Weight is a crucial with specialists in materials, be a good problem solver!

Data scientists deal with numbers and data. Everything in aerospace and
space exploration, from experiments using models to flight tests with prototypes
and missions to Mars, generates data, which needs to be managed and
analysed. Data scientists might be using software to process gigabytes of data
but then working out the best way of presenting this data to find patterns and
explain these to other people.

Electronics technicians work on objects that fly, which all use electronics in
their monitoring and control systems; these need installing and maintaining.
Some of the systems, such as landing gear, communications systems and
cockpit displays, are used under extreme conditions, and they are often
crucial to the success of the mission. Being good at problem solving and
being able to think clearly under pressure are important skills.

Software engineers produce the code for computerised systems such as

instrumentation systems on board a spacecraft. Their job is to design the
software and write code. They might be writing the program or getting
someone else’s program to work properly. Logical thinking and a systematic
approach are crucial, as is attention to detail. They have to consider how
different systems work and communicate with each other, and work in a
team to meet the goals of the project.

Earth observation engineers use satellite technology to look down at the

Earth and get a clear view of how the surface and the atmosphere are changing
over time. An application of this is weather recording and forecasting. They need
to be able to analyse data and images, interpret patterns and make predictions,
and turn the information into something useful.

Astronomers work largely in a university, but often travel to observatories,

and use images and data as well as physics knowledge in their research.
They may be refining ideas about how the Universe was formed and how it
is developing, or they may be studying exoplanets or supernovas. They need
to be good with numbers, good at developing explanations and also good at
communicating ideas to other people.

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 18 Space physics

Knowledge organiser the Earth spins around

its axis every 24 hours
The Earth rotates on its axis Key vocabulary
and makes a full rotation every
axis of rotation the imaginary
24 hours. This causes day
line around which
and night.
sunlight something rotates;
for Earth, this is the
line joining its north
and south poles
field an area where an
The Moon orbits object feels a force,
the Earth; e.g. the region
a complete orbit around a mass
takes around where another
28 days. object feels a
gravitational force
mass the amount of
matter (stuff) in an
object, measured in
kilograms (kg)
The Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted relative to its orbit
orbit the path taken by a
around the Sun. This causes seasonal variation in day length
satellite, planet or
and temperature.
star moving around
The seasons in the southern hemisphere are different from a larger body
the seasons in the northern hemisphere, because when the
northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun the southern season a division of the
hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun. When it is summer in year, marked by
a hemisphere the Sun’s rays reach the land more directly, and changes in weather
in winter the rays are more spread out. and hours of
daylight: summer,
autumn, winter and
weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)
spring
This means that the weight of an object in a gravitational
field is directly proportional to its mass weight the force of gravity
acting on an
object, measured in
The Earth has a gravitational field that extends newtons (N)
far out into space. Any mass in this field
experiences a (non-contact) gravitational
force. At the Earth’s surface the gravitational The Earth orbits the Sun, taking just over 365 days
field strength is 10 N/kg, which means there for one orbit. This determines the length of a year
is a force of 10 newtons on every kilogram. on Earth. Other planets in the Solar System also
Other planets have stronger or weaker orbit the Sun.
gravitational fields.

The Earth is held in orbit around the Sun due

to the gravitational attraction each has on the
other. The Moon is held in orbit around the
Earth due to the gravitational attraction each
has on the other.

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 Knowledge organiser
unit title

Our Sun is a star, one of many in the Universe. Key vocabulary

galaxy a group of billions
of stars held
together by gravity
light-year (ly) the distance
travelled by light in
one year
Milky Way the galaxy
containing our
Solar System
star a body in space
that emits large
amounts of
energy; for many
stars some of
this can be seen
as light

There are millions of stars in our galaxy, which is called the Milky Way. There are billions of other
galaxies in the Universe.

The light-year is used as

a unit of astronomical
distance. It is the distance that to Proxima Centauri
light travels in one year. It is 4.3 light-years
used because the distances
being measured are huge and
a large unit is needed.

nearest galaxy to Earth,

other than our own
25 000 light-years

to the Andromeda Galaxy

2.5 million light-years

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 18 Space physics

18.1 Seasonal variation

You are learning to:
• describe the movement of the Earth on its axis and relative to the Sun
• explain what causes day length, year length and seasonal variation,
including temperature
• explain why seasons north of the equator are the opposite of seasons south
of the equator.

1 List the four seasons of the year, in order, starting with spring.

2 Explain why the Sun appears to move across the sky during the day.

3 Describe how a winter’s day differs from a summer’s day in the UK in terms of:
a the number of hours of sunlight
b the average temperature
c the height of the Sun in the sky at midday.

4 Select which one of these statements is true.

a When days are getting longer in the northern hemisphere, they are getting shorter in the
southern hemisphere.
b When days are getting longer in the northern hemisphere, they are also getting longer in
the southern hemisphere.
c There is no connection between day length in the northern hemisphere and in the
southern hemisphere.
d When days are longest at the equator, both the North Pole and the South Pole will have
24 hours of darkness.

Worked example
Describe how the Sun, Earth and Moon move in relation to each other. Use a diagram to assist in
your description.
When you are asked to use a diagram, make sure you label it with the same terms that you use in
your answer. A label and its line must clearly point to part of the diagram.
The Earth is rotating upon its axis and it is orbiting the Sun. The Moon is orbiting around the Earth.
Orbit of
the Earth

Orbit of
Sun
the Moon
Axis of
rotation

Earth

Moon

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 Questions

5 The picture shows the planet Mars.

Explain what determines the length of a day on Mars.
Include a labelled diagram, with arrows to show any movement
that is relevant to your explanation.

6 Draw and label a diagram to explain what determines the length of year for a planet orbiting
a star.
Include arrows to show any movement that is relevant to your explanation.

7 a Explain why we have seasons.

b At some times of the year, countries north of the equator will have more than 12 hours of
sunlight per day. Describe at what points in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun this happens.
c The day of the year with the fewest hours of daylight for the southern hemisphere is
21 June. This is also the day on which the northern hemisphere has the greatest number of
hours of daylight. Explain why this is.

8 The Earth’s axis is tilted at 23° to the Sun. If it was tilted by a smaller angle, suggest how this
would affect the seasons and explain why.

9 The graph shows how the number of hours of daylight in a day varies throughout the year for
two different towns in the UK.
20
Falmouth
18 Thurso

16
Hours of daylight

14

12

10

4
21 December 21 March 21 June 21 September 21 December

a How many hours of daylight are there in Thurso on 21 June?

b How many hours of daylight are there in Falmouth on 21 December?
c In which parts of the year does Thurso have fewer hours of daylight than Falmouth?
d In which parts of the year does Thurso have more hours of daylight than Falmouth?
e On which dates is the day length in the two towns the same?
f Thurso is much further north than Falmouth. Explain how this causes the difference in the
number of hours of daylight each town gets at different times of the year.
g Both of these towns are in the northern hemisphere. What would the graph for a town in
the southern hemisphere look like? Give a reason for your answer.

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 18 Space physics

18.2 Gravity
You are learning to:
• draw force diagrams for weight on different planets and for gravitational
forces between the Earth and the Sun or the Moon
• explain the difference between mass and weight
• calculate weight from mass and gravitational field strength.

1 Identify which of these are units of force and which are units of mass.
Unit Unit of force? Unit of mass?
newton, N
gram, g
kilonewton, kN
kilogram, kg

2 Choose the correct words to complete the sentences.

a Gravity is a contact/non-contact force.
b When gravity acts on an object it always attracts/always repels it.
c Gravity acting on an object causes that object to have mass/weight.

3 Select from the list the two factors that affect the weight of an object.
a shape c mass
b volume d gravitational field strength

Worked example
The gravitational field strength of the Earth is 10 N/kg. Calculate how much an 80 kg
astronaut would weigh on Earth, where g = 10 N/kg.
Use the equation weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)
It is important to show your working when answering a question like this as it makes it easier
to spot any errors.
weight = 80 kg × 10 N/kg = 800 N

4 Venus has a gravitational field strength of 9 N/kg.

Calculate how much an 80 kg astronaut would weigh on Venus.
Use the equation weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)

5 Which one of these statements is true about your weight and mass on a planet where the
gravitational field strength is half that of Earth?
a Weight is the same, mass is half.
b Weight and mass are both the same.
c Weight and mass are both half.
d Weight is half, mass is the same.

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 Questions

6 The gravitational field strength on Mars is 3.7 N/kg, whereas on Earth it is 10 N/kg. Calculate
the weight of a 2 kg rock on the surface of each of these planets.

7 The Lunar Roving Vehicle used on the Apollo

15 mission had a mass of 210 kg.
The Earth’s gravitational field strength is
10 N/kg and the Moon’s gravitational field
strength is 1.7 N/kg. Calculate the weight of
the Lunar Roving Vehicle:
a on the Earth b on the Moon.

8 The Earth is in the Sun’s gravitational field. Explain what this means.

9 A spacecraft is exactly halfway between the Earth and the Moon. Select which one of the
following statements is true.
a Neither the Earth nor the Moon will exert a gravitational attraction on the spacecraft.
b The Earth will exert a gravitational attraction on the spacecraft but the Moon will not.
c Both the Earth and the Moon will exert a gravitational attraction on it; the two forces will
be opposite in direction.
d Both the Earth and the Moon will exert a gravitational attraction on it, in the same
direction.

10 The gravitational field strength on Mars is 3.7 N/kg, whereas on Earth it is 10 N/kg. Describe
how the weight of an astronaut would change if they travelled from the Earth, through space,
to Mars.

11 A group of students is using an electronic balance. It is calibrated in grams. They have just
been learning about mass and weight.

Student A says that the balance should not be calibrated in grams because it is actually
measuring force. Putting an object on top means its weight pushes down and the balance
should therefore be calibrated in newtons.
Student B says that the balance is correct as it is. If you put a 100 g mass on it, the reading
is 100 g.
Student C says that it works because it is only ever going to be used where there is the same
relationship between mass and weight. It measures weight but can show this as mass.
Comment on each of these ideas and explain whether the balance should be calibrated in
grams.

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 18 Space physics

18.3 Stars and light-years

You are learning to:
• recognise that our Sun is a star
• describe the relationship between stars, galaxies and the Universe
• describe how the light-year is used to measure astronomical distances.

1 Suggest words to complete the missing gaps in these sentences.

The Sun is a star and is at the _____i_____ of our Solar _____ii_____ .
It emits _____iii_____, which is radiated outwards and travels throughout the _____iv____
System and beyond.
It is a source of light and thermal _____v____ .

2 Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.
a The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System.
b The Sun is at the centre of the Milky Way.
c Our Solar System is in the Milky Way.
d The Milky Way is another name for the Universe.
e Our Sun is the only star in our Solar System.
f Our Sun is the only star in the Milky Way.

3 This is a picture of Saturn’s rings taken with a telescope on

Earth.
Saturn can be seen from Earth because light travels from
Saturn to Earth. Which one of these statements is true?
a Saturn produces its own light.
b Saturn reflects light from the Sun.
c Saturn reflects light from the Earth back to us.
d Saturn reflects light from many stars.

4 In space physics, the light-year is used as a unit of measurement. Which of these is the correct
definition of one light-year?
a The amount of light that lands on a planet in a year.
b The distance that light will travel through space in a year.
c The time for which a source of light will last.

5 This is a picture of the Milky Way, which is a galaxy.

Which of these is the best description of a galaxy?
a A large number of stars.
b A large group of stars held together by gravity.
c All the stars in existence, apart from our own Sun.
d The remains of dead and dying stars.

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 Questions

6 The table shows some distances in space, measured in light-years. Match each description of
the distances listed to the correct value.
Description of distance Distance in light-years (ly)
a diameter of the Milky Way i 323
b diameter of the Solar System ii 2 520 000
c distance from Earth to Polaris (the Pole Star) iii 100 000
d distance from the Earth to the Andromeda Galaxy iv 1

7 The nearest star to the Earth (apart from the Sun) is called Proxima Centauri. It is 4.3 light-
years away from us. Decide which of the following statements are true and which are false.
a It takes 4.3 years for light to travel from Proxima Centauri to us.
b When we look at Proxima Centauri, we are seeing it as it was 4.3 years ago.
c If we were to send a light beam towards Proxima Centauri, it would take 4.3 years to get
there.
d If a spaceship could travel at the speed of light, it would take 4.3 years to travel from Earth
to Proxima Centauri, but a light beam would get there instantly.

8 A group of students is looking at stars in the night sky. They know that all of the stars they see
are many light-years away.
Student A says that, when we look at those stars, we are seeing light that set off many years
ago and that if we received an alien signal from a star, the aliens may not be there anymore.

Student B says that they know the stars are a huge distance away but that light travels so
quickly the light and also any alien signal will only have taken a few minutes to arrive.

Explain who you think is right.

9 Our Sun is approximately 8 light-minutes away, and Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is
approximately 8 light-years away.

a Explain what is meant by a light-minute as a unit of distance.

b Explain the difference between light-minutes and light-years.
c Calculate how many times further away Sirius is from us than our Sun.

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 18 Space physics

Maths and practical skills

1 Match these units to the quantities they measure.
Unit Quantity
a light-year, ly i mass
b newton, N ii speed
c kilogram, kg iii distance
d kilometres per second, km/s iv force

2 Use the equation weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg) to calculate the
weight of a 120 kg space suit in each of these locations:
a on Earth, where g = 10 N/kg
b on the Moon, where g = 1.7 N/kg

Worked example
A class is making a scale model of the Solar System. They use a beach ball to represent the Sun
and a dried pea for the Earth. The teacher says that, to be to scale, the Earth will have to be
32 m from the Sun. The teacher then gives a student a rice grain, and tells the student that this
represents Mars and it has to be a distance from the Sun 50% greater than that of the Earth.
Calculate how far from the beach ball the student should place the rice.
The radius of the Mars orbit is 50% greater than the radius of the Earth orbit. The Earth orbit is
32 m so the Mars orbit will be 150% of that. The 32 m needs to be multiplied by 1.5.
32 × 1.5 = 48 m

3 The class in the worked example above then continues with its model. Calculate how far from
the model Sun each of these planets should be:
a Saturn, which orbits at 10 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun
b Uranus, which orbits at 20 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun
c Neptune, which orbits at 30 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun.

4 The Apollo Moon missions brought back to Earth a total of 380 kg of geological samples. On
Earth, g = 10 N/kg and on the Moon, g = 1.7 N/kg.
a Calculate the weight of the samples when they were on the Moon.
b Calculate the weight of the samples when brought to the Earth.
c Calculate, to the nearest whole number, how many times heavier the samples are on Earth
than they were on the Moon.

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 Questions

5 A class is looking at the Solar System and which planets have moons. A student has asked the
teacher if it is true that the more mass a planet has, the more moons it has. The teacher has
asked them to use data to evaluate the evidence for this statement. In the table below, the
mass of each planet is compared to that of the Earth.

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Mass compared 0.05 0.82 1 0.11 318 95 15 17
to Earth
Number of 0 0 1 2 79 82 27 14
moons

a Which planet has the least mass?

b How many moons does this planet have?
c Which planet has the greatest mass?
d How many moons does this planet have?
e Plot a scatter graph of mass (compared to Earth) against the number of moons for the four
outer planets.
f Use your graph to suggest whether it is true that the more massive planets have more
moons.

6 Some planets in the Solar System, such as Venus and Mars, have been known about for
hundreds of years because they are bright enough to be seen with the naked eye in the night
sky. Neptune is too dim to see without a telescope but was discovered in 1846 after
astronomers studied anomalies in the observed position of Uranus. Compared to its predicted
speed, Uranus seemed to speed up a bit in one part of its orbit and then slow down a bit.
The diagram shows the orbits of Uranus and Neptune around the Sun at two different times
(marked as a and b) a few years apart.
orbit of Neptune
b

orbit of
b Uranus
a

a Use your knowledge of gravitational forces to suggest why Uranus would speed up from its
normal speed when Neptune is in position a.
b Use your knowledge of gravitational forces to suggest why Uranus would slow down from
its normal speed when Neptune is in position b.
c Suggest how astronomers used the anomalies in Uranus’s orbit to predict where Neptune
might be found in the night sky.

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 Biology

Unit 1 Cells and 1.2 Comparing plant and animal cells

1 light microscope (allow microscope but do not
organisation allow electron microscope)
2 cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
1.1 Organisation of multicellular 3 a cell membrane, b nucleus, c cytoplasm
organisms 4 a cell wall, b nucleus, c cytoplasm,
1 cells d chloroplast, e cell membrane
2 a tissue 5 a  nucleus – contains the genetic material/
3 an organ controls the reactions inside the cell
4 heart – circulatory system; brain – nervous b cell membrane – controls what passes in and
system; stomach – digestive system; lungs – out of the cell (examples, oxygen, water,
breathing (respiratory) system glucose nutrients in, carbon dioxide out)
5 heart – pumps blood around the body; c  chloroplast – contains chlorophyll, absorbs
brain – controls many functions of the body; energy from the sun for photosynthesis
kidneys – filter waste from blood; 6 All chemical reactions take place in the
stomach – digests some foods; lungs – transfer cytoplasm. These reactions keep the cell
gases between the blood and air alive and so all cells need to carry out these
6 a made of one cell reactions and so need cytoplasm.
b Any two of: amoebae, paramecia, yeasts, 7 a i cytoplasm, ii cell membrane, iii nucleus
protozoa, algae b mitochondria (or ribosomes, Golgi)
7 a heart muscle cell, b muscle tissue, c heart, 8 Red blood cells do not contain a nucleus.
d circulatory system, e human
9 Both Dev and Kristi are correct about what
8 They are able to reproduce rapidly, or other supports the plant cell: both the vacuole and
sensible suggestion. the cell wall provide support and help to keep
9 Multicellular organisms have many different the shape of the plant cell. However, Kristi’s
cells, adapted to different functions. Therefore, idea about the cell wall controlling what moves
similar cells can work together to form tissues, in and out of the cell is incorrect because that
tissues can work together to form organs and is the function of the cell membrane (in both
different organs can work together to form plant and animal cells).
organ systems. This means that one organism 10 a 2 million/microlitre
can perform many different functions (for
example, breathing, excreting, digesting). b 4 months
10 Unicellular organisms grouped together (into 1.3 Studying cells
colonies). Some of these unicellular organisms
adapted in different ways, making them better 1 They magnify an object/make an image bigger
suited to different functions. The cells began to than the object.
vary more and formed groups of similar cells; 2 c
these are what we call tissues. Tissues then 3 a stage, b eyepiece lens, c focusing wheel,
worked together to form organs. d objective lens
11 There are 120 minutes in 2 hours. 4 Any one of: greater magnification/can see
1 to 2 bacteria after 20 minutes smaller objects or cells/can see smaller cell
2 to 4 bacteria after 40 minutes (20 + 20) structures/therefore more detail.
4 to 8 bacteria after 60 minutes (20 + 20 + 20) 5 The stain shows/enhances some of the features
of the cell.
8 to 16 bacteria after 80 minutes
(20 + 20 + 20 + 20) 6 a provides a source of light to illuminate the
sample
16 to 32 bacteria after 100 minutes
(20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20) b to place the sample/slide on; to hold the
sample for viewing
32 to 64 bacteria after 120 minutes
(20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20 + 20) 7 a ×40, b ×100, c ×400
Therefore, after 2 hours (120 minutes), there 8 a Repeat the experiment again or get
are 64 bacteria. someone else to carry out the same

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 Answers
investigation; if the experiment is reliable, 10 Both have mitochondria so both carry out
the same result will be seen. respiration. Both move but in different ways:
b Carry out the same experiment but focus a by cilia and b by its flagellum. However,
on temperatures between 40 °C and b has chloroplasts, so makes its own food by
50 °C/a smaller range of temperatures. photosynthesis; a has no chloroplasts and has
a food store, so must absorb food from its
9 a Any three of: draw in pencil, not pen; do not
surroundings.
include any air bubbles in the drawing; add a
title (onion cells); include magnification; draw 1.5 Specialised cells
more cells; don’t draw the circle.
b Any three of: cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, 1 adapted
cell membrane. 2 There are many different functions (jobs)
10 a 1000 times smaller within each living thing that keeps them alive;
we need different specialised cells to perform
b 0.01 mm different functions.
c i 1 µm 3 b
ii 0.001 mm 4 Name of cell Image
1.4 Unicellular organisms red blood cell d
1 they are made of only one cell nerve cell a
2 bacterium and yeast muscle cell c
3 prokaryotic leaf cell b
4 prokaryotes – genetic material floats in the 5 a Plant cell because it has a cell wall,
cytoplasm; eukaryotes – stored within a nucleus chloroplasts and vacuole.
5 The organism in diagram a probably existed b Plant cell because it has a cell wall and
first because it does not have a nucleus, vacuole.
chloroplast or mitochondria.
6
6 The bacterium is adapted to live in conditions Name Function One way the cell is
very unlike the conditions in the human body. of cell of cell adapted to its
function
7 This organism feeds by absorbing nutrients
rather than making its own food (as it has no red carries has no nucleus so
chloroplasts for photosynthesis). Cilia beat blood oxygen to there is more space
to move the organism; this helps it to move cell body cells to carry oxygen/
towards nutrients. convex shape to
increase surface area -
8 a chloroplasts
more oxygen can be
b flagellum absorbed
9 a  Some unicellular organisms are simple: nerve carries/ long extensions (of
prokaryotes are generally simple cell transmits cytoplasm) to reach
compared to eukaryotes and have no fixed impulses all parts of the body
nucleus and have few, or no, organelles.
However, other unicellular organisms, muscle creates lots of mitochondria
such as protozoa, Euglena and yeasts, are cell movement for energy for
eukaryotes and are complex: their single movement; protein
cell has similar parts to animal or plant cells. fibres that move
For example, Euglena contains chloroplasts, across each other for
so can carry out photosynthesis, and expansion/
contains mitochondria, so can carry out contraction
respiration. These eukaryotes are simple in leaf cell carries out contains chloroplasts
that they are made of only one cell but are photo- to absorb light
complex within, like animal and plant cells. synthesis energy for
b Ben may think unicellular organisms are photosynthesis
simple because they are made of only
one cell.

