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 Understanding Political Theory
(राजनीतिक सिद्धांत की समझ)

BA Pol Science Hons 1st Semester

SYLLABUS

Unit-1 What is Politics: Theorizing the ‘Political’

इकाई-1 राजनीति क्या है : 'राजनीति' का सैद्धांतिकरण

Unit-2 Approaches to Political Theory: Normative, Historical and Empirical

इकाई-2 राजनीतिक सिद्धांत के दृष्टिकोण: मानक, ऐतिहासिक और अनभ ु वजन्य

Unit-3 Traditions of Political Theory: Liberal, Marxist, Anarchist, and Conservative

इकाई-3 राजनीतिक सिद्धांत की परम्परा : उदारवाद, मार्क्सवाद, अराजकतावाद और रूढ़िवाद

Unit-4 Critical Perspectives in Political Theory: Feminist and Postmodern

इकाई-4 राजनीतिक सिद्धांत में महत्त्वपर्ण
ू दृष्टिकोणः नारीवादी और उत्तर आधनि
ु क

Unit-5 The Idea of Political Community: Political Obligation

इकाई-5 राजनीतिक समद ु ाय का विचारः राजनीतिक दायित्व

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1. What is politics? Discuss with reference to theorizing the political.
राजनीति क्या है ? रानजीति के सैद्धांतिकरण के संदर्भ में विवेचना कीजिए ।

OR/अथवा

What is politics? Why do we study it?

राजनीति क्या है ? हम इसका अध्ययन क्यों करते हैं?

OR/अथवा

"Politics brings about conciliation of interests." Explain this statement in reference to the
meaning and nature of politics.
राजनीति हितों के समन्वय की प्रक्रिया है ।" इस कथन को राजनीति के अर्थ एवं प्रकृति के संदर्भ में समझाइये।

OR/अथवा

Defining the concepts of political theory. Discuss its relevance in political science.
राजनीति सिद्धांत को परिभाषित कीजिए। इसके प्रासंगिकता की विवेचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

What is meant by political theory?

राजनीतिक सिद्धान्त से क्या अभिप्राय है ?

Meaning of Politics
Different people have different views on politics, such as:

●​ According to scholars: Politics is a possible art where everything is possible.

●​ According to leaders: Politics is a form of social service.
●​ According to some people related to politics (journalists): Politics is an art of
strategy, tricks, or compromise.
●​ According to the public: Scams, corruption, and the game of power are politics.

"Politics" is called "Politics" in English, and the word "Politics" originates from the Greek word
"Polis," which meant a city-state in ancient Greece. The activities carried out by the people in
these city-states were referred to as "Politics."

The Greek philosopher Aristotle named his work "Politics," in which he first discussed state and
governance-related topics, and therefore, Aristotle is also called the "Father of Politics."

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In simple terms, politics: Politics is formed by two words—Raj (meaning governance) and
Neeti (meaning the art of doing the right thing). In other words, the governance by the state
(government/administration) is politics.

Definitions of Politics

●​ According to Plato and Aristotle: Anything that affects society is political.

●​ According to Chanakya: Politics is economics (related to land, defense, progress, etc.).
●​ According to Garner: Political science begins with the state and ends with the state.
●​ According to Gettel: Politics is the study of the past, present, and future of the state.

Why is Politics Necessary?

1.​ To create harmony among the members of society.

2.​ To prevent disputes, violence, and conflicts in society.
3.​ To solve the problems of society.
4.​ To ensure the smooth functioning of governance in society.

Most thinkers have used the term "Political Science" to study state and governance-related
topics. Thus, the French writer Jean Bodin was the first to use the term "Political Science" to
describe law, constitution, governance, citizenship, sovereignty, etc.

Meaning of Political Theory:

Meaning of Theory: The word "theory" originates from the Greek word "theoria," which
means a state of contemplation or thinking. Therefore, when we reflect (think) on any fact (topic)
to understand it, it is called a theory.

Political theory is the theory related to "politics," and it is knowledge related to political issues, as
it involves the study of political topics.

In political theory, political issues are identified, analyzed, and solutions (theories) related to
those issues are formulated.

In modern times, the meaning of political theory is related to the "activities of struggle for power."

Definitions of Political Theory:

●​ According to Sabine: Political theory refers to all things related to politics.

●​ According to Blahm: Political theory is the explanation of the subject matter (topics) of
politics and is a conceptual framework for understanding the world for humans.

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 ●​ According to Held: Political theory is a network of concepts and principles related to
political life.

●​ According to Endo Heker: Political theory searches for rules related to a good society
and state, and on the other hand, it is knowledge of political and social reality.

●​ According to George Catlin: Political theory is a mixture of both political science and
political philosophy.

Subject Matter and Scope of Political Theory

The subject matter of political theory has evolved over time. In the early 18th century, political
theory focused on contemplating the form of the state and government and what functions
should be assigned to them. In the 19th century, political theories were considered a study of
the structure of institutions. In the 20th century, political theory became a scientific study.

The subject matter of political theory includes the study of the following:

1.​ Study of human behavior.

2.​ Study of policies.
3.​ Study of international relations.
4.​ Study of all non-political facts that influence politics or are influenced by politics.
5.​ Study of the state (past, present, future, goals, and methods).
6.​ Study of political activities.
7.​ Study of problems and conflicts.
8.​ Study of selection and decision-making processes.
9.​ Study of activists and representatives who conduct political activities.
10.​Study of the government (its organs, objectives, relations between organs, form, and
tendencies).
11.​Study of modern political issues (human rights, feminism, environment, development).

Importance, Features, and Relevance of Political Theory

1. Helps Understand Society and State: Political theory studies the relationship between
society and the state. It clarifies the role of the state, its authority, and the duties of citizens.​

●​ Example: It helps understand that the state's purpose is to ensure the well-being of
citizens, providing them with security and opportunities. It also explains how citizens
should respond to state policies and decisions.

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2. Analysis of Political Ideologies: Political theory analyzes various ideologies such as
democracy, socialism, communism, liberalism, etc.​

●​ It evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of these ideologies, helping us understand

their practical aspects.
●​ Example: Socialism promotes social equality, while liberalism emphasizes individual
freedom. Political theory helps understand the importance of balancing these two.

3. Definition of Justice and Rights: Political theory clarifies what justice is and how it can be
established in society. It defines human rights and civil rights.​

●​ It helps decide how resources should be distributed and which political framework can
ensure equality and justice in society.
●​ Example: John Rawls' Theory of Justice provides a foundational understanding of social
justice.

4. Study of Political Institutions: Political theory examines the structure and functioning of
institutions like the government, legislature, executive, and judiciary.​

●​ It determines the effective operation and limits of these institutions.

●​ Example: In a democracy, the legislature creates laws, while the judiciary interprets
them.

5. Solution to Social Problems: Political theory proposes ideas to solve societal problems like
inequality, poverty, corruption, and exploitation.​

●​ It identifies necessary political and social reforms to address these issues.

●​ Example: B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on Dalit rights and social equality is an excellent
example of political theory addressing social problems.

6. Awareness Among Citizens: Political theory educates citizens about their rights, duties, and
responsibilities towards the state.​

●​ It teaches citizens how to protect their rights and fulfill their duties.
●​ Example: The importance of voting in democratic countries is explained through political
theory.

7. Global Relevance: Political theory is not limited to national issues but also addresses global
problems.​

●​ It helps find solutions to issues like climate change, the global refugee crisis, and human
rights violations.

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 ●​ Example: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) by the United Nations is
a practical application of political theory.

8. Moral and Logical Perspective: Political theory helps understand political and social issues
from a moral and logical standpoint.​

●​ It ensures that political decisions are morally appropriate and logically sound.
●​ Example: Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of truth and non-violence is a prime example of
a moral and logical approach in political theory.