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 Biology
7 a tail – allows movement to egg 5 carbon dioxide – out, nutrients – in, urea – out,
b large head – carries genetic material in a oxygen – in
large nucleus 6 a so that movement/diffusion of the liquid
c lots of mitochondria – for energy (from can be seen
respiration) to move b accuracy
8 a Red blood cells carry oxygen to the cells of 7 a Tom, Monty, Anya, Ali
the body. This oxygen is used in respiration b The air freshener particles are moving
to generate energy. In anaemia, there as they have energy. As they move, they
are fewer cells so less oxygen is carried to bump into each other and spread out.
the cells, so less energy is transferred by Straight from the can the particles are
respiration, leading to tiredness. high in concentration; in the rest of the
b The patient is likely to feel tired. Although air in the room, the particles are in lower
the patient has a lot of red blood cells, the concentration. The air freshener particles
sickle cell shape means that they can’t enter move from higher to lower concentration
blood vessels, reducing blood flow. This and eventually reach the air near Ali.
means less oxygen is carried to body cells, c Similar – the oxygen molecules are
so less energy is transferred by respiration, spreading out as are the air freshener
leading to tiredness. (The sickle cell shape particles; particles move from higher
also has a smaller surface than the regular concentration to lower concentration.
red blood cells and so the cells carry less
Different – the air freshener is not travelling
oxygen.)
across a (cell) membrane, whereas the
9 a Similarities: both have cell membrane, oxygen does.
cytoplasm, nucleus and mitochondria.
8 a
Differences: shape of cell and number of Length, Surface Volume Surface
mitochondria, i has more per cell than ii. breadth, area (cm3) area-to-
height (cm )2
volume
b Cell membrane controls what moves
of cube ratio
in and out of the cell; cytoplasm allows
(cm)
reactions to take place in the cell; nucleus
carries the genetic material of the cell, 1, 1, 1 6 1 6
controls processes; and mitochondria allow 2, 2, 2 24 8 3
respiration to take place, producing energy. 3, 3, 3 54 27 2
c i is heart muscle (ii is smooth muscle),
shown by having more mitochondria b The largest cube (3 × 3 × 3 cm) because
as it needs to release more energy by although it has the largest surface area, it
respiration than other muscles. also has the largest volume and so has more
cell to provide with oxygen and nutrients.
10 a The elongated cytoplasm increases the
Per unit, the smallest cube has the largest
surface area through which water can be
surface area to volume ratio.
absorbed; large vacuole for storage of water
(and sugars); no chloroplasts as does not 9 a Organisms that take in nutrients do so by
carry out photosynthesis. diffusion through their cell membrane.
Organisms that make their food by
b i A mean is calculated as each hair may
photosynthesis rely on diffusion for the
vary, so this allows for fluctuations in
carbon dioxide to enter through the cell
measurements.
membrane. Unicellular organisms also
ii 1:1, 0.7:1, 0.5:1 rely on diffusion to take in oxygen for
iii plant 1 respiration and to remove waste products
(e.g. carbon dioxide and urea).
1.6 Movement in and out of cells:
b The bigger a unicellular organism (or cell),
diffusion the smaller the surface area-to-volume
1 particles, higher, lower ratio. A smaller surface area-to-volume
2 liquids and gases ratio means that it is less likely that the rate
at which diffusion happens will be high
3 Lydia enough to support the entire cell with the
4 a substances it needs.

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 Answers
Small, unicellular organisms are more efficient d As concentration increases, the rate of
at being able to get enough substances in diffusion increases/time taken to travel
and out to support the whole cell. through the agar decreases.
Multicellular organisms rely on transport
systems, such as the circulatory system,
to move substances and so are not solely
Unit 2 Reproduction
reliant on diffusion.
2.1 Plant reproduction
Unit 1 maths and practical skills 1 A filament; B anther; C stigma; D style;
E ovary; F ovule
1 c
2 a pollination; b fertilisation; c dispersal
2 µm, mm, m, km
3 a pollen; b ovary
3 a eyepiece lens, b objective lens, c stage, 4 a anther; b stigma; c ovary; d petal;
d light source e filament
4 a Repeat using more cells of each type (to 5 Some insects, such as bees, use the nectar as a
ensure the estimates are similar). food source. They come to collect the nectar
b Palisade cells are in the top layer of a leaf and pollen sticks to them. When collecting
and so exposed to more sunlight and can nectar from another plant, they transfer the
carry out more photosynthesis than the pollen.
other cell types. 6 Pollen travels from the stigma down the style
5 a So that the cells and organelles can be seen. by growing a pollen tube. This travels to the
b To stop the liquid on the slide getting onto ovule where the pollen meets the egg cell. This
the objective lens. is fertilisation.
6 a 7 So that it cannot fertilise itself (this supports
m mm µm variation).
0.1    100    100 000 8 Pollination is the process of transferring
2.6 2600 2 600 000 pollen from the anther of one flowering plant
24.0 24 000 24 000 000 to the stigma of another flowering plant.
Fertilisation is the joining of the nucleus of the
b i 1 000 000 nm pollen cell with the nucleus of the egg cell of
ii 1 000 000 000 nm another flowering plant. Pollination (Antonia)
is one stage in plant reproduction and both
7 a i temperature
pollination and fertilisation (Akeeb) are needed
ii distance travelled to produce new plants. Therefore, it is difficult
b Does concentration affect diffusion? to say one is more important than the other.
8 Sample of cheek cells on a microscope 9 i  a is insect-pollinated plant; b is wind-
slide, stained with dye, observe and record pollinated plant
observations. ii Pollen is transferred to the stigma of
Add salt to the cells and observe under another plant during pollination.
microscope/observe over time, record Insect-pollinated flower has long style/
observations. elevated stigma to increase chances of an
Produce fresh slide of cell and repeat with insect rubbing pollen onto stigma as it visits
vinegar. the plant (e.g. to feed on nectar).
9 a ×100 Wind-pollinated flower has long, feathery
b 0.2 mm stigma to increase the chances of pollen
c 200 µm blowing in the wind landing on it. Being
feathery means low mass and easily blown.
10 a So that he could see the substance
diffusing. iii Two features compared, for example:
b i 4.0 Insect-pollinated flower is coloured to
attract insects; wind-pollinated flower is dull
ii 2.0 as does not need to attract insects.
c 1.5 g/l

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 Biology
Wind-pollinated flower has long filaments 7 a A fruit is what develops from the ovary of
and elevated anthers to allow pollen to be a plant after fertilisation. A fruit contains
blown off into the wind; insect-pollinated seeds, which develop from the ovules.
flower has shorter filaments as do not want b Courgettes and pea pods contain seeds
the pollen to be blown in the wind. inside and so are classed as fruits.
10 a i sugar concentration 8 Coconut – large to contain more nutrients
ii length of pollen tube for the seed. This is because it travels for long
iii Any two of: time; temperature; volume periods. Low mass for its size so that it floats
of solution added; the type of plant that on water.
the pollen is taken from. Sycamore – small and low mass so it travels
b i Thomas should repeat his investigation well in the wind. Has wings and aerodynamic
using a smaller range, focusing on shape to allow it to float and spin in the air.
concentrations between 10% and 20%. 9 a A 13–16 metres
Intervals can then be smaller, e.g. 2%. b independent variable: wind speed
ii Thomas repeated his readings to check dependent variable: distance travelled
for precision and calculated an average. c As wind speed increases, the distance
If any result does not fit with the repeats, travelled by the seeds increases.
a decision can be made to discount it. 10 a germination of seeds requires water
This allows for slight variation in results
and helps to ensure data can be used to b A 492 = 164
3
make conclusions.
iii 30 g glucose, 100 ml water B 552 = 184
3
c i (×4) × (×40) = ×160 c A 82%; B 92%
ii 32 mm = 32 000 µm d both
magnification = ×160 e Repeat the investigation but count the
number of germinated seeds every day for
so, actual length = 20 000 = 200 µm
160 10 days and calculate the germination rate
for each day. Identify the day on which the
2.2 Seed dispersal germination percentage reaches 80%.
1 a becomes a seed; b becomes a fruit;
c falls off; d falls off 2.3 Reproduction in humans
2 Any three from: wind; water; animals 1 reproductive; sperm; eggs
excreting; on animal fur; exploding pods.
2 The nucleus of the egg cell joining with the
3 a 100; 4 nucleus of sperm cell (combining the genetic
b increase material).
4 nutrients; grow; temperature; germination 3 A uterus; B oviduct; C ovary; D cervix;
5 Plants need light, water and nutrients. Moving E vagina
away from the parent plant means that it is 4 A sperm duct; B prostate gland; C urethra;
more likely that there will be more light (as not D testis; E scrotal sac; F penis
in the shade of parent plant) and more water 5 b
and nutrients available (as less taken from the 6 a passing sperm to the prostate gland;
soil by the parent plant).
b producing sperm; c controlling the
6 Ovules containing the fertilised egg cell temperature of the testes; d passing sperm
develop into seeds. Ovary develops into fruit. into the vagina
Fruit eaten by animal (but the seeds are not
7 a passing eggs from the ovary to the uterus;
digestible). Animal carries the seeds inside
them and then passes them out in their b producing eggs; c where sperm are
faeces. When conditions are suitable, seeds released during sexual intercourse; d where
germinate and new tomato plants grow from the foetus develops
the seeds. 8 Because the sperm travels to the uterus and
this is where fertilisation could happen.

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 Answers
9 a pollen; b ovule; c anther; d ovary 2.4 Puberty and the menstrual cycle
10 a microscope 1 puberty; reproduce; hormones
b A 15 000; B 8000; C 200 000 2 B
c i 9.4 million per ml 3 a males; b females; c both; d females
ii Yes 4 b 24–35 days
d Sperm may not be formed properly (e.g. 5 uterus
abnormal tail, small head) which means
that they cannot travel to the egg. 6 c
11 a Ovulation is when the egg is released from 7 a 15.5 years
the ovary. b 14 years
b The egg travels from the ovary along the 8 a to prepare for childbirth; b to prepare for
oviduct to the uterus (moved along by breastfeeding; c to prepare for transferring
movement of tiny hairs in the oviduct). sperm to the vagina; d to fertilise eggs
During intercourse, the penis transfers 9 Make males more attractive to females,
millions of sperm to the vagina. therefore more likely to find a partner to
The sperm travel from the vagina through reproduce with.
the cervix to the uterus. 10 Day 1 – c; Day 5 – a; Day 14 – b; Day 21 – d
One sperm penetrates the egg; chemicals 11 Karla is correct. The fertilised egg implants in
are released to prevent any other sperm the uterus lining. Menstruation is due to loss
entering. of the uterus lining. Therefore, menstruation
The nucleus of the sperm cell joins with the stops as uterus lining remains thick.
nucleus of the egg cell; this is fertilisation. 12 a Egg begins ripening in the ovary at
12 Both humans and flowering plants have male approximately day 5.
and female sex cells. Both have eggs as the Egg matures and is released into the
female sex cells, but plants have pollen and oviduct (ovulation); egg is fertilised in the
humans have sperm as the male sex cells. oviduct at approximately day 14.
A flowering plant contains both the female (Fertilised egg travels to uterus and implants
and male parts whereas humans contain either into uterus lining.)
male parts or female parts. b The length of cycle varies from female to
In flowering plants, male sex cells are made by female but also in one female from month
anthers; in humans, male sex cells are made by to month.
testes. c 104 (Each cycle is 28 days, so in 1 year
In both flowering plants and humans the (365 days) there are 13.0 cycles. In 8
female sex cells are made by the ovary. years = 13 × 8 = 104 cycles; one egg per
Fertilisation in both is the joining or fusing of cycle.)
the nuclei of the male sex cell and female sex 13 a i Ovulation is the release of a mature egg
cell to allow combining of genetic material. from the ovary. If this does not happen,
Both flowering plants and male humans or does not happen every month, there
produce millions of male sex cells. However, is no egg that can be fertilised.
flowering plants only produce pollen when the ii The oviduct is the tube that the egg is
stigmas are ready for fertilisation, whereas in released into and is fertilised in. If it is
humans, sperm is produced continuously (after blocked, eggs cannot travel down it and
puberty). so no fertilisation will happen.
In flowering plants, the male sex cell travels to iii Eggs are released from the ovary. If cysts
the egg cell down the style. In humans, sperm grow on the ovary, they can prevent the
also travels to the egg (in the uterus) but the eggs moving out and into the oviduct,
egg also must travel (to the uterus). meaning there is no egg to fertilise in
The offspring of flowering plants develop away the oviduct.
from the parent plant (following germination b i Hormones
of the seed), whereas in humans, offspring
develop inside the mother.

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ii Just i – lack of ovulation. Even if more b Medical advice is to avoid as smoking can
eggs are made, there will be no benefit cause lower birth weights. This data does
if there is a blockage in the oviduct or support the advice.
if an egg cannot move out of the ovary c i Study a larger sample.
due to cysts.
ii Collect and analyse data on how much
the mother smoked rather than just
2.5 Development of a foetus and the ‘smoker’ or ‘non-smoker’.
effect of lifestyle
1fertilised egg; embryo; foetus; baby Unit 2 maths and practical skills
2oxygen; glucose; vitamins 1 seconds
3b 2 a prediction; b validity; c repeatability
4i umbilical cord; ii placenta; iii uterus wall;
3 27 cm = 270 mm
iv amniotic fluid; v vagina
Magnification is ×3
5 a 16–20 weeks
b Foetuses develop at different rates and Actual size = 270 = 90 mm
3
we do not always know the exact date of 4 Any one from:
fertilisation. Wind-pollinated plants produce a smaller
c The mother’s use of a drug such as alcohol, volume of pollen grains than insect-pollinated
nicotine or marijuana; possibly genetics. plants.
6 a – ii; b – i; c – iv; d – iii Wind-pollinated plants produce more pollen
7 Nicotine is taken into the lungs as the mother grains than insect-pollinated plants.
smokes. The nicotine passes from the lungs
5 100 µm = 19.6
(across the alveoli) into the blood. The nicotine 5.1 µm
is carried in the blood to the placenta. At the 6 a ‘Does changing the concentration of sugar
placenta, the mother’s blood runs alongside affect how long pollen tubes grow?’
the foetus’s blood. Nicotine passes from the b 0–25%
mother’s blood to the foetal blood.
c As a control test/to show that sugar is
8 Advantages – useful substances can pass from causing the pollen tubes to grow.
the mother to the foetus, such as oxygen and
7 a That the evidence collected can answer the
nutrients such as glucose, digested protein,
question that has been asked.
vitamins and minerals. These allow the foetus
to grow and be healthy. Waste substances pass b Number of sperm (per unit volume) for
from the foetus to the mother, which could be men covering a range of ages.
harmful if they build up. c i age; ii number of sperm (per unit volume)
Disadvantages – harmful substances can also 8 a i mass; ii distance travelled
pass across the placenta from the mother to b add paperclips or sticky tack
the foetus, such as carbon monoxide, nicotine
c i g; ii mm/cm
(from cigarettes), alcohol and other drugs such
as cocaine or marijuana. These can increase d introduces another variable as the wind
the risk of stillbirth, premature birth or lower could affect how far the seeds travel
birth rate, as well as other issues such as e
Distance

asthma (nicotine and carbon monoxide), poor

development and learning difficulties.
9 a The time taken for cell division can vary in
length and so we use an average.
b 256 cells
6 days = (24 × 6) = 144 hours Mass

number of divisions = 144 = 8 9 a i smoking/non-smoking; ii sperm

18 concentration
10 a  i true; ii true; iii false; iv needs more
information; v false b anything sensible such as age, race

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 Answers
c to increase repeatability, ensure evidence is different and some are healthier for us than
consistent, spot anomalies others. Too much of certain fats, for example
d i Group 4 butter or meat fat, can be unhealthy.
Messages about removing or reducing fat
ii ignore it/do not include
intake usually refer to these less healthy fats.
e Smoking decreases the concentration of
8 a To help people to make healthy choices (for
sperm.
example, to lose or gain weight or to treat
10 a i At higher birth weights such as medical conditions) and to help people
4000–4999 g, there are more babies of with allergies to avoid allergens.
smokers than non-smokers; at 4500–
b 540 calories
4999 g there are more babies of smokers
than non-smokers; at 3500–3999 g, c 1.21 g
there are more babies of smokers than d 300 mg
non-smokers. 9 a starchy products, fruits and vegetables
ii At low birthweights such as 1000–1499 g, (these first two could be accepted in either
there are more babies of smokers than order); dairy products; proteins; foods high
non-smokers; at 1500–1999 g, there in fat and sugar
are more babies of smokers than non- b 1
smokers. 6
b Repeatability is the extent to which the c i dairy products and foods high in fat and
same results are achieved in repeats/larger sugar
sample size and so increasing the sample ii dairy products and foods high in fat and
size will improve repeatability. sugar
c i In surveys and observations of living iii carbohydrates and foods high in fat and
things, it is difficult to control all sugar
variables. The environment cannot be d Not all meals will contain these proportions
fully controlled as in a laboratory. or all of these food types. For example,
ii For example: genetics of the mother, during a day, one meal may contain more
diet of the mother, use of other drugs, carbohydrate and no fruit and vegetables
etc. (e.g. a meat sandwich), but the next meal
may contain lots of fruits and vegetables
Unit 3 Health and and protein (e.g. chicken salad). But overall,
the proportions will be as on the ‘eat well
­human systems plate’.
10 a Any three of: fewer joint problems; better
mobility; less risk of heart disease; less risk
3.1 Healthy diet
of diabetes.
1 c b Energy needs vary depending on size, age
2 a protein; b vitamins; c minerals; d fibre and level of activity and so needs will vary
3 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii from man to man and from woman to
woman.
4 a – iii; b – ii; c – iv; d – i
c i 9 slices (one slice of buttered toast
5 a i anaemia; ii rickets; iii scurvy
contains 435 kJ + 420 kJ = 855 kJ)
b i e.g. deformities in bones.
ii Toast and butter includes mainly
ii e.g. tiredness, bleeding gums, fever.
carbohydrate, fat and some fibre. Butter
c anaemia is not the best type of fat for health. Any
6 a Sample A contains sugar but no starch. sensible suggestions such as: reducing
Sample B contains both starch and sugar. this type of fat; introducing other food
b Sample A – honey; sample B – bread groups such as protein (fish, eggs, lean
7 a i meat); dairy products such as milk,
yoghurt; fruit and vegetables. Plus any
b We need fats to provide and store reasons for including those food groups
energy (and to help absorb vitamins). in her diet.
Misconceptions occur because fats are

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d i 10 500 kJ = 2500 calories; e Not enough carbohydrase enzyme means

4.2 that not all of the starch/carbohydrate
8400 kJ = 2000 calories would be digested to glucose. As glucose
ii is used to release energy (by respiration),
4.2
a lack of glucose would lead to a lack of
3.2 Human digestive system energy released and tiredness.

1 b 3.3 Effects of recreational drugs

2 small intestine
1 c
3 chemical
2 a painkillers; b stimulants; c depressants;
4 pancreas d hallucinogens
5 i – a; ii – b; iii – c; iv – d 3 a – iv; b – ii; c – i; d – iii
6 These yoghurts contain bacteria (bacteria are 4 a Drugs that are used for anything other
microorganisms). Some bacteria help digestion than a medical purpose, for example for
(by producing enzymes), and so these pleasure.
yoghurts can be useful to add to the bacteria
b They like the feeling it gives them, or it
in our digestive system.
hides another feeling.
7 a pH
5 a – iv; b – ii; c – i; d – iii
b Any two of: volume of protein solution (or
e Relax the patient, anaesthetic and provide
concentration); volume of enzyme solution
pain relief needed after the operation.
(or concentration); temperature.
6 They are useful medically, for example to treat
c stomach, as the stomach is acidic
sleep problems or anxiety. Many patients do
8 a i mechanical breakdown of food not experience serious side-effects if they use
ii digestion of food by enzymes them as prescribed.
b i small intestine; ii mouth or stomach 7 a any effect of a drug that is not its main
c chemical digestion purpose
9 a to move the food along the small intestine b The benefits outweigh the side-effects for
b diffusion people who are experiencing constant
serious pain and so for them it is worth the
c i shorter distance for molecules to risk.
move from the small intestine into the
bloodstream c i caffeine
ii there is always blood near the wall for ii Caffeine (stimulant) increases the
molecules to move into or maintains a heart rate, increasing the risk of heart
concentration gradient between small attack. After the high may come a
intestine and bloodstream fatigue, leading to increased tiredness.
It increases metabolism, could result in
iii provide a large surface area for the weight loss.
molecules to pass across
8 a  Different people might experience different
d i water is removed, making the waste side-effects; helps to be sure that the side-
(faeces) more solid effects observed are due to the energy drink
ii allows the waste (faeces) to leave the if lots of people experience them.
body b i
10 a carbohydrate (or starch) c This control group helps to show that
b Digestion breaks down the larger food the side-effects are caused by the energy
molecules to smaller food molecules. These drink; if the control group also experience
smaller molecules are then used to release the side-effects, it shows that they are not
energy in the body. caused by the energy drink.
c carbohydrase (or amylase) d Knowing whether or not you are drinking
d Enzymes carry out only one type of reaction the new energy drink could affect what
(e.g. only break down carbohydrates, people notice and record; this could
proteins or fats). influence the conclusions or observations
made.

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9 a Depressant – depression in the long term; b The risk of death is greater for all three
risk of death if overdose because it slows drugs when taken with other drugs. The
body systems down. number of deaths for all three is more than
Hallucinogen – depression and anxiety doubled when taken with other drugs (for
because the drugs affect the balance of ecstasy the number is 20 with other drugs,
chemicals in the brain; weight loss. compared to 6 on its own; for cocaine, 122
compared to 17; for heroin, 255 compared
b Advantage of cannabis: treatment of long-
to 130).
term pain.
c If the cost of the drugs decreases, people
Disadvantage of cannabis: side-effects, as
are more likely to be able to buy them, so
it is both a depressant and a hallucinogen,
drug use might increase and lead to an
such as those listed in part a.
increased number of deaths.
Advantage of making cannabis use legal:
people buying it, for example for treating 3.4 Human skeleton, joints and
pain, are not breaking the law and so
cannot be arrested or fined.
muscles
Disadvantages of making cannabis use legal 1 a; c
include: that it would become more freely 2 c
available, meaning more people might use 3 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii
the drug and experience side-effects; that
4 i – D; ii – B; iii – C; iv – A
it is also addictive, so more people may
become addicted. 5 d
Considering the evidence, I think … (any 6 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii
opinion, supported by evidence). 7 a protection
10 a i Use of depressants (e.g. heroin) can lead b i prevent the bones from breaking if they
to long-term depression; risk of coma bend slightly on contact
and death as the drug slows the nervous ii makes it easier to move the bones
system and body systems; can cause
c blood cells
vomiting which the user could choke
on; injecting can damage the veins and d The bones can have a lower mass (less
reduce circulation. dense), making it easier for birds to fly.
ii As drug use is expensive, families may 8 a where two bones meet
have less money available for essentials; b i fixed; ii ball and socket; iii hinge; iv pivot
family could be neglected as the addict c i They protect what is underneath the
spends time sourcing and taking drugs; bones.
families may need to care for the addict’s ii The different joints allow different types
medical needs. of movement, so a combination gives us
iii Addict may steal from others or greater movement overall.
businesses to fund their habit as it is so 9 a i 114 cm; ii 1.14 m
difficult to stop using; addict may need
lots of medical care, strain on health b Teenage boys are still growing and so the
service; addict may go to prison, causing body proportions cannot be accurately
strain on prison service and cost to predicted.
society to fund time in prison. 10 a Pairs of muscles that work together to move
b Alcohol is legal, more widely available, bones at a joint; as one contracts, the other
cheaper and more acceptable to use, and relaxes.
so more people use alcohol than use heroin. b i decreases in length, increases in breadth
As more people are exposed, there is more (shortens and fattens)
damage to the health of more people. ii it relaxes (returns to its original size)
11 a Heroin causes the most deaths compared to c Hamstring muscle contracts; it shortens
cocaine and ecstasy (cocaine causes more and fattens. At the same time, quadriceps
than ecstasy), with 130 deaths from heroin, relaxes; it returns to original size, upper leg
17 from cocaine, and 6 from ecstasy. moves down.

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11 a i Newtons (unit of force) 10 a i more area for gases to pass across
b i There will be variation between people ii shorter distance for the gases to pass
and an average takes into consideration across
those variations. A number of repeat iii the blood constantly moves the oxygen
measurements also allows a check on away allowing more oxygen to move
repeatability. into the blood (or keeps a concentration
ii If any results are anomalous, the tester gradient)
can choose to repeat the measurement if b i
there may have been an error, or choose
c i carbon dioxide
to ignore that reading.
ii respiration
c i, iv
11 a i volume in the lungs increases
3.5 Human breathing system ii pressure inside lungs decreases
1 a iii pressure inside lungs becomes less than
atmospheric pressure
2 b
iv air moves into the lungs
3 C; D; B; A
b i 9.5 – 3.8 = 5.7 kPa = 5700 Pa
4 a up and out; b down; c increases; d into
ii 3.8 kPa
5 d
c no overall movement (same movement into
6 a i balloons; ii elastic membrane; iii glass as out of the lungs)
tubing
b The bell jar cannot move whereas the Unit 3 maths and practical skills
ribcage can (or the bell jar does not have
1 d
muscles, the ribcage does).
7 a i decreased 2 127 × 3 = 381 kcal
ii increased 3 d
b pascals, Pa
8 a A 5.8 l; B 5.7 l; C 6.3 l
4 b
b i 3.4 l
ii 6.1 l 5 a type of exercise; b breathing rate
c height, amount of exercise 6 a 4.8 l
9 a the volume of air breathed out following a b new result would be higher
big breath in 7 a A starch only; B sugar only; C protein only
b so that you are measuring the full lung b i – B; ii – C; iii – A
volume c ii
c i Exercise does not have an instant effect, 8 a stimulant
it takes regular exercise over time to
b Stimulants cause temporary increase in
change muscles or fitness.
energy and alertness but this may lead to a
ii to have a comparison at the end (as a period of fatigue following the ‘high’; risk of
baseline) heart attack because of increased heart rate;
iii It allows a comparison to be made; weight loss.
helps to ensure any changes are due to c The public tend to trust and respect
exercise. medical people and so are likely to be
iv Regular exercise leads to an increase in convinced that smoking is not bad for you/
lung volume. may like to copy doctors.
v Exercise strengthens the muscles d This could mean that the companies
between the ribs, this means that the ribs funding the research may look for any
move further up and out on a breath in, evidence to suggest that smoking is not bad
increasing the chest space. for you, rather than being open about the
evidence; idea that this is not impartial as

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the cigarette companies have something to 9 Bread contains starch.
gain from a specific finding of the research Digestion takes place and enzymes break
(smoking does not cause cancer). down starch to glucose.
9 a i agar gel; ii red food colouring; iii water Honey contains glucose molecules and so
b The red food colouring would have spread digestion is not needed.
further (or more of the water would be red). Glucose travels in the bloodstream to cells.
c The food colouring diffuses from a higher The breathing system brings air into the body.
concentration, in the gel, to a lower
Oxygen travels in the bloodstream to cells.
concentration, in the water.
In the cells, glucose and oxygen move into the
10 a i small intestine; ii bloodstream
mitochondria.
b i Starch was broken down into glucose by
Glucose and oxygen react in respiration,
the amylase enzyme.
releasing energy.
ii Glucose molecules moved through the
10 a carbon dioxide
Visking tubing into the water.
b to absorb carbon dioxide
iii Starch molecules are too large to move
through the holes in the tubing. c To show that there is no carbon dioxide in
the air as it reaches the insects and seeds.
c i temperature; ii presence of glucose;
This means any carbon dioxide is produced
iii any two of: concentration of enzyme,
only by the insects and seeds.
concentration of starch (or volumes of
solutions), incubation time; iv 20–60 °C d Limewater turns cloudy because the insects
and seeds produce carbon dioxide.

Unit 4 Respiration and e The limewater would stay colourless because

the soda lime would absorb any carbon

photosynthesis dioxide produced by the insects and seeds.

11 a We cannot count thousands of mitochondria
accurately but we can count the number
4.1 Aerobic respiration in a small area and then estimate the total
1 muscles; temperature; energy; oxygen number. Also cells will vary in the number of
2 glucose; water mitochondria they have.
3 b, d b bar chart
4 d c bar chart sketch similar to below, no actual
numbers plotted
5 a – iii; b – ii; c – i; d – iv
6 a
Number of mitochondria per cell

7 a  A – inner membrane; B – outer membrane;

C – matrix; D – cristae
b i highly folded, increases the surface area
for respiration
ii contains enzymes needed for respiration.
c Respiration takes place in cristae. More
respiration is possible in the mitochondrion
in part c because there are more cristae
(larger surface area).
skin muscle liver brain kidney
8 Breathing is the physical process that moves
air in and out of the lungs. It involves oxygen d muscle, liver, kidney, brain, skin
because we use the oxygen from the air that
we breathe in (and breathe out the carbon
15
e 525 µm3 100 ( ) × 3500
dioxide that we produce).
Respiration is a chemical reaction in cells that 4.2 Anaerobic respiration
uses the oxygen we have breathed in. It is 1 a true; b true; c false; d true
a reaction between oxygen and glucose to
2 b, c
release water and energy.

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3 a – iv; b – iii; c – ii; d – i c bar chart, because the independent variable
4 a, c (type of sugar) has three distinct or discrete
categories
5 a – ii; b – i; c – iv; d – iii
6 a to activate the yeast
4.3 The importance of respiration
b for respiration
1 digestive; breathing; circulatory; skeletal
c to collect and deliver all the gas to the
beaker of water 2 b, c
d to enable students to see the bubbles of 3 a mitochondria; b cytoplasm
carbon dioxide released 4 a, c
7 a ii, iii 5 a i anaerobic; ii aerobic
b i ethanol; ii carbon dioxide b i, iii
c i carbon dioxide; ii carbon dioxide 6
8 a 1 aerobic; 2 aerobic; 3 anaerobic (or both Reactants Products Amount
aerobic and anaerobic); 4 aerobic of energy
b 3 fast sprint (or at least part of it) (more/
c muscles ache less)
d Lactic acid builds up during the sprint as Aerobic glucose, carbon more
the man respires anaerobically. This lactic respiration oxygen dioxide,
acid can be broken down using oxygen. water
After the sprint, the man breathes heavily Anaerobic glucose lactic acid less
to get more oxygen into his body to break respiration
down the lactic acid (convert it to glucose).
The oxygen needed to break down the 7 a – iii; b – ii; c – i
lactic acid is the oxygen debt.
8 a speed reactions up
e Anaerobic respiration releases energy, not as
b carbohydrase (or amylase) enzyme
much as aerobic respiration but the energy
is useful to the man. c aerobic as more energy is released (from
glucose)
9 a As temperature increases up to 25 °C the
number of bubbles increases, but after 9 a Glucose can be broken down to release
25 °C the number of bubbles decreases. energy as and when it is needed.
b b i muscles and liver; ii in fat reserves
Number of bubbles

10 a Respiration releases energy, without

per minute

respiration we would not have the energy

we need to move, grow, keep body
temperature constant.
b i The digestive system digests
carbohydrates to release glucose. Glucose
Temperature (°C)
is used in both aerobic and anaerobic
c Allows to check for repeatability. If the respiration. Without digestion, glucose
results from each student are similar, they would not be available for respiration.
can be more sure to rely on them. ii The breathing system brings oxygen into
d i 0–85 °C; ii 15–35 °C the body; oxygen is used in respiration.
10 a i type of sugar; ii number of bubbles; Without breathing in, oxygen would not
iii any two from: mass of sugar, be available for respiration. The breathing
temperature, mass of yeast, volume of system removes carbon dioxide from the
warm water body. Without breathing out, we would
b i sucrose, Trial 2 not get rid of the carbon dioxide and it
would stay in the body.
ii ignore the result when calculating
averages c Digestion uses muscles, for example, in
the stomach and intestines. Breathing
iii A – 22 bubbles; B – 13 bubbles; uses muscles, for example, between the
C – 7 bubbles

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ribs. Muscles need energy to contract. During the day, respiration uses oxygen
Without enough respiration, the muscles and photosynthesis produces oxygen, so
would not have enough energy to contract oxygen concentration increases.
and so breathing and digestion would be c i sunset; ii sunrise
impaired.
11 a i Increases the number of bubbles as rate
11 a i 13 400 (67 million/5000); ii the number of photosynthesis increases.
of affected people will vary, 1 in 5000 is an
ii Decreases the number of bubbles as rate
average estimate.
of photosynthesis decreases.
b Muscles need the most energy (to
iii No effect on the number of bubbles as
contract); the heart is a muscle.
does not affect rate of photosynthesis.
c i growth needs energy; ii digestion needs
b This is a control test; shows that any
energy, for example, muscles contract in
bubbles are due to the pondweed.
the stomach and intestines
c A, because higher rate of photosynthesis at
4.4 Photosynthesis A (rate at A = 1.2 bubbles per second; rate
at B = 0.5 bubbles per second).
1 water; oxygen
2 c 4.5 Adaptations of plants for
3 c ­photosynthesis
4 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii 1 a roots; b leaves; c leaves; d roots
5 light (the Sun) 2 b, c
6 a i both photosynthesis and respiration; 3 A guard cell; B nucleus; C stoma
ii only respiration 4 a – iv; b – i; c – ii; d – iii
b Night time, because respiration 5 a, c
produces carbon dioxide and there is no
photosynthesis to remove the carbon 6 a i take in water from the soil; ii form a
dioxide. pipeline to move water up the plant from
the roots
7 a i temperature; ii number of bubbles or rate
of photosynthesis; iii any one from: light b dry, windy, hot
intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, 7 a i 0.05 mm; ii 50 µm
volume of water b i it will decrease; ii it will decrease
b 60 °C 8 a light may be limited in shady areas
8 a No, because there is no carbon dioxide. b i allows light to reach the leaves underneath
b Orange, because no starch would as well; ii the leaves underneath are not too
have been produced as there was no shaded
photosynthesis. 9 a gas exchange – carbon dioxide moves in,
c Carbon dioxide allows photosynthesis to oxygen moves out, water moves out
happen, this produces oxygen. b i – B; ii – A; iii – D; iv – C
9 a i – A; ii – D; iii – C; iv – B c 655 (10.4 × 63 = 655.2 but round down to
b  C, because it allows the highest rate of whole stomata)
photosynthesis. D would also allow the d Bar chart because there are distinct values
highest rate of photosynthesis but would for the variable ‘environment’ (low, high,
cost more than C, because more carbon etc.), rather than a range of values.
dioxide is needed to produce only a slightly 10 a i let light through so can reach the cells
higher rate of photosynthesis. that absorb light for photosynthesis
10 a i product; ii reactant ii long and narrow so can fit in more
b Sunrise – there has been no photosynthesis cells; chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
overnight, so no oxygen produced to absorb light, so more chloroplasts
overnight. But respiration has taken place at top where light does not have far
and this uses oxygen. Therefore, by sunrise, to travel
oxygen concentration is low.

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iii chloroplasts contain chlorophyll to
absorb light, air spaces allow gases to Unit 5 Ecosystems and
move within the leaf
iv open to allow carbon dioxide in and
­interdependence
close to stop too much water being lost 5.1 Food webs and interdependence
b i contain lots of chloroplasts, absorb lots of
sunlight 1 a
ii water evaporates from stomata, so being 2 c
underneath guard cells can close stomata 3 biomass; chain; web; energy
to reduce water loss 4 a
5 a – iii; b – ii; c – i
Unit 4 maths and practical skills 6 a parasitism; b mutualism; c commensalism
1 c 7 a i increase as more food available
2 a 9000 µm (30 × 300); b 9 mm ii increase as fewer trout eaten
iii decrease – if frogs decrease, fewer for
3 a number of bubbles; b distance from lamp
kingfisher to eat and so kingfisher may eat
4 a more trout, trout decrease (or decrease in
5 a carbon dioxide; b turns cloudy (milky) frogs means fewer dragonfly and pond fly
eaten, so they increase; more waterweed
6 a 20% (3/15 min – sprint time divided by the eaten, waterweed decreases, less food for
total time) prawns and carp, they decrease; less food
b paying back the oxygen debt to break for trout, trout decrease)
down the lactic acid built up during b 5 (waterweed ➝ pond fly ➝ dragonfly
anaerobic respiration ➝ frog ➝ snake/kingfisher)
7 a B 8 a leaf litter ➝ worm ➝ shrew
b C b i decreases; ii organisms use some of the
c more of structure B in a muscle cell energy to move, grow, etc.
8 a i to activate the yeast; ii so that yeast can c light (photosynthesis)
respire; iii to deliver the gas to the water d As the energy decreases at each level, there
(so can count bubbles) would not be enough energy for animals at
b carbon dioxide higher trophic levels.
c i mass of sugar; ii number of bubbles; 9 a i Predator population increasing as prey
iii any two from: mass of yeast, time population increased just before, so
bubbles counted for, volume of water more food for predator.
added to yeast, type of sugar, temperature ii Prey population decreasing as predator
9 a i removes chlorophyll (and waxy layer); population increased previously, so more
ii test for starch prey eaten.
b i starch is present where the leaf is blue/ iii Predator population decreasing as prey
black; ii photosynthesis has taken place population decreased just before, so less
where starch is present food for predator.
10 a i number of bubbles per minute; iv Prey population increasing as predator
ii temperature population decreased previously, so less
prey eaten.
b 40 °C
b i Prey will decrease as more being eaten.
c i result at 50 °C; ii for example: counted
bubbles incorrectly, incorrect temperature ii Original predators will decrease as some
measurement prey will be eaten by other predators so
fewer prey available.
d i 60 °C, Trial 2; ii lower as from the graph
a higher temperature was likely to produce c competition
fewer bubbles; iii ignore the anomaly, 51.7, 10 a i star grass, red oat grass or acacia
60.0, 45.0, 33.0 bubbles per minute ii pangolin or aardvark
iii termite, dung beetle, mouse

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 Answers
b i red oat grass c i type of insect
ii Pangolin feeds on harvester ant; if ii number of visits to the flowers
star grass and red oat grass decrease, iii Not all visits to a flower will result in
harvester ant decreases; therefore, the insect picking up pollen and not all
pangolin will decrease. visits to another plant will result in pollen
c If one food source decreases, organisms being transferred.
have other food sources in a food web; this 10 a 06:00–07:00
increase chances of survival.
b 10:00–11:00
5.2 The importance of insects c Repeat the same observations another
two times.
1 d d 06:00–07:00
2 a e any two of: temperature, light levels,
3 a smaller; b lower; c more; d decreased weather (for example, raining or dry), wind
4 c–a–d–b speed, time of year, same location
5 a i Asia and Middle East; ii Europe (only
region to decrease) 5.3 Impact of organisms on their
b Europe (only region to decrease) ­environment
6 a Any suggestions that would lead to bee 1 d
colony reduction, for example, weather, 2 a
use of pesticides, disease, colony collapse 3 a – ii; b – iii; c – i
disorder.
4 a – ii; b – i; c – iv; d – iii
b apples 750 kg; pears 600 kg; tomatoes
11 kg; cucumbers 22 kg 5 c
c 70% 6 b
7 a i 18% 7 a Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and
methane) trap heat within the Earth’s
ii for example, if they are hungry regularly atmosphere.
or can only afford non-nutritious food
b i releases carbon dioxide; ii as waste
b beverages decomposes, methane is released;
8 a Food security is the availability of sufficient iii fewer trees to take in carbon dioxide,
food for all people at all times. so the level of carbon dioxide in the
b Monoculture is growing only one crop over atmosphere increases
vast areas; the image shows rows of the 8 a ii, iii
same plant in a large field. Polyculture is b A – water weed; B – otter; C – small fish;
growing more than one crop in the same D – large fish
area; the image shows a range of plants in
the same field. c The toxin accumulates through the food
chain and is more concentrated in the
c i There is only food for bees when that otter than in the water weed due to
one plant flowers, and no other food. bioaccumulation. (Or Small fish eat more
ii Lack of variety of plants might mean that than one piece of water weed, big fish
not all nutrients that insects need are eat more than one small fish, otter eats
provided. more than one large fish and so the toxin
d It is a way of generating income because becomes more concentrated.)
cocoa is a high-income crop. 9 a the variety of animal and plant species
9 a to feed on nectar inside the plants b the toucan
b Different insects may pollinate different c Any two suggestions that would help
plants so a wider range of plants can exist; survival, for example: create more habitats
if numbers of one pollinator decrease, for the birds in the forest to allow more
pollination can still continue by another places for the birds to live, nest and feed;
insect. start a captive breeding programme to
ensure that new offspring are born (and

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 Biology
then reintroduce them back into the c bigeye, as it contains the highest
rainforest); ensure restrictions are in place concentration of methylmercury per kg
to prevent capturing or hunting the birds. 9 a i as length increases, mercury
10 a i 12.8; ii 4.0 concentration increases; ii yes
b i amount of light; ii number of dandelions b bigeye, because it contains the highest
c More dandelions are found where there concentration of toxin
is more sunlight (or fewer dandelions are c 300 m
found where there is less light). 10 a 1 2 3 4 5 6
d i 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25 m2 1
ii Either 3080 2
(6 quadrats have area of 0.25 × 6 = 1.5 m2 3
total area of field = 10 × 6 = 60 m2 4
so, total field is 60 ÷ 1.5 = 40 times 5
bigger than quadrat area 6
total of 77 dandelions in 6 quadrats in
full sunlight b it makes the areas sampled random,
removes bias
so, total dandelions in field =
77 × 40 = 3080) c 0.5 m
Or 3072 d i 1/6; ii 108 (18 × 6)
(area of field = 10 × 6 = 60 m2 e Repeat the sampling in the future at regular
intervals over time. The data should then
number of quadrats in field =
be analysed to look for changes in number
60 ÷ 0.25 = 240
over time.
one quadrat average = 12.8 dandelions
total dandelions in field =
12.8 × 240 = 3072) Unit 6 Inheritance
11 a a chemical that causes harm
b mercury affects the nervous system
and evolution
c i 50; ii 2500; iii 20 000; iv 200 000 6.1 Types and causes of variation
d orca whale because it contains highest 1 a, c
concentration of mercury
2 b, c
e i decrease; ii no effect
3 a continuous; b continuous; c discontinuous;
Unit 5 maths and practical skills d discontinuous
4 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii
1 c
5 a i  examples such as: eye colour, hair colour,
2 b blood group, flower colour
3 b ii examples such as: scars, dyed hair colour,
tattoos
4 a
iii examples such as: weight, height, fitness,
5 b–c–a–d freckles, plant height, seed size, leaf
6 a iv; b 16 Mha; c tree cover loss has patterns
increased over time b iii
7 a 9 m2; b 0.0625 m2; c 22% (220 ÷ 10) 6 a positive; b no correlation; c positive; d no
correlation
7 a Discontinuous as there are discrete
8 a i albacore, sample 3 (0.02); ii ignore it/do categories (only a limited number of
not include it values).
b yellowfin – 0.21; albacore – 0.27;
bigeye – 0.45

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 Answers
b c Mass extinction is the extinction of a large
14 number of species; extinction can describe
12 the extinction of just one species.
Number of pupils 10
8
8 a i increased; ii decreased
6 b White mice are less well camouflaged,
4 so more eaten; dark mice are better
2 camouflaged, so fewer eaten.
0
brown black blond red c 2006 and 2008 as that is when the number
Hair colour of dark mice started to increase and the
number of white mice decrease.
8 a 9
9 a i bird; ii moth
b i 80%; ii 15%
b i pale, peppered moth because it is better
c The larger sample size means the results are camouflaged/less likely to be eaten
likely to be more accurate.
ii dark, black moth because it is better
9 a unlikely to get sick from the virus/their camouflaged/less likely to be eaten
bodies have immunity to the virus
c Before: more light, peppered moths
b Group A would survive but Group B could because they were better camouflaged and
die. less likely to be eaten.
c Group B would survive but Group A could During: the number of light, peppered moths
die. decreased and the number of dark, black moths
d Whichever virus they are exposed to, some increased, as the black moths were better
rabbits are likely to survive. If there was camouflaged and less likely to be eaten. This
no variation and no rabbits were resistant meant that the black moths were more likely to
to the virus causing myxomatosis, for reproduce and pass on their genetic material
example, all rabbits could die. and more black moths were produced.
10 a i independent; ii dependent; iii control 10 a To produce animals or plants with desirable
b As the height of the leaves increases, the features; could give examples such as
number of spikes per leaf decreases. produce lots of meat, lean meat, disease
c resistance, flower size.
Number of leaf spikes

b i, ii
c decreases variation
d Any two factual descriptions, such
as: because variation is decreased the
population may not be able to survive
if the environment changes; can lead to
deformities in the offspring.
Height of leaves e Select parent plants that produce large
flowers. Of the offspring, choose those
6.2 Natural selection and evolution plants that produce large flowers and
1 compete; variation; adapted; extinct breed from those. Repeat over several
generations.
2 d–b–a–c
11 Peacocks are in competition for mates.
3 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii
Coloured feathers are more attractive to
4 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii peahens and so these peacocks have a
5 a – iii; b – i; c – ii selective advantage. Coloured feather
6 b, c peacocks are more likely to reproduce and
pass on their genetic material. This is natural
7 a when no individuals of that species are alive
selection. This results in more offspring
b If a virus enters the population and no with coloured feathers. Repeating this over
cheetahs have resistance to it, as there is many generations leads to all having coloured
little variation, all animals could be killed, feathers. This is evolution.
species could become extinct.