Why Study Political Theory?

1. For the Development of New Ideas in the Future: Political theory includes the diverse
perspectives of renowned thinkers on various issues, which pave the way for the emergence of
new ideas in the future.

2. For a Systematic Study of States and Society: From the time of Plato and Aristotle to the
present day, political theory has facilitated the systematic study of states and societies, offering
valuable insights and understanding.

3. For Awareness of Social and Political Rights and Duties: Political theory educates
citizens about their social and political rights and responsibilities. It provides descriptions of
freedom, equality, property, justice, and the state.

4. For High-Level Intellectual Efforts: Through political theory, intellectuals have addressed
numerous social and political problems over time, showcasing the evolving and enriching nature
of intellectual efforts.

5. For Knowledge of Freedom, Equality, Property, Justice, etc.: Political theory not only
focuses on the state or society but also provides a comprehensive understanding of critical
issues like freedom, equality, property, and justice.

6. For Constructing and Testing Political Arguments: Political theory involves the logical
analysis and testing of political issues, fostering a robust framework for political reasoning.

7. For Solving Social and Economic Problems: Political theory addresses economic and
social challenges such as poverty, unemployment, violence, and corruption, offering solutions
that societies can adopt to overcome these problems.

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8. For Clarification of Concepts: Political theory offers clear explanations of concepts like
democracy, equality, justice, feminism, patriarchy, Marxism, liberalism, and capitalism, enabling
individuals to understand their precise meanings and implications.

Conclusion:
Political theory is a foundational and significant part of political science that analyzes political
ideas, principles, and values. It not only aids in understanding the political structures and
processes of society but also clarifies concepts such as justice, liberty, equality, democracy, and
rights. Through political theory, we can study various aspects of political life from a logical and
moral perspective. Its relevance is even greater in the present times as it helps comprehend
and address complex issues arising from the changing social and political landscape. By
elucidating the relationships between individuals, society, and the state, political theory provides
guidance for overall social welfare.

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2. Analyze the normative/ideal and empirical approaches to political theory.

राजनीतिक सिद्धांत के मानकीय/आदर्शी और अनभ

ु वमल
ू क उपागमों का विश्लेषण कीजिए ।

OR/अथवा

What are the approaches to the study of political theory?

राजनीतिक सिद्धांत के अध्ययन के उपागम क्या है ?

OR/अथवा

What is the difference between ideal and empirical approach?

आदर्शी और आनभ ु विक उपागम में क्या अंतर है ?

Approaches to the Study of Political Theory

Politics is an ancient subject, but its systematic and theoretical study began in the 19th and 20th
centuries, particularly in European countries and North America, where the study of the state
was equated with politics.

Extensive research on politics started during this time, leading to the development of various
approaches to the study of political theory.

The approaches used for studying political theory can be divided into two categories:

1. Traditional Political Approaches

●​ Historical Approach: Emphasizes the historical study of politics.

●​ Institutional Approach: Focuses on the study of the state.
●​ Normative/Prescriptive Approach: Stresses moral values.

2. Modern Political Approaches

●​ Empirical-Scientific Approach: Relies on facts and scientific experimentation.

Post-World War II, the empirical-scientific approach gained dominance in political theory,
emphasizing the importance of facts and science.

1. Historical Approach
Prominent supporters: Seignobos, Lindsay, Machiavelli

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Advocates of this approach argue that understanding political theory requires studying the time,
place, and circumstances in which it developed. Without understanding these conditions, it is
impossible to grasp any political theory fully.

Political theorists may not have directly participated in the events and circumstances, but they
are influenced by these and also contribute to shaping them.