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6.3 The role of chromosomes, 4 a true; b true; c false; d true
genes and DNA in heredity 5 a – ii; b – iii; c – i; d – iv
1 b, c 6 a 4
2 nucleus; chromosomes; DNA; genes; hair b because it has inherited genetic
information/genes from both parents
3 a
7 a A fertilised egg splits into two.
4 a – iii; b – iv; c – i; d – ii
b Each twin inherits the same genes as they
5 b, c
develop from the same sperm and egg. As
6 a true; b false; c false; d true eye colour and hair colour are controlled by
7 a nucleus genes, these will be the same in both twins.
b Genes control characteristics; could give c Yes, as blood group is genetic/inherited.
examples such as eye colour, blood group d Fingerprint development is also affected by
(made of sequences of bases, A, C, G and T). the environment.
c Red blood cells have no nucleus, and so 8 a iii
have no chromosomes.
b the same probability: 1 in 4 or 25%
8 a Any three from: blood, saliva, semen, hair,
c 3
skin.
9 a i R; ii r; iii Rr; iv red
b The DNA profile of the substance may be
matched to the person under suspicion to b Because one (dominant) allele controls the
show they have been at the scene, as DNA colour rather than the effects of the two
profiles are unique. alleles mixing.
c Police can show that the DNA from the cow 10 a brown (as it is denoted by the capital letter)
is similar to some cows from the farm from b blue
which it was stolen (as they are related). c b, b
d Objects such as pictures are non-living and d bb, bb
do not contain DNA. e brown; brown; blue; blue
9 a i egg; ii sperm
Father Mother
b 24
Bb bb
c i, iii
10 a karyotype eye brown
colour
b female, because have two X chromosomes
(XX) (male would have XY)
c there would be half the chromosomes/only possible B b
sex cells
one of each pair
d because one of each pair comes from each
parent offspring Bb Bb
e 47 alleles
f 14 eye
colour
11 a bases
f 1 in 2 or 50% or 1:1
b TAAGAC
c mutation Unit 6 maths and practical skills
d protein
1 d
e i yes; ii no; iii yes; iv yes
2 a – ii; b – i; c – iii
6.4 Explaining inheritance 3 b
1 b, c 4 a – iii; b – ii; c – i
2 a, d
5 a, d
3 a father’s; b mother’s; c parents’; d different
6 b

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 Answers
7 a continuous Particles in a gas have higher energy than
b 177 particles in a liquid. Liquid particles move/
flow over and around each other, gas particles
c i as height increases, lung volume
move quickly in all directions.
increases; ii positive
8 A sponge contains tiny holes full of air. When
8 a continuous
the sponge is compressed, the air escapes.
b 3
9 a More particles of air are pumped into the
c 22 tyre so there are more collisions with the
d 16–19 m inside walls of the tyre.
e 0–31 m b The pressure would increase, regardless of
9 a identical twins share the same genes; the temperature.
b less c  The particles of gas will be moving more.
c i identical; ii yes They will hit the wall of the tyre more
10 a i 1 in 2 or 50% or 1:1; ii 1 in 2 or 50% frequently and with more force.
or 1:1 10 If oil is more viscous than water, this suggests
b i 1 in 2 or 50% or 1:1; ii 1 in 4 or 25% that the forces between particles in oil are
or 1:3 stronger than those in water. This would make
it more difficult for the particles in oil to slide
c 90
past each other, which would mean that oil
flows less easily than water.
Unit 7 The particulate 11 a A and E

nature of matter b B and F

7.2 Changes of state

7.1 The properties of different states
of matter 1 a – ii; b – iv; c – i; d – iii
2 a boiling point
1 a – iii; b – i; c – ii
b  Energy is transferred to the particles. The
2 b particles move around more quickly. The
3 solids forces/attractions between the particles are
4 no broken/overcome.
5 The particles in a solid are in fixed positions, 3 0 °C
but the particles in a liquid can slide past 4 solid to a gas (without becoming a liquid)
each other. Solids have very strong forces 5 a In the ice, the particles vibrate in fixed
between the particles which hold them in their positions. As the ice is heated, the particles
positions. The forces between the particles in gain more energy and vibrate more in
solid

liquids are quite strong, but not strong enough the fixed positions. As the solid melts, the
to keep the particles in position. particles are free to move and slide past
6 a Air is a gas. There is nothing between the one another.
particles in a gas, the particles are spaced
solid liquid

out, the particles can be pushed closer

b to
together.
b The pressure increases. liquid

c Refreeze the water back into ice.

c  The gas particles are closer together inside
the syringe. 6 No the water is not boiling. For the water
to be boiling its temperature would need to
d There are still the same number of gas be 100 °C. Evaporation can happen at any
particles/atoms inside the syringe. temperature between the melting point of a
7 The forces between particles in liquids liquid and its boiling point.
are stronger than in gases. Gases can be 7 It would condense into a liquid.
compressed, but liquids cannot. The space
between particles in a gas is much bigger than 8 Gas. −26 °C is higher than the boiling point of
in a liquid, where the particles are touching. chlorine.

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9 Metals with stronger forces between particles 3 The particles in a solid are in fixed positions
will have higher melting points. and cannot move freely.
4 The bottle contains a high concentration of
7.3 Atoms, elements and compounds perfume particles and the classroom a low
1 element concentration. The perfume particles spread
2 a from the area of high concentration to the area
of low concentration.
3 a – ii; b – i; c – ii; d – i
5 The particles in liquid move more slowly as
4 a false; b true; c true; d false they have less energy than those in a gas.
5 carbon dioxide, ammonia 6 b
6 An atom is the smallest part of a substance. 7 The higher the temperature, the faster the
Elements are made of atoms. In an element, all rate of diffusion. This is because the higher the
the atoms are the same. temperature, the more energy the particles
7 b have and the faster they move.
8 Student A – Water is a compound; it is made 8 a Any two from: temperature, wind, humidity.
of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen, b Any two from: size of material; volume of
chemically bonded together. water soaked into the material; time on the
Student B – Air is a mixture of different washing line.
elements and compounds. The elements and c Measure the mass of the material after it
compounds in air are not chemically bonded has been soaked in water and again after a
to each other, so air is not a compound. set amount of time on the washing line.
Rather, it is a mixture.
9 Gas will diffuse out of the cell because the
9 Atoms are too small to be seen. The model can concentration of gas inside the cell is higher
help explain properties and observations of than outside. Gas will diffuse down the
solids, liquids, gases and reactions. concentration gradient out of the cell.
10 3 10 Smaller particles diffuse faster than larger
11 a 4; b 2:1:4 particles. Smaller particles will move faster than
12 2:1; H2O larger ones at any given temperature as they
have more kinetic energy.
7.4 Conservation of mass
1 c 7.6 Energy changes
2 b 1 degrees Celsius, °C
3 50 g 2 a
4 c 3 c
4 As the particles are heated, they move around
more quickly.
5 100 g
6 because a gas is formed, which escapes into ( 23.5 + 23.3 + 23.4)
5 a mean = = 23.4
the surrounding air 3
b yes
7 The mass would stay the same. c All the values are very similar to each
8 c other. Measurements are repeatable when
9 A gas is formed, which escapes into the the same person carries out the same
surrounding air. experiment under the same conditions and
gets similar results.
10 The magnesium reacts with a gas (oxygen) in
the air and combines with it. The mass of the 6 Accuracy describes how close something is to
magnesium and the gas (oxygen) has a greater the true value. An accurate measurement is
mass than the magnesium at the start. very close to the true value. Precision describes
how close together, or spread out, repeated
7.5 Diffusion measurements are from each other. Precise
measurements are close together.
1 i high; ii low; iii equal
7 The temperature remains constant/the same.
2 false

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 Answers
8 a A; b the water is boiling
Unit 8 Pure and
9 a The ice was changing state. The energy was
being used to overcome the forces between impure substances
particles/attraction between the water
molecules in the ice. 8.1 Working safely in the laboratory
b After the ice has melted, the energy is
1 a – iv; b – i; c – ii; d – iii
increasing the kinetic energy/movement
of the water particles (molecules), which 2 yellow
increases the temperature.
3 a – ii; b – iii; c – i; d – iv
c 50 g
4 These are some possible hazards and control
10 a, d
measures. You may identify others.
11 70 °C. At this temperature the line on the
graph is flat, the temperature is not changing, Hazard Steps to reduce risk
which means there is a change in state. Room glass • Keep glassware away from edge
temperature is about 20 °C and stearic acid breakage of bench.
is solid at room temperature. The stearic acid • Use a dustpan and brush to
is changing from a liquid to a solid, so 70 °C remove broken glass and place in
represents its melting point. a glass bin.
Unit 7 maths and practical skills • Tell the teacher and do not pick it
up with fingers.
1 b • Place the test tube in a test tube
2 diffusion rack once finished.

3
(65 + 72 + 57) = 64.7 = 65 seconds to 2 sf hot liquid • Point the tube away from the
3 may leave body and face, and away from
(Remember, you normally give the answer the tube others.
to the same number of decimal places as the when • Do not heat the tube strongly.
numbers in the question, unless the question heating
• Do not heat the tube with a
asks for something different. In this case, Bunsen burner directly; instead,
the numbers in the question are given to 2 place the tube in a water bath to
significant figures.) heat it.
4 a liquid to gas (boiling) • If hot liquid does spill on the skin,
b to prevent burning of hands on hot can rinse the area under the cold tap
c condenses back to a liquid for 10 minutes.
d Pressure decreases. The particles are moving liquid • Tell the teacher.
around less, they are hitting the walls of the spillage • Use a wet cloth to wipe away the
can less frequently and with less force. spill.
e The gas pressure outside the can was • Rinse the cloth and wipe again.
greater than the gas pressure inside the can. • Dry with a paper towel and wash
The pressure outside the can was enough to hands thoroughly.
crush the can.
hot • Do not touch the equipment
5 a 883 °C; b gas; c aluminium; equipment until it has cooled down.
d 660 to 883 °C • If hot equipment is touched, cool
6 In the bowl of hot water, the air inside the the burn for 10 minutes with cold
bottle is heated. The hot air inside the bottle running water.
consists of air particles with high kinetic paper by • Remove all flammable materials
energy. When the bottle is placed in the cold the Bunsen from the workspace.
water the air particles transfer energy to the burner
bottle walls and their kinetic energy reduces.
5 accurately
The collisions of air particles on the bottom
of the egg are less frequent than those on the
top, so the egg is pushed into the bottle.

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6 Time (s) Water temperature (°C) 4 a the water was a clear blue colour/the
copper sulfate crystals could not be seen
  0 22
b i
20
c the student could warm the solution/the
40 student could stir the solution
60 5 d filtration
80 6 a the water had evaporated
100 b The white substance would have been
120 dissolved in the tap water. After the water
evaporated the solid was left.
Time is on the left-hand side, as this is the 7 a Iron is magnetic and so it can be removed
independent variable. from the mixture using a magnet.
Time is measured in seconds, so it is included b Iron and sulfur have undergone a chemical
in the heading but not the rows. reaction. They are now chemically joined
Time starts at 0 and we know that the starting to make iron sulfide. This compound has
water temperature is 22 °C. different properties to the separate elements.
Water temperature is measured in °C, so 8 The stain was soluble in ethanol but it was not
include this in the heading but not in the rows. soluble in water.
Time increases by 20 seconds up to 2 minutes 9 a 125 g; b 88 g (accept 86–89 g)
(120 seconds).
10 a 22 °C
7 a  balance, measuring cylinder, stop watch/
stop clock/timer, or any other sensible b thermometer wrapped in dry cotton wool
equipment c 
When the thermometer is wrapped in
b thermometer/digital thermometer/ wet cotton wool, the water or ethanol
temperature logger evaporating from the cotton wool will
lower the temperature because the process
c The amount of water and the amount of requires heat energy. Energy is transferred
coffee powder. The student should carry to the water or ethanol molecules, allowing
out everything else in exactly the same way, them to make the transition from liquid
such as the number of stirs and the timing to gas. This energy transfer makes the
method. temperature of the thermometer drop.
8 a The results were repeated four times but
they are not all close to each other, so they 8.3 Pure substances
are not very precise. The value 4.7 minutes
appears to be an anomaly as it is not close 1 b
to any of the other three readings. It should 2 a, c, d
be discarded. The other readings are then 3 a
within 0.5 minutes of each other, which is
4 No, they are not the same. Chemically pure
similar to the readings for 1.0 g of reactant.
substances are made from one type of element
The mean is
or one type of compound only. Naturally pure
(3.0 + 2.5 + 2.8) ÷ 3 = 2.8 minutes.
substances are made in nature and are free
b It is likely to be a source of random error. from artificial additives, but can contain many
This is because the time taken for the elements and/or compounds.
student to notice the amount of gas, and to
5 a
stop the timer, may vary. This is difficult to
predict and to control. 6 c
7 b
8.2 Mixtures 8 c The chemical formula of the substance. If
the formula shows only one type of atom,
1 filter funnel, filter paper, conical flask/beaker/
the substance is an element. If the formula
boiling tube
shows two or more types of atom, the
2 b substance is a compound. A compound
3 c, d contains two or more elements chemically
bonded together.
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 Answers
9 impurities are present/the air pressure has vapour. Vapour rises and passes down
increased the condenser. Cold water around the
10 18 karat gold: (18 ÷ 24) × 100 = 75% gold condenser cools the vapour, so it condenses
to a liquid and collects in the beaker.
9 karat gold: (9 ÷ 24) × 100 = 37.5% gold
c distillation (simple distillation)
11 a 
No, it is not a pure substance. It contains d Less distillate would form as the vapour
99.9% silver, which means it has some would not cool down and condense to be
impurities (0.1%). collected. The vapour will stay as a gas and
b 
Scandinavian silver contains 83% silver be lost into the surrounding air.
and 17% other metals (100 – 83 = 17). 9 a A – The condenser has an outer tube where
Scandinavian silver therefore contains less cold water circulates and an inner tube that
silver than sterling silver and is less pure. the vapour travels down.
b Less distillate will be collected. The
8.4 Distillation condenser is unlikely to fill completely with
1 heating, cooling cold water, so less condensation occurs.
2 condensed
3 a A heat/Bunsen burner; B thermometer; 8.5 Chromatography
C distilled water/distillate 1 soluble, solvent
b The thermometer detects the temperature 2 two (blue, yellow)
of the vapour as it enters the condenser.
3 a They each have only a single spot on the
This will identify the substance being
chromatogram.
separated by its boiling point.
b blue, yellow
c iii
c The chromatogram for the purple ink
4 a colourless/no colour
should show a spot at the same height as
b water the pure blue spot and another spot at the
c Boil the distillate and check the boiling same height as the pure red spot. This is
point, which should be 100 °C. (Also because it is a mixture of red and blue dyes.
correct, but GCSE level answers: Use dry
blue cobalt chloride paper and it will turn
pink if water is present or Add some of the
distillate to anhydrous white copper sulfate.
It will turn blue if water is present.)
d For safety reasons: if all the liquid in the
round-bottomed flask evaporates, the flask
may shatter.
5 a by evaporation using warm air in the pencil line
tumble dryer
b by condensing the vapour through cooling
and then collecting the liquid d The line must be drawn in pencil because it
is not soluble in the solvent, and so will not
6 a ethanol has a lower boiling point than
move up the filter paper and interfere with
water and so will evaporate first
the chromatogram.
b distillation – the ethanol will condense and
4 a B, D
can be collected
b 5
7 a A evaporation; B condensation; C melting;
D freezing c Conditions are kept the same and the
solvent is the same, the same piece of filter
b A
paper is used. The experiment is testing the
c B sweets in the same controlled conditions, so
8 a to cool the vapour down so it condenses comparisons can be made.
b Sea water is heated. Water boils. Particles 5 i green; ii pure; iii red
have enough kinetic energy to leave
the liquid state and become water

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 Chemistry
6 a 43 ÷ 53 = 0.81; b 26 ÷ 53 = 0.49 B: 0.75 × 9.2 = 6.9
C: 0.4 × 9.6 = 3.8
c No. Solutes (in this case, plant pigments)
7 The pigments were not soluble in the solvent
can be more or less soluble in different
that the scientist used. They should use a
solvents. This means they may travel up the
different solvent.
filter paper more easily or less easily with
8 To reduce the hazard from flammable different solvents, which will affect the Rf
substances there must be no naked flames values.
present. To reduce the risk of inhaling solvents,
we can:
• make sure the bottle top on the solvent is Unit 9 Periodic Table
always replaced quickly after use
• keep windows/doors open to maintain 9.1 The structure of the Periodic
good ventilation Table
• carry out the experiment in the fume 1 c
cupboard 2 i periods; ii groups
• keep the bung or lid on the chromatography 3 water is a compound; only elements are listed
experiment as much as possible in the Periodic Table
• wear breathing apparatus. 4 b
5 a two (hydrogen, helium)
Unit 8 maths and practical skills
b false
1 c, b, a, d
6 d
2 a – iii; b – ii; c – i; d – iv 7 a ii francium, Fr (helium is not in Group 1,
3 a A filter paper; B residue; C filter funnel; but it is in Period 1)
D filtrate; E boiling tube b tellurium, Te
b Fold the filter paper in half, and then in half c similar chemical and physical properties
again. Open up one of the open edges to 8 a D, E, A, C, B
form a cone. Place in the filter funnel. Add
b Each element is ordered from left to right in
a drop of water to stick the paper to the
order of atomic number. Once the end of
funnel.
the period is finished, the next period starts
4 a Filter the solution to remove the excess on the left-hand side.
black copper oxide.
c E
b Pour the solution into an evaporating basin
9 Gold and silver are unreactive and exist
and leave it on a windowsill for several
naturally as elements (rather than within
days. Water will evaporate, leaving the solid
compounds) in the Earth’s crust.
crystals.
10 a Element Atomic Atomic
c Find their melting point. Pure substances
have very clearly defined melting points, symbol mass number
impure substances have a range of melting Li 7 3
points. N 14 7
5 a iv
O 16 8
b The cold tap water circulates around the
S 32 16
outer layer of the condenser. Hot water
vapour passes through the inner tube and b Ne (neon)
warms up the water in the outer layer. c Mendeleev was able to use the atomic mass
c 100 °C to order the elements.
d change of state from gas/vapour to a liquid; d Any three from: the modern Periodic Table
cooler when it leaves the condenser is arranged in order of increasing atomic
6 a filtration number; Mendeleev knew of 64 elements,
we now know of over 100 elements; the
b A: 0.8 × 12.0 = 9.6
gaps he left are all filled in; some symbols

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 Answers
have changed, for example, J to I; some 5 magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
atomic masses have been more accurately
measured and so there are no uncertain
values or duplications. +

9.2 Properties of elements in the

­Periodic Table 6 a The hydrogen gas was released into the
atmosphere.
1 Can be in any order in the correct column: b Mass is never lost or gained during a
Metal Non-metal chemical reaction.
a c c Put a lid or a balloon on the beaker after
adding the metal. This would contain
b d
the gas and prevent it being lost to the
e atmosphere. (The gas could also be
collected by displacing water, but this
2 group
would be difficult to do on a balance.)
3 a copper and iron; they are both metals
7 a i one; ii two; iii four
b iron
b Element Number of Number of
c neon; it is a noble gas
atoms on atoms on
4 a iii the left of the right of
b physical properties the the
c ii – a flammable substance burns easily equation equation
5 a A, B, C, D – they are all metals iron (Fe) 3 1
b B – this element is at the bottom of Group 1 oxygen (O) 5 8
c E – this element is in Group 7 carbon (C) 1 4
6 a c ii

unknown
9.4 Using the Periodic Table
solid 1 i oxygen; ii oxide
2 a Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water. Not
all bases dissolve in water.
bulb b yes
b If the bulb lights, the element is a metal. If 3 a titanium oxide
it does not light, the element is a non-metal. b basic
7 a  gas 4 a magnesium oxide, MgO
b V – it is denser than water b sulfur dioxide, SO2
c  T – its melting and boiling points are lower 5 basic
than those of element S 6 aluminium, Al
7 a B, C
9.3 Reactions of elements and
b metals form oxides that are bases; a base
­compounds would have a pH from 8 to 12
1 true 8 a D, E, G
2 a b iv
3 copper oxide c A, B, F, C, D
4 a potassium reacts with oxygen to form d G, because it is a noble gas and these are
potassium oxide unreactive elements
b hydrochloric acid + calcium →
calcium chloride + hydrogen

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 Chemistry
9 Oxide Colour of Colour of b No, because there are more atoms in the
blue litmus red litmus products than the reactants. There are more
paper after paper after oxygen atoms present.
testing the testing the 7 a fluorine, chlorine
product product b boiling point increases as you go down the
magnesium blue blue group
oxide, MgO c  300 Astatine, At
sulfur red red 250
dioxide, SO2
200
sodium blue blue Iodine, I
oxide, Na2O 150

Boiling point (°C)

100
Unit 9 maths and practical skills Bromine, Br
50
1 27 Room temperature
0
2 Element Did the Metal, Chlorine, Cl
–50
bulb light? non-metal
or –100
metalloid?
–150
hydrogen, H no non-metal
Flourine, F
–200
sulfur, S no non-metal
scandium, Sc yes, brightly metal d iodine has a boiling point which fits the
tellurium, Te yes, dimly metalloid trend of Group 7/iodine has similar chemical
properties to other Group 7 elements
3 a physical property
b it reacted with oxygen to form a metal
oxide Unit 10 Chemical
c because they are very reactive with water
and air
­reactions
4 a i 10.1 Chemical change
b Fluorine, F, and neon, Ne, are both gases
1 Any three from: bubbles of gas; a change in
and so have already melted at room
temperature; a colour change; a change in
temperature. They must have a lower
mass.
melting point than beryllium as it is a solid
at room temperature. 2 b
c Elements in a period do not have the same 3 a CO2
physical properties as each other. There will b H2O
be a trend in physical properties, but they 4 b
will not be the same.
5 Atoms/mass cannot be created or destroyed
5 i 371.15 = (98 + 273.15) in a chemical reaction. This is the law of
ii 336.65 = (63.5 + 273.15) conservation of mass.
6 a Elements Number of Number of 6 methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
atoms in atoms in 7 In incomplete combustion there is not enough
the the oxygen available to react with all the fuel; in
reactants products complete combustion there is enough oxygen
and all the fuel is used up. The products of
carbon, C 3 3
incomplete combustion are carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, H 8 8 carbon (soot) and water; the products of
oxygen, O 8 10 complete combustion are carbon dioxide and
water.