Characteristics of the Historical Approach:

1.​ Defines the Present through the Past: This approach seeks to define the present by
studying the past, making the study of history invaluable for students of political science.​

2.​ Focus on Historical Study of Political Institutions and Processes: By examining

ancient political institutions and processes, one can draw conclusions about future
paths.​

3.​ Interconnection of Politics and History: Thinkers like Seignobos and Machiavelli
believe that politics and history are interconnected. Thus, a historical perspective is
essential for understanding politics.​

4.​ Impact of Environment on Political Thought: This approach emphasizes that a

thinker’s political ideas are shaped by the environment and circumstances surrounding
them.​

5.​ Understanding the Present Structure of Political Institutions: To comprehend the

current form of political institutions, it is necessary to study their past. Political institutions
are not created; they evolve over time. Therefore, knowing their history is essential for
understanding them.​

6.​ State as a Product of Historical Development: The modern state is the result of a long
historical evolution. By studying significant events and circumstances in the state's
development, one can better understand its present and potential future forms.​

7.​ Constitutions Evolve, Not Created: This principle becomes evident when studying the
historical development of state constitutions, showing how constitutions naturally evolve
over time.

Institutional/Structural Approach
This approach is supported by thinkers such as Walter Bagehot, Munro, and Lord Bryce, who
emphasized the study of political institutions in understanding political theory.

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From the beginning, the study of political institutions was closely linked with the study of the
state. Political institutions were often equated with the state itself, leading this approach to be
referred to as the "Theory of the State."

The theory of the state primarily originated in Germany, which is why it is also known as the
German Ideology. Later, this German approach spread and developed in other countries as well.

Characteristics of the Institutional/Structural Approach

1.​ Focus on Constitutional Studies: Vincent argues that this approach primarily
developed in Germany, Great Britain, and North America because constitutional studies,
closely related to political institutions, were encouraged in these regions.​

2.​ Study of Formal Institutions of Government: This approach focuses on the state and
its institutions, including formal institutions of government such as the legislature,
executive, and judiciary.​

3.​ Evolution Alongside Political Studies: The development of this approach is tied to the
growth of political studies. As political studies evolved, so did the institutional approach.​

4.​ Emphasis on Constitutional Functions: Vincent notes that this approach identifies the
work of political theory with the functioning of the state, including its constitutional roles.​

5.​ Views of Hegel and Fichte: Hegel and Fichte believed that understanding politics
requires understanding the state and its underlying ideals.

Focus on the State: This approach places significant emphasis on the state due to the rise of
nationalism during the 19th and 20th centuries. During this period, European nations were
engaged in state-building efforts, which led to a focus on strengthening and studying the state.

Link Between Politics and the State: In North America and Britain, political studies were
primarily focused on the state, as politics was seen as closely connected to the state. The word
"politics" originates from the Greek term "Polis," meaning city-state or simply state.

Normative/Philosophical Approach
The philosophical approach to political studies is the oldest, beginning with Plato and Aristotle
and continuing through the liberal and Marxist ideologies of the 20th century.

This approach is also known as the Moral, Normative, or Ethical Approach, and it is
sometimes referred to as speculative or philosophical theory.

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The revival of the philosophical approach is credited to Leo Strauss, who argued that "values"
are an integral part of political theory and cannot be separated from it.

Characteristics of the Normative/Philosophical Approach

1.​ Focus on Values and Morality: This approach deals with ideas related to politics, the
state, justice, liberty, and other moral values.​

2.​ Concern with "What Ought to Be": Unlike empirical studies, this approach theorizes
based on "what ought to be" rather than "what is."​

3.​ Inspiring the Creation of a Good Society: According to this approach, the role of
political scientists is not just to express opinions but also to inspire the creation of an
ideal society.​

4.​ Emphasis on Ultimate Good: It discusses the concept of ultimate good and considers
political goodness as a part of it.​

5.​ Comprehensive Understanding of Politics: This approach considers politics to be

holistic, encompassing ideas such as rights, liberty, equality, and justice.​

6.​ Search for the Ideal State and Government: It seeks to identify the best form of
government and the "ideal state" (first theorized by Plato).​

7.​ Prescriptive Nature: Normative theories provide guidelines on what should be done
and also evaluate existing systems to identify flaws and suggest improvements.

Criticism of Normative Political Theory: Normative political theories are criticized for being
imaginative, abstract, speculative, and utopian. They are often seen as disconnected from
practical realities.

Empirical-Scientific/Behaviorist Approach
In the 20th century, a new political theory called the empirical-scientific approach emerged in
America. This approach sought to address the shortcomings of normative political theory by
focusing on facts and ethics.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scholars like Max Weber, Graham Wallas, and Bentley
developed an empirical perspective on political theories, emphasizing that the study of politics
should be fact-based.

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After World War II, political scientists at the University of Chicago in America developed a new
scientific theory. These theories shifted the study of politics away from ideals, values, and
institutions and linked it to the behavior of individuals and groups.

Characteristics of the Empirical-Scientific Approach

1.​ Focus on Describing Social Phenomena: The objective of this approach is not to
establish an ideal state but to describe social events.​

2.​ Value-Free Study of Politics: According to this theory, the study of political theories
should be free from values, as theories are related only to facts.​

3.​ Objective of Political Theory: This approach aims to explain political events, organize
them systematically, and use this basis to chart a path for the future.​

4.​ Beyond the Study of the State: Empirical-scientific theories are not limited to studying
the state but also include the study of political processes.​

5.​ Incorporation of Social Science Concepts: This theory adopts concepts from social
sciences, such as power, policymaking, and political systems, to study political science.​

6.​ Practical Problem-Solving: Empirical theories do not focus on criticism but on

observing "what is happening" to provide solutions.

Relationship Between Normative and Empirical Approaches

The difference between normative and empirical theories lies in their focus on "what is" and
"what ought to be."

Normative political theories emphasize the term "ought" more frequently, while the term "is" is
used comparatively less. In contrast, empirical theories focus more on "is" and use "ought"
relatively less.

Empirical theories provide only information about political events, whereas normative theories
help understand the essence of political reality.

According to Bhikhu Parekh, the difference lies in the method of studying political events.

Normative theories critically analyze, investigate, and interpret events, whereas empirical
theories merely offer a factual description of the events.

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3. Throw light on the rise and development of liberalism.
उदारवाद के उदय और विकास पर प्रकाश डालिए।

OR/अथवा

Write an essay explaining the basic principles of liberalism.

उदारवाद के मल
ू सिद्धांतों की व्याख्या करते हुए एक निबन्ध लिखिए।

OR/अथवा

Discuss the liberal democratic theory. Throw light on the relevance of the pluralistic
principle of democracy.
उदारवाद लोकतांत्रिक सिद्धांत की विवेचना कीजिये। लोकतंत्र के बहुलवादी सिद्धांत की प्रासंगिकता पर प्रकाश
डालिये।

OR/अथवा

On what grounds would you call any approach to politics liberal? Explain with suitable
examples.
राजनीति के किसी उपागम को किन आधारों पर आप उदारवादी कहें गे? उपयक्
ु त उदाहरणों सहित व्याख्या
कीजिये।

OR/अथवा

Discuss the liberal understanding of the nature and role of the modern nation-state.
आधनि
ु क राष्ट्र-राज्य की प्रकृति और भमि
ू का के बारे में उदारवादी समझ की विवेचना कीजिये।

Meaning of Liberalism
Liberalism is an ideology that seeks to create a society where all individuals are free, the market
operates based on demand and supply, and the government exists solely to protect the rights of
the people.

Liberalism is called "liberalism" in English, and this term originates from the Latin word "liber,"
meaning freedom.

According to liberals, humans are rational beings who understand their interests and
disadvantages; therefore, all individuals should be allowed freedom.

Thomas Hobbes was the first thinker of liberal ideology; however, John Locke is considered the
father of liberal ideology. According to Hobbes, the state is chosen by the people, and the state
can do whatever it wants, but the people cannot oppose the state.