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 Answers
8 39.7 – 15.6 = 24.1 g 8 Barium is most reactive, followed by calcium,
9 there is the same number of each type of atom then magnesium. Barium needs the most energy
on both sides of the equation to thermally decompose its carbonate. This
suggests it has the strongest chemical bonds to
10 mass increased; magnesium reacted with oxygen
break, so it must be the most reactive metal.
to form magnesium oxide; mass of product
includes mass of magnesium and mass of oxygen 9 CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
11 hydrogen, carbon
10.4 Oxidation
10.2 Acids and alkalis 1 compound
1 corrosive 2 the addition of oxygen to a substance
2 red 3 a
3 a green 4 Both oxygen and water are needed for rusting
to occur.
b it is neutral
5 the removal of oxygen from a compound
4 a
6 c, d
5 hydrogen
7 a iron oxide
6 potassium, oxygen, hydrogen
b The oxidised iron in the iron oxide is
7 It turns a range of different colours rather than
reduced by carbon. The carbon is oxidised
just two, and each colour gives the pH number
to form carbon dioxide.
on a scale; it can indicate how strong or weak
the acid or alkali is. 8 The magnesium reacted with oxygen in the air.
The mass of the magnesium oxide is the same
8 milk
as the mass of the magnesium and oxygen at
9 pH 1 the start of the reaction. The student was only
10 A reaction would be observed in both cases able to measure the mass of the magnesium at
because the metal will react with the acids to the start of the investigation.
make bubbles of hydrogen (and a salt). There 9 On the outside of the folded copper, the
would be more bubbles of gas/a more vigorous copper has been oxidised by reacting with
reaction/more fizzing when the magnesium oxygen in the air. On the inside, the copper
reacted with the hydrochloric acid than the was protected and no oxygen was able to
vinegar. This is because the hydrochloric acid is reach the surface to react with the copper.
a stronger acid than the vinegar.
10 a aluminium + oxygen → aluminium oxide
11 A base neutralises an acid. Alkalis are a type of
b Only the surface of the aluminium can
base that is soluble in water. Not all bases are
react with oxygen in the air, the layer of
soluble in water.
aluminium oxide prevents the oxygen from
12 The solution is very acidic. It is more acidic reacting with any aluminium atoms inside
than a solution with a pH of 1, because the pH the block of aluminium. When the rust
number is lower. flakes off the surface of the iron, it exposes
the next layer to oxygen in the air so it can
10.3 Thermal decomposition be oxidised.
1 i heating; ii one; iii two or more
2 c
10.5 Neutralisation
3 bubble the gas through limewater; limewater 1 salt + water
will turn milky/cloudy. 2 pH 7
4 b 3 they contain bases
5 (carbon dioxide) gas released into atmosphere 4 (strong) acid
6 a 5 a
7 a no 6 H2O, KCl
b reactant and solid product are both white 7 c
c calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + 8 i hydrogen; ii hydroxide (or hydrogen and
carbon dioxide oxygen); iii alkali

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9 The blue indicator tells us the final solution b potassium nitrate + magnesium
is alkaline. This means the student added c potassium sulfate + zinc
more sodium hydroxide than was needed to
d zinc + magnesium sulfate (no reaction)
neutralise the acid.
10 a – ii; b – iii; c – i
10.6 Reactions of acids and alkalis 11 Place metal A into a solution of metal B
sulfate. If a reaction occurs, then metal A is
1 c more reactive than metal B. Check the result
2 a fizzing/production of bubbles by placing metal B into a solution of metal A
b hydrogen sulfate. There should be no reaction.
3 c, e
4 sodium sulfate
10.8 Energetics
5 b, e 1 thermometer (or a temperature probe with a
datalogger)
6 The carbon dioxide formed during the reaction
is a gas. This was observed as bubbles/fizzing. 2 a substance that speeds up the rate of reaction,
without being used up in the reaction
7 a magnesium sulfate + hydrogen
3 a it would have increased
b magnesium chloride
b it would have been transferred to the
c calcium nitrate
surroundings
8 sulfuric acid and either potassium oxide or
4 Endothermic Exothermic
potassium hydroxide (no carbon dioxide was
produced during the reaction so the base changes changes
could not have been potassium carbonate) photosynthesis setting off fireworks
9 c thermal burning wood
decomposition
10.7 Displacement reactions
5 d
1 i more reactive; ii less reactive
6 Endothermic. The products contain more
2 carbon, hydrogen energy than the reactants; energy has been
3 Chlorine will displace the bromine, forming absorbed by the reaction.
potassium chloride. 7 There was a drop in temperature, cold
4 Any one from: temperature change, colour enough for water in the atmosphere to
change, bubbles of gas (hydrogen)/fizzing. condense and freeze on the surface of the
5 Potassium displaces the magnesium from the flask. This is because the change in the flask is
magnesium nitrate because potassium is more endothermic. Energy is being transferred from
reactive than magnesium. the surroundings to the reaction, causing the
potassium + magnesium nitrate → magnesium temperature to decrease.
+ potassium nitrate 8 a volume of solution; starting temperature
6 Iron is more reactive than copper. This means b use larger volumes of the reacting chemicals;
that iron can displace copper from copper use an insulating cup; use a test tube rack
sulfate. As copper is less reactive than iron, it rather than holding the reaction vessel
cannot displace iron from iron sulfate. 9 The energy absorbed from the surroundings
7 Carbon is less reactive than sodium, so it and used to break the bonds in copper
cannot displace sodium from its compound. carbonate is higher than the energy needed to
8 When metals react with acids a displacement make the bonds in copper oxide and carbon
reaction occurs, and hydrogen is displaced. dioxide. This means the overall reaction is
Zinc is more reactive than hydrogen, so zinc endothermic.
displaces the hydrogen from the compound.
zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride +
Unit 10 maths and practical skills
hydrogen 1 b
9 a magnesium + potassium sulfate 2 pH 5
(no reaction)

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 Answers
3 a oxidation technology to extract aluminium from its ore
b mass of oxygen: 0.20 − 0.12 = 0.08 g took time to develop.
4 magnesium (most reactive), metal X, copper 9 a one substance takes the place of another in
(least reactive) a compound
5 a 30 cm3 b temperature change, colour change, copper
forming on the surface of the iron filings
b accept any time between 66 and 70 s
c iron + copper sulfate → iron sulfate + copper
6 b
10 a oxygen is removed
7 green
b metal C is more reactive than carbon
8 a thermal decomposition (endothermic) c metal C (most reactive), metal B, metal A
b mass of copper oxide = 45.80 – 45.00 = (least reactive); metal A is the least reactive
0.80 g; mass of carbon dioxide = 46.24 – as it is the only one of the three metals that
45.80 = 0.44 g does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid;
9 a lead; copper and silver are both less reactive metal C is the most reactive as it is the only
than hydrogen so cannot displace the metal more reactive than carbon
hydrogen from the acid
b lead + hydrochloric acid → lead chloride + 11.2 Ceramics and composites
hydrogen 1 a, d
10 a acid; when the reaction stops/levels off, 2 a
there is still a mass of metal carbonate left 3 ceramic
b The reaction is fastest at the start and the 4 Any two from: hard and resistant to wear;
mass of metal carbonate falls quite quickly. relatively light; brittle; thermal insulators;
The reaction then slows down, eventually electrical insulators; non-magnetic; chemically
levelling off. stable; non-toxic; non-ductile.
c The reaction slows down over time as the 5 c
reactants (metal carbonate and acid) are
used up. When all the acid is used up, the 6 Composites are made from two or more
reaction stops. materials that usually have different properties.
The composite combines the properties of
d i, iii these materials to make a substance that
has more useful properties than any of the
Unit 11 Materials materials alone.
7 poor conductors of electricity; they are not
11.1 The reactivity series ductile
8 a mass of aggregate; the masses of all other
1 d
substances (cement, sand and water) in the
2 decreases mixture remain the same
3 b b Any one from: volume of water, mass of
4 Sodium is the most reactive metal and copper sand, mass of cement, size of concrete bar.
the least reactive. Magnesium is more reactive c 1:2
than copper but less reactive than sodium.
d 1:5
5 It can be used to extract metals from their
9 b, c, d
ores. Metals less reactive than carbon can be
extracted in this way. 10 A matrix (or binder) binds together fibres or
fragments, which act as reinforcement. The
6 it is unreactive
reinforcement adds strength to the composite
7 a magnesium (most reactive), metal Z, iron, material.
tin (least reactive)
11 i reinforcement; ii compressive; iii tensile
b metal Z + iron oxide → metal Z oxide + iron
8 Aluminium is more reactive than gold. Gold 11.3 Using the reactivity series
can be found as an element in the Earth’s
crust. Aluminium is found combined with 1 a naturally occurring rock from which a metal
other elements and needs to be extracted. The (or mineral) can be extracted

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 Chemistry
2 a 11.4 Polymers
3 b potassium; it is more reactive than carbon, 1 a
so carbon cannot displace potassium from its
compound 2 a
4 i oxygen; ii ores; iii reduced 3 Any two from: DNA; protein; RNA; cellulose;
chitin; silk; rubber; examples of proteins (e.g.
5 a, d collagen and keratin). Allow any correct example.
6 lead oxide + carbon → carbon dioxide + lead 4 non-toxic, so the contents are safe to drink;
7 zinc oxide is reduced to form zinc; carbon is lightweight, so the bottle is not too heavy;
oxidised to form carbon dioxide insoluble in water, so the drink does not leak
8 Carbon will reduce any metal compound out; strong, so that it doesn’t break easily
lower than carbon in the reactivity series. This 5 It means that most human-made polymers are
happens in a displacement reaction, producing difficult to dispose of. Plastics can remain in
the metal and carbon dioxide. Carbon acts as a landfill sites for many years. Plastic that escapes
reducing agent. into the environment can cause harmful
9 a Copper oxide, because copper is the least pollution because it lasts for a long time.
reactive of the three metals. The more The partial breakdown of plastic produces
reactive the metal, the harder it is to reduce. microplastics; these are tiny plastic pieces that
This is because metals with a high reactivity can end up inside animals and damage them.
make stronger bonds in their compounds. 6 Most polymers are flexible and can bend,
10 a  a chemical that removes oxygen from a ceramics are brittle and will break if bent.
substance 7 14 (the last monomer is not complete)
b carbon + iron oxide → carbon dioxide + iron 8 a (42 + 41 + 41) ÷ 3 = 41 mm to 2 s.f.
c carbon; it has gained oxygen during the b check for anomalies; check the range of
reaction the data; make sure the measurement is
11 a  Zinc metal would be formed from zinc repeatable
oxide. Carbon is more reactive than zinc, c  mass on x-axis and mean distance on the
so would displace the zinc from zinc oxide; y-axis; points plotted in correct place; suitable
the zinc oxide would be reduced, and the curve of best fit drawn through all the points
carbon oxidised.
150
Mean distance the plastic stretched (mm)

zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon dioxide

b Aluminium would not be formed from
aluminium oxide. Carbon is less reactive
than aluminium, so would not displace 100
aluminium from aluminium oxide.
12 Extraction of copper from copper oxide
copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon
50
dioxide
This is a displacement reaction. Carbon
reduces the copper oxide to copper by
removing the oxygen. Carbon dioxide is also 0
formed. Copper oxide can be reduced with 0 100 200 300 400 500
moderate heating. Mass added to plastic (g)

Thermal decomposition of copper 9 a The polymer molecules can slide over each
carbonate other because there are no cross-links
copper carbonate → copper oxide + carbon holding them in place.
dioxide b A high temperature is needed to break the
This is a thermal decomposition reaction cross-links between the strands of polymer.
which forms copper oxide and carbon dioxide. c The branched structure of plastic B means
Both reactions form carbon dioxide. Copper that the polymer strands do not lie together
carbonate must be heated to a high temperature as closely as the strands in plastic A, so
for thermal decomposition to occur. there is more space between them.

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 Answers
Unit 11 maths and practical skills 3 a i crust; ii mantle; iii outer core;
1 a ii iv inner core
b outer core
b (65.7 + 72.1 + 65.2 + 73.4) ÷ 4 = 69.1 °C
c outer core (accept core)
2 A >C >B d 6490 × 2 = 12 980 km
3 a type of metal 4 a both are made of iron and nickel
b Any two from: volume of acid; mass/size of b inner core is solid and outer core is liquid
piece of metal; concentration of acid. (accept inner core is more dense/hotter)
c thermometer c it is too deep to drill down to/too hot
4 a Carbon reduces the iron oxide to iron by 5 3 cm = 30 mm; in 70 years, 30 × 70 = 2100 mm
removing the oxygen. Carbon is oxidised in 6 a ii
this reaction, to carbon dioxide. The carbon b crust – 35 km; mantle – 2900 km; tectonic
is more reactive than the iron, so displaces plate – 125 km
it from the iron oxide. 7 a i lower; ii higher
b iron oxide + carbon → carbon dioxide + iron b i – The density of the Earth overall can
c The aluminium oxide and carbon would be calculated by finding the mean of the
not react. Aluminium is more reactive densities of all the layers of the Earth. The
than carbon, so carbon cannot displace density of the crust and mantle together
aluminium from the aluminium oxide. is 2800 + 4500 = 7300 kg/m3, which is
5 a (30.5 – 20.0) = 10.5 °C divided by 2 to give a mean of 3650 kg/m3.
b copper sulfate + zinc → zinc sulfate + copper This shows that the density of the core
must be much higher if an overall density
c no reaction occurred, so silver is less of 5500 kg/m3 is to be found. If the density
reactive than copper of the core was 9200 kg/m3 then the overall
d magnesium > zinc > iron > copper > silver density for the Earth would be:
6 a Y > Z > X; metal X is the least reactive as it 2800 + 4500 + 9200 = 16 500 ÷ 3 =
is found in the ground unreacted; metal Y 5500 kg/m3.
is the most reactive as it reacts vigorously 8 b, e
with water
b Carbon can displace metal Z from its 12.2 The rock cycle
compound, so metal Z is less reactive 1 i igneous; ii sedimentary; iii metamorphic
than carbon. Metal Z does not react with 2 sedimentary
water, so it is less reactive than hydrogen.
3 a i
Therefore, metal Z is below hydrogen in the
reactivity series. b sedimentary
c Gold, silver 4 a biological, chemical, physical
7 a it acts as a control/to compare with the b sedimentary
results of the other two rods c  Any one from:
b the type of reinforcement – Biological weathering is caused by animals
scraping or wearing down the rock to small
c 10 × 2 × 2 = 40 cm3
pieces or by plant roots growing into cracks
d concrete bar B; because the concrete has and pushing the rock apart.
been reinforced, and the iron is stronger
– Chemical weathering is caused by
than the wood
chemical reactions with the rock, e.g. acid
rain reacts with limestone and chalk rock to
Unit 12 Earth and create new products.

atmosphere – Physical weathering can be caused by

freezing and thawing of water which has
seeped into cracks. Water expands as it
12.1 The Earth freezes, causing small pieces to break away.
1 crust, mantle, outer core, inner core In deserts the expansion and contraction of
rock due to the heat from the sun causes
2 i lithosphere; ii tectonic
pieces of rock to break off.
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5 1 weathering; 2 deposition; 3 sedimentary; 4 oxygen, nitrogen
4 metamorphic; 5 magma; 6 igneous 5 a oxygen
6 a Metamorphic rock melts to form magma. b 21%
When magma cools it forms igneous rock.
c nitrogen
b Uplift causes metamorphic rock to reach
d 78%
the Earth’s surface. Weathering and
erosion cause rock fragments to break off e Any one of: argon, water vapour, carbon
and be carried away by water or wind. dioxide, methane, ozone, CFCs.
The fragments are eventually deposited, 6 Substance Chemical diagram
and over time they are compacted and formula letter
cemented to form sedimentary rock.
oxygen O2 C
7 a Uplift causes igneous rock to reach the
Earth’s surface. Weathering and erosion carbon dioxide CO2 E
cause rock fragments to break off and water vapour H2O B
be carried away by water or wind. The nitrogen N2 A
fragments are eventually deposited,
argon Ar D
and over time they are compacted and
cemented to form sedimentary rock. 7 a carbon dioxide
b Igneous rock is subjected to high heat b  Green plants carry out photosynthesis, which
and pressure. This causes changes in removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
the structure of the rock, producing
c When the Earth cooled to below 100 °C,
metamorphic rock.
water vapour in the atmosphere condensed
8 b, c to form liquid water, which made the
9 a The rocks will expand and contract due to oceans.
the extremes of heat and cold. This can cause 8 percentage decrease =
weathering, which will make the rock split. (original figure – new figure) ÷ original × 100
b Water would not exist as a liquid – it would 95.00 – 0.04 = 94.96
be frozen all the time. Plants would not be
94.96 ÷ 95.00 = 0.9996 × 100 = 99.96%
able to take in water through their roots
decrease
or move it around the plant for growth,
transporting chemicals or carrying out
photosynthesis.
12.4 The carbon cycle
c Sedimentary rock is likely because 1 i carbon dioxide; ii fossil fuels; iii combustion;
weathering of rock would produce iv energy
sediments that could have been carried 2 b
by the (now dried-up) rivers. Igneous rock 3 b, d
is possible because there may be extinct
4 d
volcanoes. Metamorphic rock is possible
because uplift may have caused the 5 respiration
formation of mountain ranges. 6 dead plants and animals
10 a the molten rock that formed obsidian 7 a photosynthesis (accept dissolving in the
cooled very quickly oceans)
b i – as the molten rock hit the cold sea there b respiration, combustion (accept
would not have been time for atoms to decomposition, volcanic eruptions)
become arranged in a crystalline structure c The rate of processes that added carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere must have
12.3 The atmosphere been balanced with the rate of processes
1 a that removed carbon dioxide from the
2 i atmosphere.
3 a iv 8 a from food
b air is a mixture and all the others are pure b it is released by decomposition back into
compounds the atmosphere as carbon dioxide

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 Answers
c The carbon compounds in dead plants and 5 a about (just over) 275 ppm
animals and their waste would not be broken b about 415 ppm
down to release carbon dioxide back into c the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s
the atmosphere. Part of the carbon cycle atmosphere has increased over the time
would stop. Carbon sources are limited, period shown
and so the supply for photosynthesis and
d it is likely to make the greenhouse effect
feeding would become less.
stronger, causing the Earth to get hotter –
9 a i, iii this is known as global warming
b 2.75 ÷ 1.86 = 1.48 kg (accept 1.478) 6 a, c, d, e, b
c (natural) gas 7 a Climate change is a significant and lasting
d No, the student is not correct. Wood change in the Earth’s weather patterns over
releases less heat energy than natural gas. time. There have been many significant
To release the same amount of energy as changes in the Earth’s climate during its
natural gas, more wood is needed and history.
more carbon dioxide is produced overall. b Global warming is causing climate change
Compare the energy released by 1 kg of on Earth today. It is causing the average
each fuel: temperature of the Earth to increase, which
gas: 15.4 kW h is driving changes in the Earth’s weather
wood: 4.5 kW h systems.
15.4 ÷ 4.5 = 3.42 kW h 8 Global warming is causing the average
temperature of the Earth to increase. Areas
So 1 kg of natural gas releases 3.42 times
which previously had temperatures that
more energy than 1 kg wood. To release
were too cold for mosquitoes to live in may
the same amount of energy as 1 kg of gas,
now become suitable for them to survive.
3.42 kg of wood is needed. The amount
The mosquitoes may increase in these areas,
of carbon dioxide produced will therefore
spreading malaria to the people who live
be 3.42 × 1.86 = 6.37 kg. This compares
there. People who were not used to taking
to 2.75 kg of carbon dioxide produced by
precautions against catching malaria may die.
burning 1 kg of natural gas.
9 a the average (mean) amount of carbon
e non-renewable dioxide
f renewable b the average (mean) amount of carbon
g When natural gas is burned it produces dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere increased
carbon that has been stored underground between 1960 and 2020
for millions of years. This adds extra carbon c the growth of plants means they can take in
dioxide to the atmosphere. When wood more carbon dioxide; in the winter plants/
is burned it produces carbon dioxide leaves die and carbon dioxide is released
that has recently been removed from the back into the atmosphere
atmosphere by photosynthesis. The growth
10 a as temperature increases, the solubility of
of new plants and trees can balance out the
carbon dioxide in water decreases
carbon dioxide that is produced when they
are burned. b 0.04 g/100 g water
c There will be less carbon dioxide dissolved in
12.5 Climate change the oceans. This is because carbon dioxide is
less soluble in water at higher temperatures.
1 a, e
2 d 12.6 Sustainable development
3 b 1 i non-renewable; ii replaced
4 a peer review 2 b, c
b Any two from: to ensure the experiment 3 a Sustainable practices mean that a resource
or observation is reproducible; to make (for example, fish) is used in such a way it will
sure accurate conclusions have been made be available to future generations to carry
without bias; to check for plagiarism on using. This means that human activities
(copying). are not limiting the supply of resources.
b i, ii