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According to John Locke, people choose the state so that it can protect their natural rights (right
to life, right to liberty, and right to property). If the state fails to protect these rights, people have
the right to remove it. Hence, John Locke is considered the father of liberalism.

Prominent Thinkers: Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Jefferson, Lindsay, Barker,
and MacIver.

Definitions of Liberalism

●​ According to Sartori: Liberalism is the principle and practice of individual freedom,

judicial protection, and constitutional government.
●​ According to Korner: Liberalism begins and ends with ideals of individual freedom,
human rights, and individual happiness.
●​ According to J.S. Mill: Liberalism promotes individual freedom, freedom of thought,
and minimal government interference. However, a person’s freedom should not harm the
freedom of others.
●​ According to Adam Smith: Liberalism promotes free trade, emphasizing economic
freedom and minimal government intervention in trade.
●​ According to John Rawls: Liberalism, through justice, protects equality and
fundamental freedoms. It aims to create a society where everyone gets equal
opportunities.

Development of Liberalism
The following are the reasons for the development of liberalism:

1. Renaissance Period: During the medieval period, the authoritarian state functioned
according to the church, and common people like farmers and laborers were treated poorly.

Over time, people developed reasoning abilities and began to become aware. Gradually,
significant changes occurred in the fields of science, society, politics, and the economy.

2. Glorious Revolution (1688-89): In 1688, the authoritarian king of Britain was removed,
and his daughter, Mary, was brought to power, who governed according to the Parliament.​
This significant change is known as the Glorious Revolution.

This revolution marked the first step toward ending authoritarian rule, and as no violence was
used in this revolution, it was called the Glorious Revolution.

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3. Modernization and Scientific Thinking: In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientific
thinking and modernization encouraged liberal ideology. The growth of science, technology, and
commerce fostered new ideas in society.

4. French Revolution (1789): After the French Revolution of 1789, rights such as liberty,
equality, and fraternity were developed.

5. American Revolutionary War (1775-1783): Between 1775 and 1776, a fight for
independence was waged in America, and on July 4, 1776, America gained independence.
Consequently, America adopted a capitalist economy.

6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights: On December 10, 1948, the United Nations
made a global declaration of human rights, under which fundamental rights (liberty, equality,
fraternity) were implemented for citizens worldwide.

7. Social Reforms: Liberalism has encouraged reform and progress in society, promoting
equality, reconciliation, and justice.

Features of Liberalism

1. Importance of the Individual: According to John Locke, the individual is the central
element of the political system, around whom everything revolves. This principle advocates that
every person should have the freedom of thought, religion, and lifestyle.

2. State as an Artificial Institution: Liberals view the state and society as artificial
institutions, created to resolve conflicts between individuals. These fundamental needs led to
the creation of the institution called the state.

John Locke even argued that if the state does not work for the welfare of people, they have the
right to oppose it.

3. Freedom of Thought: Liberalism encourages independent thinking, welcoming new ideas,

perspectives, and inspirations.

This ideology promotes openness, unity, and diversity, accommodating different views and
religious beliefs.

4. Individual as the End, State as the Means: Another belief of liberalism is that the
individual is the ultimate end, while the state is merely a means. Individuals created society, the
state, and other institutions to assist in their development.

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According to liberals, the existence of society and the state is only justified for the individual. If
they fail to support the individual’s development, their existence holds no significance.

5. Recognition of Natural Rights: According to liberal thinker John Locke, life, property,
and liberty are natural rights of individuals. The state was established to protect these rights.
Since these rights are not granted by the state or society, the state has no authority to diminish
them.

6. Limited Role of the State: Liberal thinkers value individual freedom greatly. They believe
that a person knows their interests and disadvantages well and should be given opportunities to
develop according to their desires.

The state should interfere minimally in an individual’s actions. According to liberal thinkers, the
best government is the one that governs the least.

7. Capitalist Economy: Liberals believe that a capitalist economy is the supreme economic
system. They argue that the economy or market should depend on demand and production
rather than being controlled by the state.

8. Democracy: Liberals oppose authoritarian rule and regard democracy as the best form of
governance. Democracy means governance by the people, for the people, and of the people.

9. Welfare State: According to liberals, the state should work only for the welfare of the people
and should not interfere with their freedom.

10. Free Trade: Liberalism promotes free trade with minimal state interference. It supports
freedom, competition, and innovation in trade.

According to liberalism, the value of goods should not be determined by the state but should
depend on demand and supply.

Criticisms of Liberal Ideology

Marxists have highlighted some shortcomings of liberalism:

1. Dominance of Industrialists in Governance: Marxists criticize liberalism by stating that

there is no such thing as governance by the people, as industrialists dominate the government,
which goes against the principles of democratic rule.

2. Lack of True Freedom of Thought: Marxists argue that there is no real freedom of
thought in liberalism because the means of communication and propaganda are dominated by
capitalists.

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3. Bonded Labor: Marxists claim that liberalism has worked against societal freedom, as
industrialists exploit workers by making them work more for less pay. Additionally, in many
industries, the working conditions are unfavorable.

4. Policy of Racial Discrimination: According to Marxists, liberalism often leads to

discrimination in society based on color, caste, religion, etc., which contradicts the fundamental
principles of liberalism.

5. Imperialist Values: Marxists criticize liberalism for promoting imperialist values, such as
exploiting underdeveloped countries and fostering economic disparity. This often results in
developed nations exploiting underdeveloped and developing countries.

6. Hunger and Poverty: Liberal societies often face persistent issues of hunger and poverty,
where some sections of society fail to achieve the goals of modernity and progress.

7. Exploitation of the Poor and Working Class: Liberal ideology has witnessed the
exploitation of poor and working-class groups in society, where they are deprived of their rights.

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4. Which values of liberalism were challenged by Marxist ideas? Do you agree with those
challenges?
उदारवाद के किन मल्
ू यों को मार्क्सवादी विचारों ने चन
ु ौती दी। क्या आप उन चन
ु ौतीयों से सहमत है ?

OR/अथवा

Discuss Marx's views on the subject of alienation. Are these ideas still relevant today?
Give reasons.
अलगाव के विषय पर मार्क्स के विचारों की विवेचना कीजिए। क्या ये विचार आज भी प्रासंगिक है ? तर्क दीजिए।

Or/अथवा

Do you believe that Marx's idea of alienation is relevant to our own world? क्या आप यह
मानते हैं कि मार्क्स का अलगाव या परायापन का विचार हमारी अपनी दनि
ु या के लिए प्रासंगिक है ?

Or/अथवा

Is Marxism relevant in contemporary times? Give a reason.

समकालीन समय में क्या मार्क्सवाद प्रासंगिक है । कारण बताइये।

OR/अथवा

Critically examine the main principles of communication.

संवाद के मख्
ु य सिद्धांतों का अलोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिये।

OR/अथवा

Discuss the political ideology of Marx in the context of class struggle.

वर्ग संघर्ष के संदर्भ में मार्क्स के राजनीतिक विचारधारा की विवेचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

Discuss Marx's theory of alienation. Do you believe that for the contemporary world What
is the relevance of this principle?
मार्क्स के परायापन या अलगाव के सिद्धांत की विवेचना कीजिये। क्या आप मानते हैं कि समकालीन दनि
ु यां के
लिए इस सिद्धांत की प्रासंगिकता है ।

Marxism
In 1818, Karl Marx was born in Germany. He studied the prevailing economic systems and
explained that society is divided into two classes: the rich class and the poor class.

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The rich class has always exploited the poor class. Therefore, it is necessary to struggle to
change this situation, which will lead to the end of liberalism, capitalism, and privatization,
ultimately resulting in a classless society.

Karl Marx criticized liberal ideology and presented his own ideas, which later formed the
foundation of Marxism.

Building on Marx's ideas, thinkers like Friedrich Engels, Stalin, and Lenin supported Marxism
and guided socialist and communist movements.