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4 a Recycled metal can be used to make new c
Question Is it a scientific
metal products (shown in the flow chart).
question? yes/no
This means that less metal ore will be
needed. Metal ores are a limited resource. Is recycling good no
They will be preserved for longer if recycled for us? (this question
metal is used. depends on what
Recycling reduces the amount of metal that ‘good for us’ means;
is thrown away (shown in the flow chart). recycling can be
This reduces the need for more landfill sites hazardous)
to be created. What is the best no
(Other reasons include: less energy gas in the (this question
needed to recycle compared to mining atmosphere? depends on the
raw materials and extraction; recycling is person’s preference)
cheaper overall.)
Are metamorphic yes
b Additional steps are needed in the recycling rocks harder than
process, for example, extra collection and (this question can be
sedimentary tested)
transport, sorting of the different types of rocks?
metals, removal of any impurities; the extra
steps will need extra equipment, workers, Do decomposers yes
time and energy. break down plant (this question can be
material faster tested, although it
Some metal products may not be recyclable
than animal would depend on
and still have to be taken to landfill.
material? the decomposer as
5 a Solar energy is a renewable energy resource
some only work on
so it will not run out.
particular types of
Solar energy does not release carbon substance)
dioxide into the atmosphere.
b Any two from: the sun does not shine 3 a iii, iv
at night; less effective when it is cloudy; b diamond, corundum
potential loss of land for crop farming. c The force used to scratch the minerals may
6 a total cost of materials: £0.92 × 20 = £18.40 not stay the same: for example, different
cost per year: £18.40 ÷ 45 = £0.41 a year people may apply different amounts of
pressure. It might also be difficult to see the
b aluminium is cheaper (per kg and over the
scratches.
cost of the lifespan of the bridge); longer
lifespan than a wooden bridge; mass of d The rocks containing calcite will probably
aluminium required is smaller than the mass weather the quickest. This is because they
of wood, so it will be easier to transport are less hard than the rocks containing
quartz, so they will probably be more easily
c wood is not a limited resource/wood is a
broken down by weathering processes.
renewable resource
4 a microscope, two microscope slides and
Unit 12 maths and practical skills coverslips, salol, dropping pipette, water
bath, kettle, thermometer, stopwatch,
1 a Water soaked into gaps between the grains freezer
and displaced air.
b Does environmental (air) temperature affect
b iii the size of crystals produced as salol cools?
c 25.8 – 22.3 = 3.5 g (The question must be specific so it can be
d 28.4 – 27.2 = 1.2 g tested.)
e (28.4 – 27.2) ÷ 27.2 × 100 = 0.044 × 100 c
Time crystals Time no
= +4.4% start to form further
2 a no (s) change
b it is not easily tested, as red or silver cars occurs (s)
can be different types and sizes and can be cold slide
made of different materials warm slide

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(The independent variable usually goes in d First part of journey: travels 4 km from the
the left-hand column of a table.) starting point in 2 hours, i.e. travels at a a
d because the salol molecules line up speed of 2 km/h.
alongside each other in a regular pattern Third part of journey: travels 8 km back to
and bonds form between them the starting point in 8 hours, i.e. at a speed
e largest crystals will form on the hot slide of 1 km/h.
f cool slide; the salol will take longer to cool So it takes twice as long to return to the
on the hot slide and so molecules take destination, and via a longer route.
longer to form into crystals The gradient of the third section is less than
g igneous rock that of the first section, showing that the
5 a 50 cm speed is less.
b 50 cm 11 a Measure the distance, using a metre rule;
c 0.037 % measure the time taken from a marked/fixed
point at the top of the ramp to a marked/
d carbon dioxide levels might be higher due
fixed point at the bottom, using a stopwatch
to respiration of decomposers in the soil
and then divide the distance by the measured
time to obtain the speed of the car. The
Unit 13 Forces gradient is then altered by raising or lowering
the start point of the ramp. The experiment
13.1 Describing motion is repeated and the new value of the speed
1 c related to the new height of the start point.
b Although the speed of the car will increase
2 A takes less time to cover the same distance so
as it travels down the ramp, it is the total
is travelling at a higher average speed
distance and total time that are measured.
3 C has the higher average speed. D takes twice So the calculated speed will be an average
as long but only travels a small extra distance value for the journey.
so therefore is travelling at a lower speed.
c The motion of the car may vary slightly
4 b during each journey, or there may be errors
5 a metre rule/30 cm ruler in measuring the time, or releasing the car
b stopwatch/timer correctly. Calculating the mean of several
readings would give a more accurate result
c protractor
(closer to the true value).
6 a 70 m ÷ 10 s = 7 m/s
b 300 m ÷ 15 s = 20 m/s 13.2 Forces in action
c 3600 m ÷ 15 s = 240 m/s 1 i contact; ii non-contact; iii non-contact;
7 a 40 minutes = 40 × 60 seconds = 2400 s iv contact; v non-contact
60 000 m ÷ 2400 s = 25 m/s 2 a force of gravity (or weight)
b 3 minutes = 3 × 60 seconds = 180 s b non-contact
5400 m ÷ 180 s = 30 m/s
c air resistance
c 4 hours = 4 × 60 × 60 seconds = 14 400 s
30 000 m ÷ 14 400 s = 2.08 m/s 3 a Friction will act in the direction opposite to
that of travel.
8 a The racing bicycle would appear to be
moving away from the ordinary bicycle in a b When they are lying down there will be less
forward direction. air resistance because the shape is more
streamlined, so their speed will be greater.
b The ordinary bicycle would appear to be
moving away from the racing bicycle, in a 4
backward direction. air resistance
9 a
10 a 8 km ÷ 4 h = 2 km/h
b The line is sloping upwards, so the speed is
constant.
c The line is horizontal, so the object is weight
stationary.
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5 a 13.3 Levers and moments
pushing force
trolley friction
on trolley 1 Any two from: turning a tap, turning the
control knobs on a cooker, turning the handle
b  on a tin opener, twisting a pepper mill,
pushing a door, etc.
force from fuel 2 the hinge
being burned
3 increasing the size of the applied force;
increasing the distance from the fulcrum to
where the force is applied
firework 4 The log is closer to the fulcrum than the
gardener, so the metal bar (lever) acts as a
weight
air force multiplier. The output force (the upwards
resistance force exerted by the end of the bar on the
log) is greater than the input force (the effort
exerted by the gardener pushing down on the
6 There is no force acting in the forwards
other end of the bar).
direction after the ball has left the girl’s foot.
There is a force in the opposite direction, due 5 moment of a force = force applied × distance
to air resistance. from the turning point
7 a It opposes the motion, acting in the 6 It will help because even though the force that
opposite direction. Agnes can apply will be no greater, the longer
distance to the fulcrum (the centre of the nut)
b streamlined shape: smooth curves, pointed
will increase the moment of the force (so it will
nose, smooth curved fins
have a greater turning effect).
8 a
pulling greater
force moment

friction
same force

b same size shoe, same surface, same weights larger distance

inside, pulled at similar speed
c the higher the reading on the
smaller
newtonmeter, the greater the friction moment
9 a Shape the clay into a number of pieces,
same force
each with the same mass/weight, but each
with a different shape. Measure the height smaller distance
of the water in the bottle. Release a clay
7 The scissors have a pivot (where the blades
piece and drop it into the bottle of water.
are joined together), a place where the effort
Start the stopwatch when the clay shape is
is applied (the handles) and a place where the
released and stop timing when the shape
scissors apply the force to the object being cut
reaches the bottom of the bottle. Repeat
(the blades). Placing the string closer to the
the procedure for each of the clay pieces.
pivot means that less effort is needed because
The level of the water should be measured
the scissors act as a force multiplier. The
before each piece is released, and the level
output force (the force exerted on the string) is
made up if required. Each clay piece should
greater than the input force (the effort exerted
be released from the same height. The
by applying a force to the handles).
procedure should be repeated several times
for each clay piece. 8 a effort – applied downwards on the end of
the screwdriver handle; fulcrum – where the
b A clay piece that has a greater surface area
screwdriver rests on the edge of the tin; force
or a less streamlined shape will be resisted
– applied to the lid to push it upwards
more by the water as there will be more
drag and so it will travel more slowly. b effort – applied by the person pushing or
pulling on the end of the handle; fulcrum –
c the weight could affect the time for descent
where the crowbar rests on the doorframe;
force – applied by the crowbar on the door
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9 The smaller force is further from the fulcrum, 5 a As the weight increases from 0 N to 1.5 N
so for the clockwise moment caused by the the extension increases proportionately
heavier child to be equal to the anticlockwise b 1.4 N
moment caused by the smaller child, the c 5 cm
heavier child must sit nearer to the fulcrum.
d 1.6 N
10 30 cm = 0.3 m
e It would be permanently stretched and
turning effect = 50 N × 0.3 m = 15 N m wouldn’t return to its original length.
11 600 mm = 0.6 m 6 When the load applied to a material has
turning effect = 15 N × 0.6 m = 9 N m exceeded the value at which removing the
12 a 2 × 28 = 56 N load will cause the material to go back to its
b It will take the same turning effect or original length.
moment to open the door; if the distance 7 a line graph with labelled axes, suitable scale,
to the hinge is halved, the force will need to accurately plotted points (crosses) and line
be doubled to achieve the same moment. of best fit (straight line from origin to 25 N
13 a to balance the moment due to the load and curving upwards beyond)
b moment = 5000 N × 10 m = 50 000 N m b The extension is proportional to the load
up to a load of about 25 N, beyond which
c  Moment due to counterweight: 5000 × 6 =
the extension increases for each additional
30 000 N
5VNs of load.
To balance the jib, the maximum moment
c Approximately 25 N
due to the load will be 30 000 N m.
8 a carry out trial runs to find a suitable
Maximum load: 30 000 N m ÷ 24 m =
range of loads that produce a measurable
1250 N
extension for each bag; then using fresh
d  either move the counterweight towards the bags (in case the bags had been damaged
tower or use a lighter counterweight or permanently stretched by the trail runs),
e towards the tower. cut a strip from each bag that is the same
width and same length; fix the strip so that
13.4 Stretch and compression the top end is supported and measure its
1 a  (might include) elastic, cotton, rubber, length; add weights to the bottom end and,
plastic, etc. after each weight has been added, measure
b it would break length again; subtract original length
from each length with with load added to
c (might include) stone, slate, glass, etc.
determine extension for that weight; draw
2 a the weight/load/mass attached and the graph of load against extension; draw line
length of the elastic band of best fit to show pattern
b subtract the original (unloaded) length b Advantage: it is easier to compare the sets
of the elastic band from the length of the of data, e.g. what extension produced for
loaded band the same force.
c  the weights would fall and land on the Disadvantage: there are two sets of data on
floor or a student’s foot; the snapped elastic the same graph and they could be confused.
could fly out and hit someone in the face
c There is likely to be variation between bags
d  Any two from: limit the range of weights (such as thickness of the plastic), so testing
added, arrange the equipment so that the a number of bags would mean that the
weights do not have far to fall, have a sand results were more representative.
tray to catch the weights, wear goggles to
protect their eyes. 13.5 Pressure in solids
3 Energy stored in the stretched elastic is 1 Quantity Unit Abbreviation
transferred to the food, increasing its energy
of movement (kinetic energy). As the food area square metres m2
travels upwards, it gains in height but loses force newtons N
speed. Energy in the kinetic store of the food pressure newtons per N/m2
is transferred to the gravitational potential square metre
energy store.
4 a 6 cm    b  21 cm    c 0.6 cm 2 greater

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3 Snow shoes increase the area of snow over 2 upthrust
which the weight of the person pushes down, 3 The deeper the submarine goes, the more
which reduces the pressure on the snow and water there is above it. The pressure is greater
stops the person sinking into the snow. because there is a greater weight of water
4 b above it, on the same area.
5 N/mm2 4 a particles are of a similar size to each other;
6 40 N ÷ 5 m2 = 8 N/m2 they are in contact with each other
b actual particles are not that shape, colour or
7 a i   area: 40 cm × 5 cm = 200 cm2
size and are always moving randomly
pressure: 40 N ÷ 200 cm2 = 0.2 N/cm2
c pressure at B would be greater than at A
ii area: 40 cm × 10 cm = 400 cm2
pressure: 40 N ÷ 400 cm2 = 0.1 N/cm2 d There are more particles of water above
point B so the weight of water above this
iii area: 10 cm × 5 cm = 50 cm2
point is greater than above point A, but the
pressure: 40 N ÷ 50 cm2 = 0.8 N/cm2
cross-sectional area is the same.
b The 10 cm × 5 cm face, as the pressure is
5 a B
greatest on this one.
b When the block is in the water, an upthrust
8 2500 N ÷ 20 m2 = 125 N/m2
force will act upwards on the block. This
9 first crate: 600 N ÷ 8 m2 = 75 N/m2 will reduce the overall downwards force.
second crate: 420 N ÷ 6 m2 = 70 N/m2 6 a The particles of the gases in air are
The second crate exerts less pressure. moving and colliding with the inside
10 6000 N ÷ 80 N/m2 = 75 m2 surface of the balloon. It is these collisions
which keep the sides pushed out and the
11 area: 0.6 m × 0.6 m = 0.36 m2
balloon inflated.
force: 50 N/m2 × 0.36 m2 = 18 N
b Particles of water are colliding with the
12 a 1.6 m × 0.125 m × 2 = 0.4 m2
outside surface of the balloon and pushing
b 2 m × 0.08 m × 2 = 0.32 m2 it in; this water pressure is greater than
c The deep powder skis need to have a larger the gas pressure inside the balloon, so the
surface area so they spread the force due balloon contracts (gets smaller). It would get
to the skier’s weight over a larger area, even smaller at greater depth in the water
reducing the pressure on the soft snow because water pressure increases with depth.
and stopping them from sinking in. The 7 a to pump, which
snow used by the downhill skier is firmer so removes air from
sinking in is less of a problem; the area can Before the can
After
be less for the same weight.
d deep powder skis: 720 ÷ 0.4 = 1800 N/m2
downhill skis : 720 ÷ 0.32 = 2250 N/m2

13.6 Pressure in fluids

1 a b Removing the air caused a partial vacuum
inside the can; there was unequal air
pressure between the inside and the outside
of the can, so the greater air pressure on
the outside of the can crushed it.
c ‘Sucking in’ suggests the sides had been
pulled in from the inside whereas they have
been pushed in from the outside.
b 8 a The gas pressure inside the balloon will stay
the same because there is the same amount
of helium gas inside but the atmospheric
pressure on the outside will be less at higher
altitudes; the difference in pressure causes
the balloon to expand

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b 
Eventually the difference in pressure by the table. The apple does not move because
between the inside and the outside of the the two forces are equal in size and opposite in
balloon is too much for the balloon material direction, so they cancel out.
to cope with and it will burst. 2 There is a downwards force on the coat due to
the weight of the coat and an upwards force
13.7 Using moments on the coat due to its contact with the peg.
1 moment = force applied × distance from force The two forces are equal in size and opposite
to fulcrum in direction, so they balance out.
2 If the hammer handle is longer, the size of the 3 a Note that the arrow for the electrostatic
force needed to do the job decreases. force is longer. This is because, to make
3 a 60 N × 10 m = 600 J the paper move upwards, the electrostatic
force on the paper must be bigger than its
b 5000 N × 50 m = 250 000 J weight.
4 25 000 N × 2000 m = 50 000 000 J or 50 MJ
5 Most machines turn a smaller force (the effort)
into a larger force. However, the amount of work electrostatic
attraction
done, or energy transferred, is the same for each
force. So the small force has to move through
a much greater distance than the large one.
6 The force on the lid will be much smaller than
the force Josh applies to the pedal. The work weight
Josh does on the pedal will be the same as the
work done on the lid. If the distance is much
greater, then the force will be much less. b Smaller pieces of paper are lighter. The
7 a 250 N × 1 m = 250 N m weight of each piece of tissue paper must
b  250 N m be less than the electrostatic force for the
c 250 N m = force × 0.1 m, so force = 2500 N pieces to be lifted upwards.
d  The lever is multiplying the force by 10, 4 a the force the cyclist applies to the pedals
which makes the job easier. moves the bicycle forwards; the motion of
the bicycle is opposed by friction and air
e  The work done by the man is the same as resistance; the weight of the bicycle and
the work done by the lever, as the small rider acts downwards; the normal contact
force the man pushes down with has to force from the ground acts upwards.
move through a much greater distance
than the large force applied to the rock. b The forwards force is exactly balanced
by the combination of friction and air
8 a 60 N × 0.4 m = 24 N m clockwise resistance.
b 40 N × 0.6 m = 24 N m clockwise c There is now no forwards force, but air
c 48 N m clockwise. resistance and friction are still acting to
d The anticlockwise moment would be oppose the motion, so the bicycle slows
subtracted from the clockwise moment: down.
24 N m – 24 N m = 0 N m. The moments 5 a force due to the engine acts forwards,
would cancel each other out and the door air resistance and drag (the resistance to
wouldn’t move. the boat’s movement through the water)
9 Moment due to Misbah’s weigh: acts backwards; the boat’s weight acts
150 N × 2 m = 300 N m downwards, the upthrust of the water acts
Moment in the opposite direction due to upwards
Khalim’s weight must also be 300 N m, so b The boat is accelerating, so the engine force
distance of Khalim from fulcrum is must be greater than the total of the air
300 N m ÷ 200 N = 1.5 m resistance and drag.
6 a one arrow upwards from the bowl labelled
13.8 Forces, motion and equilibrium ‘upthrust’ and one arrow downwards from
the bowl labelled ‘weight’; arrows both
1 The weight of the apple is balanced by the
equal in length
upwards force (normal contact force) provided

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b same as a, but both (equal length) arrows it would also be desirable for the spring not
are longer to extend too far, so that the newtonmeter
c two arrows downwards from the bowl, one it will be used in is of a practical size.
labelled ‘weight’ and the other ‘pushing c They would need to try adding smaller and
force’; one arrow upwards marked ‘upthrust’ smaller weights (using 10 g masses), to
(or ‘buoyancy’); the upwards arrow should find the smallest load that would result in
be the same length as the total of the a measurable movement by the end of the
lengths of the two downwards arrows spring.
7 a will keep moving towards left at steady 9 a jogger: 4 × 0.25 = 1 km
speed cyclist: 10 × 0.25 = 2.5 km
b will continue moving towards left but b 10 – 4 = 6 km/h
accelerating
c The cyclist would be moving away from the
c will keep moving towards left at steady speed jogger.
8 a weight acting downwards and air resistance 10 a independent variable: mass on hanger
acting upwards
dependent variable: speed/acceleration of
b the two forces are equal in size and trolley
opposite in direction
control variables: mass of trolley, the nature
9 total forward force of engine: of the surface of the table, etc.
50 000 – 4000 – 6000 = 40 000 N
b not stand too close to the falling weights
total opposing force of each wagon:
and moving trolley, not let the trolley run
1000 + 4200 = 5200 N
out of control; place a tray on the floor to
number of wagons: 40 000 ÷ 5200 = 7.69, so
catch the weights
the engine can pull a train of seven wagons
c Increasing the number of masses will
10 a it will pull the arrow towards the ground
increase the force acting on the trolley and
b it will oppose the motion of the arrow and make it accelerate more.
slow it down
11 50 × 0.045 = 2.25 N m
c gravity and air resistance, both acting
downwards 12 1250 m ÷ 60 s = 20.8 m/s
d Pulling the string back further increases the 13 a 0.06 m ÷ 60 s = 0.001 m/s
amount of energy supplied to the arrow, b  1200 m ÷ 600 s = 2 m/s
which will increase the distance the arrow c 27 000 000 ÷ 3600 = 7500 m/s
can travel.
14 i 0.125 m/s; ii 5 m/s; iii 500 s; iv 60 m;
v 4000 s
Unit 13 maths and practical skills
15 i 10 N m; ii 15 N m; iii 80 N; iv 50 cm
1 b
16 a any solid surface over which the object
2 25 N × 0.15 m = 3.75 N m could slide, e.g. wood, metal, plastic, felt,
3 40 N × 12 m = 480 J (or 480 N m) carpet, etc.
4 i independent; ii dependent b The rougher the surface, the greater the
friction and the greater the angle before the
5 12.2 cm; all the others are going up in steps of block starts to slide.
0.8 cm c independent variable – surface of the ramp;
6 area of face: 2 m × 2 m = 4 m2 dependent variable – the angle of the slope
pressure = 160 000 N ÷ 4 m2 = 40 000 N/m2 at which the block starts to slide; possible
7 8 N × 0.7 m = 5.6 N m control variables – the size and shape of the
block and which face of the block is placed
8 a Set each spring up in turn on the stand, add onto the ramp (the area in contact with the
weights up to 10 N and record how each covering)
spring extends over this range of weights. d Place the same face of the block on the
b A suitable spring would be one which has a ramp. Start the test with the ramp at the
measurable extension for smaller weights so same small angle and increase the angle by
it can be used to measure a range of values; the same small amounts until the object just

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starts to slide. Measure this angle. Replace 7 A 10 W bulb transfers energy at the rate of
the covering with a different one and repeat 10 J/s and the 15 W bulb transfers 15 J/s.
the test using the same procedure. Therefore the 15 W bulb will transfer more
e The friction between the block and the energy in the same amount of time.
second covering is less than that between 8 250 W is a transfer rate of 250 J/s and 2 kW
the block and the first covering. is 2000 W or 2000 J/s, so the kettle transfers
f The different types of covering vary by energy at a greater rate.
category rather than by numerical value, so 9 a  the number of kilojoules (kJ, where
they can’t be represented by a numerical 1 kJ = 1000 J) stored in 1 g of the fuel
scale on the axis of a graph. b answers could include: it may have been
17 a A 1 N load placed 20 cm from the fulcrum collected for free; a wood fire is more
will apply a moment of 20 N cm. To balance attractive than several of the other options
the see-saw there will need to be an equal listed
moment acting in the opposite direction. The c wood
load will need to be: 20 N cm ÷ 10 cm = 2 N
d natural gas
b 20 N cm ÷ 40 cm = 0.5 N
10 a  5 + 50 + 30 + 45 = 130 W
c Moment due to 2 N load: 2 × 5 = 10 N cm.
b  100 ÷ 50 = 2 devices
Moment due to 0.5 N load:
0.5 × 20 = 10 N cm. Total moment in this c three possible answers:
direction: 10 + 10 = 20 N cm. This is equal phone charger + laptop + TV
and opposite to the 20 N cm moment (85 W required)
from the 1 N load on the other side of the phone charger + laptop + games console
fulcrum, so the see-saw balances. (100 W required)
18 b phone charger + TV + games console
(80 W required)
Unit 14 Energy 11 energy content per 100 g = energy content
in 1 g × 100 = (energy in 150 g ÷ 150) × 100
14.1 Energy in fuels and food so, energy content of food per 100 g =
(1046 kJ ÷ 150) × 100 = 697 kJ
1 a
12 a For chocolate: 2 × 1000 kJ = 2000 kJ
2 b
For raisins: 4 × 315 kJ = 1260 kJ
3 Fuel Application For bananas: 350 kJ chocolate > raisins >
petrol car bananas
natural gas cooking b (12 000 ÷ 200) × 100 = 600 g
wood fireplace for heating 13 1890 ÷ 315 = 6 packets
candle (paraffin wax) lighting
14.2 Heating and cooling
4 a in the chemical stores of the gas and the
oxygen in the air 1 by radiation
b into the food and also to the surroundings 2 B>A>C>E>D
c the fuel is portable and easily lit 3 A thermal conductor is a material which will
allow energy to pass through easily, such as a
d it would require changing the canisters
piece of copper or steel. A thermal insulator is
regularly (inconvenient, also expensive)
a material which will not allow energy to pass
5 a kettle A can transfer energy twice as quickly through easily, such as wood or wool.
as it will get the water to boiling point in
4 a it will decrease
90 s, whereas kettle B does this in 180 s
(3 × 60 s) b it will increase
b  the power rating of kettle A, in watts (or c any energy transferred to water from the
kW), will be twice that of kettle B hot metal will have then been transferred to
the bucket and the surrounding air
6 10 J/s

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5 The food is hotter than the surroundings, so 10 a from the hot chocolate to the mug by
energy will be transferred from the food to conduction and then to the surrounding air
the surroundings, cooling the food down. by radiation
The paper is an effective insulator, so it slows b  change the mug to one made of a material
down the loss of energy from the food to the that is a better thermal insulator; add
surroundings. The open chips cool quickly but insulation around the mug; use a lid
the wrapped food cools more slowly and stays
11 Energy transfer by conduction from the
hotter for longer.
warmer surroundings to the cold drink
6 a polystyrene beads 16 °C; paper towels is prevented by the vacuum, as there
14 °C; cloth 15 °C; wood shavings 18 °C are no particles to transfer energy. The
b  wood shavings > polystyrene beads > plastic container and cap are poor thermal
cloth > paper towels conductors, so help prevent the temperature
c the students may not have used the same of the drink in the flask increasing. The silvered
amount of each material; the different tests surface is not relevant; the radiation from the
started off at different temperatures and sun does not reach it, so there is no reflection.
this could make a difference (to the rate of 12 For a single-glazed window, energy is
cooling). transferred by conduction through the glass
7 Heating the rod at one end transfers energy (from the warm air inside to the colder outer
to the particles in the metal at that end. These surface of the window). The air trapped
particles start to vibrate more quickly. They between the panes of a double-glazed window
collide with neighbouring particles and transfer is a good insulator. This means that there is
energy to them. These particles now vibrate very little energy transfer by conduction to the
more quickly. This process continues up to the outer surface of the window.
particles at the other end of the rod.
14.3 Processes involving energy
8 a Energy has been transferred from the
boiling water to the surroundings (the cup
transfer
and the air around it). 1 System Store
b The temperature of the tea will decrease
hot water bottle full thermal
until it reaches the temperature of the
of hot water
surroundings; when there is no temperature
difference they will both stay the same charged battery chemical potential
temperature, so unless the surroundings are lift at top of lift shaft gravitational potential
at 0 °C the tea will not cool to its freezing
2 System Transfer of energy
point.
9 a thermometer, timer petrol in fuel tank as from chemical
b Place an equal quantity of the same food car travels along road potential store to
in each container; record the starting kinetic store
temperature of the food (the food in each apple falling from from gravitational
container should have approximately the tree towards ground potential store to
same starting temperature); place a lid kinetic store
made of the same material as the container hot cup of tea from thermal store to
on each container; after a set amount of standing on table (different) thermal
time open the containers and record the store
final temperatures of the food; calculate the
temperature change for each container. The 3 a chemical potential
best container (insulator) will be the one in b gravitational potential
which there was the smallest change in the c thermal
temperature of the food.
d chemical potential
c Answers could include: cost; ease of
4 a from a chemical potential store (of the fuel)
recycling; appearance; reusable.
to a thermal store (of the water)
b from the diver’s gravitational potential to
their kinetic store

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c from an elastic potential store (of the band) a i 6 min = 0.1 h
to a kinetic store (of the toy) cost = 1 kW × 0.1 h × 12 p/kW h = 1.2 p
5 c ii 30 min = 0.5 h
6 a girl’s gravitational potential store → girl’s cost = 2 kW × 0.5 h × 12 p/kW h = 12 p
kinetic store
b using the microwave oven saves 10.8 p
b girl’s kinetic store → thermal store of slide
and surrounding air 14.4 Conservation of energy
7 3 kW × 1.5 h × 12 p = 54 p
1 joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ)
8 a heating and radiation
2 d
b i electric current; ii electric current
3 store; all; cannot; conservation.
9 a chemical store in your muscles → elastic
potential store of spring 4 b
b Elastic potential store Kinetic store of spring
5 a The kinetic energy (of the motor in the
cement mixer) is useful; the thermal transfer
of spring
to the surrounding air is wasted.
Gravitational potential
store of spring b 
Start Finish
1000 J transferred
c The energy has been transferred to the from chemical
650 J transferred
to kinetic store
thermal store of air surrounding the toy. potential store of
gas in power
of mixer

10 a at either end of the swing’s journey when station

the swing is at its highest point Finish

350 J transferred
b at the centre point of the journey when the to thermal store
of surroundings
swing is at its lowest point
c at either end of the swing’s journey, when c energy has been conserved as total output
the swing is at its highest point is equal to the total input: 650 + 350 =
1000 J
d at the centre point of the journey, when the
swing is at its lowest point and travelling at 6 a 
Start Finish
the highest speed 100 J transferred 50 J transferred
from chemical to kinetic store
11 a The speed increases as it leaves one end of potential store of air
in battery
the oscillation and then decreases as it nears
the other end of the oscillation, where it Finish
stops momentarily as it changes direction. 50 J transferred
to thermal store
This is repeated on the return oscillation. of surroundings

b When the mass is raised up, the energy in b The diagram shows that energy is
the gravitational potential store increases. conserved because the outputs add up to
When the mass is released, the energy the energy supplied: 50 J + 50 J = 100 J
in the gravitational potential store is
7 a the one that is raised up
transferred to the kinetic store, so the
energy in the gravitational potential store b the one that goes down
decreases and the energy in the kinetic c If there was no friction then there would
store increases. As the mass swings up to be no transfer of energy to the thermal
the other end of the oscillation, the kinetic store of the environment. Energy would
store becomes depleted and the energy in be conserved, so the decrease in the
the gravitational potential store increases gravitational potential store of the
again. This is repeated on the return descending carriage would be equal to the
journey of the mass. increase in the gravitational potential store
12 50 W = 0.05 kW of the ascending carriage. There would be
cost = 0.05 kW × 2 h × 12 p = 1.2 p no need to supply energy from the motor.
13 
3 ÷ 60 = 0.05 h 8 a at the top of the first slope, as this is the
highest point
cost = 1.2 kW × 0.05 h × 12 p = 0.72 p
b the chemical store of fuel used to generate
14 cost = power (kW) × time (hours) × price
electricity → gravitational potential store of
(per kW h)
the train

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c The train’s stores of gravitational potential c The bar chart is the more useful one
energy and kinetic energy are the same as because it shows values for the energy
they were at the start. The additional energy content, this makes it easier to compare the
supplied by the motor has been transferred different fuels using actual data rather than
to the thermal store of the surroundings due visually comparing angles on the pie chart.
to friction between the train and the track
7 a
and heat from the electric motor.

Unit 14 maths and practical skills thermometer

1 b, d
2 c
clamp
3 a The greater the height the ball is dropped
from, the greater the height it bounces
back to.
b The ball always bounces back to a height
that is less than (just over half) that of the fuel
starting height.
c It is easier to measure the height of the
starting point because the ball is stationary, metal dish
whereas at the end point the ball is moving
and its position is harder to measure
b Put a measured amount of water in the
accurately.
boiling tube and record its temperature.
4 a it will increase (while the peanut is being Measure out 1 g of a fuel and place it in the
burned, and then decrease when it has metal. Place the dish close to the bottom of
finished burning) the boiling tube. Ignite the fuel and record
b the chemical store of the peanut the maximum temperature the water
c from the chemical store in the peanut to reaches. Calculate the temperature increase
the water, boiling tube, thermometer and of the water for each fuel; the greatest
surroundings increase will indicate the fuel with the
d any other foods that could be impaled on highest energy content.
a needle and ignited, e.g. bread, biscuit, c Any two from: some energy will be
cracker, cake, meat, etc. transferred to the surroundings instead of
e any other foods that either could not be to the water; the glass of the tube and the
mounted on a needle, e.g. soup, sauces, etc., metal of the dish will be heated as well;
or foods that would not ignite, e.g. soft fruit some energy will transfer to the water
f foods that store the most energy would and out again; errors in measuring the
cause a greater increase in the water temperature, the volume of water or the
temperature mass of fuel
g Answers to include: equal masses of d Any three from: wood, fire lighter, petrol,
food; water in tube at the same starting paraffin (allow coal, although it is hard to
temperature; same mass/volume of water ignite)
in tube; burning food held at same distance 8 a by the customer reading their gas and
from tube. electricity meters and sending the readings
h Some energy is transferred to the boiling to the supply company
tube and the thermometer; some energy is b 208 kW h
transferred to the surroundings; not all the c 12.66 p
peanut was burnt. d 178 kW h
5 2000 J/s = 2000 W = 2 kW
e because some appliances can only work
6 a the number of kilojoules of energy stored in using electricity
1 g of fuel f No, because the standing charge would
b the energy content of hydrogen (142 kJ/g) be the same. Using twice as much energy
is about three times that for petrol (45 kJ/g) would increase the bill but not double it.

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Unit 15 Waves 4 a For example, sit with your ear against the
surface of a wooden table and ask someone
else to tap on the surface of the table.
15.1 Observing waves Answers could also include hearing loud
1 crests TV through neighbour’s wall, listening to a
string telephone, etc.
undisturbed b i vibrations; ii need; iii close together;
position
iv transmit
5 The soft surfaces (such as sofas, carpets and
curtains) that were previously in the room were
good at absorbing the energy transferred by
troughs
sound. In the empty room there are more hard
2 a A 4 cm; B 7 cm; C 1 cm; D 3 cm surfaces such as bare floors and walls, which are
b B, A, D, C better at reflecting sound and enabling echoes.
3 a waves combine to make a bigger wave 6 a distance = speed × time = 340 m/s ×
b waves cancel out – smooth water 1 s = 340 m
4 a X – longitudinal wave and Y – transverse b distance = speed × time = 340 m/s ×
wave. 10 s = 3400 m or 3.4 km
b Energy is transferred to the wave across, or at c distance = speed × time = 340 m/s ×
right angles to, the direction of wave travel 60 s = 20 400 m or 20.4 km
in the transverse wave; in the longitudinal 7 It has been absorbed by the curtain material
wave energy is transferred to the wave in the and transferred to the thermal store of the
same direction as the wave travel. particles in the curtains.
5 a, b these two angles 8 a true
are the same
b Space is a vacuum so there is no medium
(no particles of any material) to enable
sound waves to be transmitted by passing
on vibrations between nearby particles.
9 The further the sound wave travels, the greater
the area it has spread out over, so the energy
is spread out over a larger area and the sound
will be fainter, as less energy is transferred to
your eardrums so the sound is quieter.
waves reflected
by the barrier 10 a aluminium
b air
c The angle between the normal and the c it travels fastest through the solids shown
incident ray is equal to the angle between and slowest in the gas shown
the normal and the reflected ray. d In a solid the particles are close together/
15.2 Making sound waves densely packed in a rigid framework with
strong (attractive) forces between particles.
1 a Any two surfaces that are hard and This means that vibrations can pass from
smooth, such as metal and concrete one particle to another quickly and easily.
b Any two surfaces that are soft, such as 11 170 m ÷ 340 m/s = 0.5 s
cloth, fabric or foam
12 distance = speed × time = 1500 m/s ×
2 a drum skin
0.4 s = 600 m
b strings (and air in the sound box)
This is the distance there and back for the
c air sound waves, so the water is 300 m deep.
3 Sound travels as the particles in the medium it
is moving through vibrate and transfer energy/ 15.3 Hearing and sound
vibrations from one to another. This is why sound
1 a
cannot travel through a vacuum – in a vacuum
(empty space) there are no particles to vibrate. 2 c

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3 d in the body (including muscle tissue). The
4 c waves spread into the body as a pressure
wave (longitudinal wave). As the wave passes
5 It would vibrate more quickly for a high
through the body, some of the energy it
pitch sound than a low pitch one.
carries is transferred to the thermal store of the
6 1 kHz = 1000 Hz, so 28 kHz = 28 000 Hz muscles, which get warmer.
7 28 kHz is above the audible range for humans 5 a the sun
but within that of dogs.
b because some of the energy used to power
8 a the person’s vocal cords vibrating electrical appliances is being transferred
b the vibrations travelling from one particle from the sun (via the cells) rather than from
(of gas in the air) to the next the mains supply
c the vibrations of particles in the air/pressure c The cells only produce electricity when the
waves passing through the air make the sun is shining. If the electricity produced
person’s eardrums vibrate (these vibrations is used to charge up a storage battery, the
are converted into electrical signals which energy in the battery’s chemical store can
are interpreted by the brain) be used when the sun is not shining.
9 a the frequency is higher than for a lower note 6 a independent – angle of the solar cell;
b i longitudinal; ii oscillate (or vibrate); dependent – potential difference produced
iii faster; iv electrical; v oscillate b first column – angle of the solar cell
(or vibrate) (degrees); second column – potential
10 The note that sounded higher, i.e. had a higher difference produced (volts)
pitch, would have the higher frequency. c Any two from: the distance between the
11 a sound waves in the air cause it to vibrate lamp and the cell; the light level in the rest
of the room; the power of the lamp; the
b because of the hole the vibrations in the
type/area of the photovoltaic cell.
air would not cause as much movement of
the eardrum, so there is likely to be a loss of d Roof-mounted solar cells need to be at an
hearing angle that gives the maximum electrical
output for the same energy transferred by
12 a – C; b – A
sunlight. This will affect the angle of the
13 b, c and d roof selected by an architect.
14 a elephant; b bat; c bat; d mouse and bat 7 a energy transferred by sunlight is absorbed
by/transferred to the water, increasing its
15 a above the auditory range for humans/
thermal store
higher frequencies than humans can hear
b  The systems are similar in that both use
b distance = speed × time = 330 m/s ×
energy transferred directly from the sun.
0.02 s = 6.6 m
They are different because in PV cells
distance to the prey is half this = 3.3 m. the energy is transferred via an electric
c direction current to an appliance to do work (or to
d Yes, bat sounds are within a cat’s auditory a battery to increase its chemical energy
range. store), whereas in the solar water heater the
energy is transferred to the thermal store of
15.4 Energy and waves water in the hot water storage tank.
c In the UK (in the northern hemisphere)
1 a true; b false; c true; d false
the sun rises in the south east and sets
2 a i energy; ii high; iii vibrate; in the south west, so having the system
iv energy on a south-facing roof means a greater
b It removes dirt from parts that would be proportion of the energy from the sunlight
awkward to get to and it avoids the use of will be transferred to the water heater.
sharp tools which might damage the objects.
15.5 How light travels
3 a, c
4 The ultrasound waves produced by the device 1 c
transfer vibrations to particles in the skin, 2 to show the direction in which the light is
which pass on vibrations to particles deeper travelling

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3 it must be opaque 5 i direction; ii refraction; iii focal; iv convex
4 a  any two from: glass, Perspex, water 6 Light rays leaving the balloon and passing
b any two from: metal, wood, stone through the pinhole cross over. This means
that rays from the top of the balloon end up
5 d 
lower down the screen and rays from the
6 a – A; b – B; c – B bottom of the balloon end up nearer the top
7 a  normal of the screen.
angle of angle of 7 b
incidence reflection
8 a lens; b retina; c pupil; d cornea
incident ray reflected ray 9 d
10 Similarities include: they form upside down
mirror images; they form images that are smaller than
b  mirror moved when drawing the line or the objects; they have a hole to allow some
making the measurement; can only read but not all rays of light from an object to enter.
protractor to nearest degree, but the light Differences include: only the eye refracts light
from ray box slit spreads out and makes it (only the eye has a lens); only the eye can
difficult to decide where to draw the pencil focus on objects that are different distances
line away.
c  The angle of reflection is equal to the angle
of incidence. 15.7 Exploring coloured light
8 d  1 c
9 When the ray of light reaches the edge of 2 spectrum
the fibre, no light is transmitted into the air.
3 c
Instead, all the light is reflected back into the
fibre and travels onwards until it meets the 4 b
edge again, where this process is repeated. 5 c
Therefore light never escapes through the sides 6 a
and all the light travels to the far end of the 7 frequency
fibre.
8 c 
15.6 Vision and images 9 c 
10 c 
1 a
11 a when it enters the droplet and when it
leaves it
b at the back surface of the droplet (right-
Light is travelling from the light bulb (the hand side of diagram)
source) to the eye. c it is separated, or dispersed, into a spectrum
b of different colours
d the rays of light that enter the raindrops
and are dispersed to form a spectrum of
colours are reflected back towards the sun,
so they do not travel through the raindrops
towards the person. A person looking at
the sun will see only sunlight and rain (only
someone with the sun behind them has a
Light is travelling from the bulb (the source) chance of seeing a rainbow).
to the book, where it is reflected and travels
to the eye. Unit 15 maths and practical skills
2 d 1 c
3 a, c
2 a 5 m (= 2 × 2.5 m)
4 i light; ii screen/wall; iii lens; iv image
b 3.9 s

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3 Quantity Unit mark the edge of the prism where the light
is emerging; draw a normal where the red
frequency hertz light emerges; mark where the red light is
amplitude metres emerging part way along the ray; draw a
speed metres per second line back to the point where the red light
leaves the prism and measure the angle
4 a i 10°; ii 20° of this line from the normal. Repeat the
b 21° procedure for the violet light. Record both
c 
Either repeat the experiment or eliminate angles.
the anomalous value and calculate the b 
The prism may move when drawing
mean using only the other two values. the lines or making the measurement; a
5 330 m/s × 3.5 s = 1155 m (or 1.155 km) protractor can only be read to the nearest
degree, light from the ray box slit spreads
6 1500 m/s × 0.6 s = 900 m out and makes it difficult to decide where
The sonar wave has travelled to the shoal and to draw the pencil line for the incident
back again, so the shoal is 450 m away. ray; a judgment needs to be made about
7 a Decide on the distances between the lamp where the centre of the red (and the violet)
and the cell that are going to be tested. Set light is.
up the cell and the lamp at one of these
distances apart. Record the distance and
the potential difference the cell produces
Unit 16 Electricity and
at that distance. Repeat several times and
evaluate to decide if any values should be
magnetism
eliminated or if further repeats are required.
Repeat the procedure for each of the other 16.1 Static electricity
selected lamp–cell distances. 1 two (positive and negative)
b independent variable – distance; dependent 2 a
variable – potential difference 3 i charge (or electrons); ii opposite; iii attract;
c first column – distance (m); second column – iv hair
potential difference (V) 4 a 
d the angle the cell makes with the lamp 5 It has gained additional electrons. Electrons
should be kept the same such that the cell have negative charges so more are needed by
faces the lamp; other light in the room a neutral object if it is to become negatively
should be kept low in level and constant charged.
8 a  Place each of the materials in the darkened 6 a positive, because it has lost electrons to the
room, all at the same distance from the amber; b from the wool and to the amber
torch and facing it. Take a picture of the
materials. The picture will show which of 7 a attraction; b repulsion; c because each
the materials is the brightest and therefore droplet of paint is attracted towards the metal;
has reflected the most light. Other possible d because the droplets of paint spread out due
variables should be controlled by, for to repulsion
example, using the same area of each 8 Walking across the carpet may have caused a
material, maintaining the same level of static charge to build up on you. Touching a
background light, and using the camera in metal object such as a door handle provides
the same way each time. a conducting path for electrons (negative
b i The aluminium foil will reflect the most charge) to move between you and the door
light as it has a smooth reflective surface. until you are no longer electrostatically
charged; the rapid movement of charge is felt
ii The black velvet will reflect the least as a shock (an electric current).
light as both its rough surface (rough)
and dark colour will make it good at 9 a hold the balloon close to small pieces of
absorbing light. tissue paper, or strands of long hair, or a thin
stream of water from a tap – if any of these
9 a Place a white sheet of paper underneath are attracted to the balloon, the balloon is
the experimental set-up. Draw a line to charged; alternatively hold the balloon close to

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another charged object and see if the balloon 6 a
is attracted or repelled by it; b from the
sweatshirt to the balloon; c because the air is
slightly damp it was a conductor, allowing the
excess negative charge on the balloon to move
into the air (by electron transfer)
10 Rubbing the box lid has charged it up and
there is now an electric field around it. The
b
pieces of tissue paper become charged by
induction and are attracted to the lid.
11 Similarities – any two of: they are non-contact
forces; they are caused by a field (a region in
which objects can be affected by the force
without touching the object producing the
field); they are caused by the interaction
between two opposite properties of objects V
(two types of magnetic pole and two types of
charge); they are less strong the further apart 7 a 4 (6 divided by 1.5); b in series; c with the
the objects are. positive terminal of one battery connected to
the negative terminal of the battery next to it,
Differences – any two of: magnetic forces only
because otherwise its potential difference will
affect magnetic materials whereas electrostatic
be subtracted from that of the other batteries
forces affect objects made of many different
materials (provided they are insulators and so 8 a, b
can hold a static charge); magnetic forces are 9 a the voltage of the battery
caused by the field around magnetic materials b the resistance of the wire/energy being
or electromagnets, electrostatic forces are transferred to the wire by heating
caused by the field around charged objects;
c all the students could hold the rope a little
magnetic forces cannot be produced by
more tightly
friction/rubbing but electrostatic forces can.
d be harder work/not so easy to move the rope
12 a  The brush and the hair gain opposite
charges. The brush is negatively charged e Strengths – any one of: the loop shows
and repels electrons from the surface of the a continuous circuit; the rope moves
pieces of paper, leaving the pieces of paper through each person’s hands at the same
more positively charged at the top and speed, showing that current is the same
more negatively charged at the bottom. everywhere in a series circuit; it models
So the positive side of each bit of paper is energy being transferred by heating of
attracted to the comb. components; it models the effects of
different resistances; it models the way
b The charge will gradually be conducted
that electrons are attracted to the battery’s
away from the student’s hair, both
positive terminal and repelled from the
through their body to the ground and
negative terminal.
through the air
Weaknesses – any one of: it doesn’t
c Dry air is a better insulator than humid
represent the current as individual
air, so the charge won’t be conducted by it
electrons; it doesn’t show the role of
as well.
charge; the model is difficult to modify for
parallel circuits
16.2 Current electricity (1)
1 amps (amperes) 16.3 Current electricity (2)
2 a it is an electrical conductor; b because 1 a true; b true; c false
generally non-metals are insulators
2 c 
3 in series
3 a 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.3 A
4 a switch; b cell (battery); c bulb (lamp)
b 1.5 V
5 c
c i 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.45 A; ii 1.5 V

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4 c permanent magnet but the electromagnet
5 a as the potential difference increases, the can be turned on and off; the strength of an
current increases electromagnet can be varied easily but the
strength of a permanent magnet cannot be
b 0 A, because without a potential difference
changed; the field of an electromagnet can be
there can be no current
reversed by reversing the current (turning the
c 1 V ÷ 0.1 A = 10 Ω battery around).
d because the potential difference was too 2 a when there is a current through it
great for the bulb and it had blown (broken)
b a nearby compass needle will be deflected
when the circuit is switched on
16.4 Magnetism
3 add more turns of wire; increase the current;
1 b use an iron core
2 d  4 c
3 a, c 5 a it will only attract magnetic metals
4 a the needle, being able to freely rotate, will b  turn the current off; when the current stops
align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field; the magnetic field of the electromagnet
b they would need to know which end of the ceases to exist
needle was a north pole 6 a  to provide support and shape for the coil;
5 to increase the strength of the magnetic
field
b holding a plotting compass near the north
pole of the electromagnet would result
in the south pole of the compass being
attracted towards it
c i as there is little resistance in the circuit, a
N S
large current will flow and this will cause
the coil to get warm; ii as a large current
will flow, the battery will soon run down
7 a a magnetic field around the wire; b magnet;
c a stronger magnetic field; d move; e the
motor effect; f either by reversing the direction
of the current or by reversing the poles of the
magnet.
8 a it will produce a stronger magnetic field
6 a they are close but not exactly aligned
b the electromagnet will attract the right-
b the north pole of a plotting compass is
hand contact and break the circuit (like
attracted by a south pole of a magnet, so
opening a switch)
the magnetic pole in the north must be a
south pole 9 a When the hammer hits the gong and
the contacts open; there is no longer a
c it is the same shape, with field lines
complete circuit so the current stops;
going from the (magnetic) north to
this means the coil no longer produces a
the (magnetic) south; the field lines are
magnetic field and so the hammer falls
concentrated at the poles
back. This re-makes the complete circuit so
current passes through the coil again. This
16.5 Magnetic effects of a current cycle continues (as long as the switch is
1 Similarities – any two of: they both have kept pushed in), meaning that the hammer
two magnetic poles; they both produce a repeatedly hits the gong.
magnetic field; they both attract magnetic b A permanent magnet will continuously
objects. attract the hammer which will then be held
Differences – any two of: the electromagnet on the gong continuously, so the bell would
needs a current through its coils to produce only ring once.
the magnetic field; a bar magnet is a

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Unit 16 maths and practical skills Unit 17 Matter
1 a amps; b volts; c ohms
2 b 17.1 Particle model, Brownian
­motion and density
3 The student could charge the balloons by
rubbing one balloon with one cloth and 1 c, d
the other balloon with the other cloth. The 2 i increases; ii closer
student should then dangle the balloons 3 molecules of gas (particles) in the air
from threads attached to a rod and carefully
4 a  the density decreases as the particles move
bring them near to each other. If the balloons
further apart
have the same charge they will repel each
other. b it is the opposite to the change in most
other materials, where particles move closer
4 a  The students could stroke each of the steel
together upon freezing and the material
bars a different number of times (say, 20,
becomes more dense
40, 60, 80, etc.) and then test the strength
of the magnet produced using the paper 5 Choose a measuring cylinder with the smallest
clips. This can be done by: finding the possible volume as this will enable more
maximum number of clips the steel bar accurate readings to be made. Measure the
will hold at once; or hanging paperclips mass of the empty cylinder. Add the sample of
from the magnet, one off the other in a olive oil to the cylinder and measure the mass
chain until they fall off; or measuring the of the cylinder with the oil. Look to see if the
distance at which the magnet will just top surface of the oil has a meniscus. Record
attract one paper clip. The students should the volume of the oil, reading from the bottom
always stroke the bar in the same direction of the meniscus. Calculate the mass of the oil
and using the same pole of the magnet. by subtracting the mass of the empty cylinder
They should use a different steel bar each from the mass of the cylinder with the oil.
time, so that it is not already magnetised Divide this mass by the volume of the oil to get
when they start stroking it. They should the density.
check at the start that the steel bar has no 6 a  4 050 000 kg/4500 m3 = 900 kg/m3
magnetism and that the paperclips are not b 600 g = 0.6 kg
magnetised.
0.6 kg/1 m3 = 0.6 kg/m3
b a scatter graph as both of the variables are
c  The density of the steam is much lower
continuous.
than the density of ice because in steam the
5 a because the wire will get hot and the mat particles are much further apart.
will prevent it from damaging the table
7 a 1225 g = 1.225 kg
surface
1.225 kg/1 m3 = 1.225 kg/m3
b A 0.2 ÷ 2 = 0.1 Ω
b 8700 g = 8.7 kg
B 0.12 ÷ 1.6 = 0.075 Ω
8.7 kg/0.01 m3 = 870 kg/m3
C 0.16 ÷ 0.8 = 0.2 Ω c 870/1.225 = 710
D 0.1 ÷ 2 = 0.05 Ω The liquid air is 710 times more dense than
c D the air in the atmosphere.
d C, A, B, D d Liquid air has a much greater density
e less energy will be transferred to the than air in the atmosphere because the
surroundings from the wires as heat particles are packed together much more
closely in the liquid state than in the
6 a  A: 6 ÷ 0.012 = 500 Ω
gaseous state.
B: 6 ÷ 0.008 = 750 Ω
C: 4 ÷ 0.016 = 250 Ω 8 The pollen grains move because the water
D: 4 ÷ 0.020 = 200 Ω molecules are in constant motion and collide
with the pollen grains. The pollen grains
b B, A, C, D
change direction randomly because the water
molecules are moving in random directions
and so the molecular collisions are random

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 Physics
– the grains are pushed first in one direction, 4 a – true; b – false; c – false
then another, at random intervals of time. 5 a
6 On a hot day the gap will reduce, because the
17.2 Particle model and physical metal on each side of the gap will expand to
changes partly fill the gap.
1 c 7 a they are moving more in place (vibrating)
2 a – false; b – true; c – false; d – true b it is increasing
3 a any two of: melting, freezing, dissolving c the bar will shrink back to its original size
b  Chemical changes cannot be reversed but so the pointer will return to the central
physical changes can; chemical changes position
result in the formation of new products d the bar will shrink further and the pointer
(due to the combination of particles/atoms will move to the left
in new ways) but in physical changes no e if the bar was free to move at the left-hand
new products are formed. end it could expand or contract without
c a chemical change as the reactants cannot moving the pointer
be recovered 8 a iv
4 b b The strip will curve downwards (if it is still
5 The volume of the water will be less than being held with the copper on the under
the volume of the ice block, because water side) because both metals will contract
is denser than ice as the particles are closer as they are cooled, but the copper will
together. contract more than the iron.
6 a  Student B is correct because mass is
conserved in dissolving; the sweetened Unit 17 maths and practical skills
tea will have the same total mass as the 1 a 50 g/50 cm3 = 1 g/cm3
unsweetened tea and the sugar. This is
b 21.6 g/20 cm3 = 1.06 g/cm3
because the same atoms which made up
c 260 g/100 cm3 =2.6 g/cm3
the unsweetened tea and the sugar are
d 195 g/25 cm3 =7.8 g/cm3
there in the sweetened tea (the solution).
2 a 2 cm × 4 cm × 5 cm = 40 cm3
b Student A is wrong because although the
crystals disappear, the mass is still present; b 340 g/40 cm3 = 8.5 g/cm3
there are the same number of atoms in the 3 a because the type of gas is not a continuous
sugar even though they are dissolved in variable
the liquid. Student C is wrong because it b 2
is the tea that is getting the sugar wet and
we are looking at the total mass, which is 1.5
Density (g/cm3)

unchanged by the process of dissolving.

7 It is a good model for explaining malleability 1
in that it shows how the sliding of layers past
each other allow a metal to change shape. 0.5

However, it does not represent the size of the

0
force required to work a metal. In addition, the Air Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen
model does not explain ductility, as it cannot dioxide
Gas
show how a metal can be drawn into a wire.
4 volume = 3 cm × 3 cm × 10 cm = 90 cm3
17.3 Energy stored in matter mass = 0.225 kg = 225 g
1 increase density = 225 g/90 cm3 = 2.5 g/cm3
2 a gain; b closer together; c forces that attract 5 The volume of the water displaced by the
3 As the bar gets hotter, the particles of iron object is equal to the volume of the solid. The
move around more vigorously and take up students therefore need to collect all the water
more space; this causes the bar to expand. that overflows from the can and measure its
volume using a measuring cylinder.

454

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 Answers
6 a and b
Unit 18 Space physics
90 18.1 Seasonal variation
1 spring, summer, autumn, winter
80
2 The Earth is rotating on its axis. As it does so,
70 the Sun appears to travel across the sky.
3 a fewer; b lower; c lower
60
4 a
Temperature (°C)

50 5 Drawing should show Mars rotating upon

its axis and also the Sun or rays of light from
40 the Sun; it should include labels for the Sun,
Mars and the axis of rotation, like the diagram
30 below. It should also include an arrow to show
that Mars is spinning on its axis.
20
Mars
10

sunlight
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (minutes)

c 70 °C, because the temperature stays at this axis of

value for a period of time rotation
7 a 4 °C The side of Mars facing the Sun will be in
b 999.95 °C daylight. The length of a day on Mars depends
8 a 1600 g = 1.6 kg; on its speed of rotation about its axis. The
1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3 faster Mars rotates, the shorter a day will be.
The time for one complete rotation is the
density = 1.6/0.001 = 1600 kg/m3 length of one day.
b 2000 g = 2 kg; 6
1 000 000 cm3 = 1 m3 orbit of planet

density = 2/1 = 2 kg/m3

c 4600 g = 4.6 kg
star
volume = 4.6/920 = 0.005 m3 = 5000 cm3
d 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3
mass = 0.6 × 0.001 = 0.0006 kg = 0.6 g
planet
9 a density = mass/volume
b use a top pan balance
c measure the length, breadth and width of
the wood (in the same units) and multiply 7 a We have seasons because the Earth’s axis
them together of rotation is tilted in relation to the Earth’s
orbit around the Sun. Sometimes the
d 0.4 kg = 400 g northern hemisphere is tilted towards the
400 g/500 cm3 = 0.8 g/cm3 Sun and sometimes away from it.
10 a when he immersed the crown in a full b at points in the orbit when the northern
container of water, the volume of water hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun
overflowing (displaced by the crown) was
equal to the volume of the crown c The Earth rotates on its axis and the axis is
tilted in relation to the Earth’s orbit around
b 1800 g/100 cm3 = 18 g/cm3 the Sun. This means that at some points in
c it means the crown was not made of pure the Earth’s orbit, the northern hemisphere
gold is tilted towards the Sun and there will be
more than 12 hours of sunlight per day.

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 Physics
Further round in the orbit, the northern 5 d 
hemisphere will be tilted away from the 6 Mars: weight = 2 kg × 3.7 N/kg = 7.4 N
Sun and there will be fewer than 12 hours
Earth: weight = 2 kg × 10 N/kg = 20 N
of sunlight per day. The situation in the
southern hemisphere is the opposite; if one 7 Earth: weight = 210 kg × 10 N/kg = 2100 N
hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, the Moon: weight = 210 kg × 1.7 N/kg = 357 N
other is tilted away from it. 8 The Earth is attracted towards the Sun by a
8 There would be less seasonal variation, that gravitational force, due to the Sun’s mass. This
is, there would be less difference between the gravitational force keeps the Earth in orbit
seasons in the number of hours of daylight around the Sun.
and the temperatures. This would mean that 9 c
summers would be cooler than at present and 10 It would decrease as they travelled further
winters warmer. This is because the Sun would away from the Earth and then start to increase
not rise as high in the sky in the summer but as they neared Mars, though not increasing
would rise higher in the winter. back to the same weight as they had on Earth.
9 a 16 11 As Student A says, the balance does respond to
b 6 force (the weight of the object) but as weight
c from 21 March to 21 September is directly proportional to mass it will give an
d from 21 Sept to 21 March accurate measure of the mass.
e 21 March and 21 September Student B is right in saying that a 100 g mass
will cause a reading of 100 g to be displayed,
f Thurso is nearer to the North Pole, so when
but this is only true when the balance is used
the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun
on the surface of the Earth.
in spring and summer it gets more hours
of sunlight in the day than Falmouth, but As Student C says, using the balance only on
when the North Pole is tilted away from Earth means that the weight it responds to will
the Sun in autumn and winter it gets fewer be caused by something with a mass of 100 g.
hours of sunlight in the day. However, care should be taken to say that the
reading (for example, 100 g) is the mass and
g The shape would be reversed, with a peak
not the weight of the object.
(most daylight hours) at 21 December
and a trough (fewest daylight hours) at
21 June. This is because when the northern 18.3 Stars and light-years
hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun (and 1 i centre; ii System; iii energy; iv Solar;
receiving more hours of daylight) the v energy
southern hemisphere is tilted away from the 2 a true; b false; c true; d false; e true; f false
Sun and receiving fewer hours.
3 b
18.2 Gravity 4 b
5 b
1 Unit Unit of Unit of 6
force? mass? Description of Distance in
distance light-years (ly)
newton, N ✓
ad
 iameter of the iii 100 000
gram, g ✓
Milky Way
kilonewton, kN ✓
bd
 iameter of the Solar iv 1
kilogram, kg ✓ System
2 a non-contact c distance from Earth i 323
b always attracts to Polaris (the Pole
Star)
c weight
d distance from Earth ii 2 520 000
3 c, d
to the Andromeda
4 weight = 80 kg × 9 N/kg = 720 N Galaxy

456

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 Answers
7 a true; b true; c true; d false e
90
8 Student A is right. The light left those stars
many years ago and anything we can see, such Saturn
80 Jupiter
as the stars’ brightness and the position, was
determined by the stars as they were then. 70
9 a  a light-minute is the distance light will
travel in one minute 60

Number of moons
b a light-minute is the distance light will
50
travel in one minute whereas a light-year is
the distance light will travel in one year
40
c 60 (minutes in an hour) × 24 (hours in a
day) × 365 (days in a year) = 525 600 times 30
Uranus
further away
20
Unit 18 maths and practical skills Neptune
10
1 Unit Quantity
0
a light-year, ly iii distance 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Mass relative to Earth
b newton, N iv force
c kilogram, kg i mass f It is partly true. The planets with a much
d kilometres per ii speed greater mass have many moons and the
second, km/s planets with less mass tend to have fewer
moons. However, it is not entirely true.
2 a 120 × 10 = 1200 N Saturn has less mass than Jupiter but has
b 120 × 1.7 = 204 N more moons, and Uranus has less mass than
Neptune but has more moons.
3 a 10 × 32 m = 320 m
6 a As well as the gravitational force between
b 20 × 32 m = 640 m Uranus and the Sun, there is a gravitational
c 30 × 32 m = 960 m force between Uranus and Neptune and the
4 a 380 kg × 1.7 N/kg = 646 N direction of this force pulls Uranus forwards
b 380 kg × 10 N/kg = 3800 N in its orbit.
c 3800/646 = 5.88 (to 2 decimal places) so b Neptune is being pulled backwards in its
rounded to the nearest whole number is 6. orbit by the gravitational force between
The rocks are six times heavier on the Earth Uranus and Neptune.
than they were on the Moon. c They aimed a telescope to look beyond the
5 a Mercury orbit of Uranus and ahead of it (when it was
being accelerated) or behind it (when it was
b 0
being slowed down).
c Jupiter
d 79

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 Acknowledgements
With thanks to the following people, for their input into the careers profiles, in partnership with WISE:
Henry Brown, Geospatial Data Engineer; Rebecca Brown, Specialist; Matthew Calveley, Industrial
Relationship Manager; Kirsten Carotti, Software Developer; Beth Clarke, Advanced Consultant Engineer;
Siân Cleaver, Orion European Service Module Industrial Manager; Alice Clutterbuck, GIS Analyst; Lucy
Collins, Naval Architect; Katy Corfield, Quality Manager; Lucy Davies, Aerospace Engineer; Jesie Dyos, Field
Specialist; Molly Francis, Medicinal Scientist; Ellie Gomes-Callus, Metals and Mining Analyst; Chris Hales,
Associate – Acoustic Consultant; Bethany Hall, Electrical Systems Project Engineer; Junior Ishak, Electrical
Engineer; Alexandra Lawson, Commercial Advisor – B2B Renewables Solutions; Dr Ronan GH Lee, Dentist;
Kathryn Malcolm, Chemical and Process Engineer; Chris Marshall, Managing Director; James Meconi,
Acoustic Consultant; Mimi Nwosu, Civil Engineer; Lilla Porkolab, Part 2 Architectural Assistant; Muneebah
Quyyam, Senior Engineer; Dr Jona Ramadani, Lecturer in Forensic Science; Krystel Richards, Broadcast IT
Engineer; Kat Smith, Senior Engineer – Research and Development; Natalie Staffurth, Energy Innovation
Project Manager; Isobel Vernon-Avery, Digital and Circular Economy Strategy Consultant; Vicky Wills,
Acoustic Consultant; Florence Wu, Engineer – Materials.
The publishers gratefully acknowledge the permission granted to reproduce the copyright material in this
book. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and to obtain their permission for the use of
copyright material. The publishers will gladly review any information enabling them to rectify any error or
omission at the first opportunity.
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 Acknowledgements
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Shutterstock; p358t Slavun/Shutterstock; p359t Roman Zaiets/Shutterstock; p359cl Aleksandar Karanov/
Shutterstock; p359ctr ALPA Prod/Shutterstock; p359cbr Phovoir/Shutterstock; p359bl Valery Zotev/
Shutterstock; p359br Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock; p360 Jasmina Andonova/Shutterstock; p362 Jasmina
Andonova/Shutterstock; p363t Ntv/Shutterstock; p363b Nordroden/Shutterstock; p366t Patricia F. Carvalho/
Shutterstock; p370t Peter An/Shutterstock; p376t Tuomo V/Shutterstock; p376bl Kabachki.photo/
Shutterstock; p376br Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock; p377t Agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo; p377cl Corepics
VOF/Shutterstock; p377c Sabena Jane Blackbird/Alamy Stock Photo; p377cr Dmytro Sidelnikov/Alamy
Stock Photo; p377bl Howard Sayer/Alamy Stock Photo; p377br ESB Professional/Shutterstock;
p379bl Itechno/Shutterstock; p381 Evgenii mitroshin/Shutterstock; p382 R.classen/Shutterstock;
p383 Barbara Rus/Shutterstock; p384 Maximillian cabinet/Shutterstock; p390t NASA/ESA/Hubble;
p390c NASA/ESA/Hubble; p390b Walnut Bird/Shutterstock; p391t Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock;
p391ctr Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock; p391ctl NDAB Creativity/Shutterstock; p391cbr REDPIXEL.PL/
Shutterstock; p391cbl Leo Morgan/Shutterstock; p391b Rido/Shutterstock; p392c Renklerin Kafasi/
Shutterstock; p392b Withan Tor/Shutterstock; p393t Triff/Shutterstock; p393c NASA; p395t Joshimerbin/
Shutterstock; p396 GrandeDuc/Shutterstock; p397t Tishomir/Shutterstock; p397b BlueRingMedia/
Shutterstock; p398t Abriendomundo/Shutterstock; p398b Chainfoto24/Shutterstock; p399 NASA/Bill
Dunford.

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