Emergence of Marxism
Between 1750 and 1850, the world witnessed the Industrial Revolution, which replaced manual
labor with machine-based work.

During this time, industrialists exploited the labor and poor classes by making them work more
for minimal pay. Consequently, the rich grew richer, and the poor became poorer.

Karl Marx advised the poor and working-class people to unite and revolt against this
exploitation. Such a revolution would destroy capitalism, redistribute resources equally among
all people, and establish equality in society.

Marx also argued that the state should be abolished, as it functions in favor of capitalists.
Instead, he encouraged the working and poor classes to govern themselves.

To achieve this, Karl Marx proposed eliminating capitalism and adopting socialism. Once the
working and poor classes learned to govern themselves, the state could also be abolished.

Marx presented these ideas in his books "Communist Manifesto" and "Das Kapital," which are
collectively known as Marxism.

Reasons for the Rise of Marxism

1.Rise of liberalism
2. Increasing exploitation
3. Dominance of capitalists in society
4. Industrial Revolution
5. Capitalist dominance over the state

Fundamental Principles of Marxism

Dialectical Materialism:

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According to Hegel, problems in society are solved through dialogue, which leads to the
emergence of new ideas. However, these new ideas are debated again, and this process of
dialogue and debate continues until the correct solution to the problem is found.

Human beings are surrounded by their ideas from birth to death. Therefore, the root cause of
conflict in society is material elements (intellect).

Historical Materialism / The Theory of Economic Systems in History

According to Karl Marx:

1. Primitive Era: In the primitive era, everyone was equal as there were neither rich nor poor,
and society was stateless with a very low population.

2. Era of Slavery: After the primitive era, human intelligence developed, and the population
grew, leading people to accumulate resources.

Those who managed to gather resources became owners, while those who couldn't became
slaves, marking the beginning of the era of slavery. It was during this period that the state
emerged.

3. Feudal Era: In the competition to accumulate resources, some individuals started claiming
land, leading to the development of the feudal era.

During this era, landlords exploited peasants by making them work on their lands.

4. Capitalist Era: In the feudal era, the surplus production of crops encouraged trade, giving
rise to the capitalist era.

In this period, industrialists invested capital and exploited the labor class by making them work
extra hours for minimal pay.

5. Socialist Era: Due to the exploitation by capitalists, the socialist era began. Karl Marx
advised workers to unite and revolt to bring equality to society, resulting in the development of
socialism.

The first socialist revolution took place in 1917 in Russia, leading to the adoption of socialism in
the Soviet Union. Later, countries like China, Vietnam, North Korea, and Cuba also embraced
socialism.

6. Communist Society: Through the socialist revolution, society would return to a primitive-like
state, known as a communist society.

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A communist society would be classless and stateless, and resources would be distributed
according to individual needs.

Theory of Surplus Value

According to Karl Marx, in the capitalist era, industrialists tried to extract maximum work from
the labor class for minimal pay. Workers were not compensated for overtime work.

Marx introduced the theory of surplus value, which states that workers should be paid additional
wages for extra work.

In this theory, Marx considered labor as the sole basis for determining the value of a commodity.

Proletariat Revolution

In the capitalist system, the industrialists extensively exploit the labor or oppressed class (the
proletariat). Karl Marx advised the proletariat to unite and revolt against the capitalist system.

During this revolution, the proletariat should seize all the resources of the industrialists and
distribute them equally to establish equality in society.

Theory of Class Struggle

According to Karl Marx, throughout history, society has been divided into two classes: the
oppressors and the oppressed.

From ancient history to the present, the oppressor class has continuously exploited and
suppressed the oppressed class.

Thus, Marx advocated for the establishment of a classless society by encouraging the
oppressed class to unite and revolt, leading to equality in society.

Communism

As a result of the proletariat revolution against capitalism, socialism will be established. In a

socialist system, all people will be equal, and the state will work for the welfare of society.

Ultimately, when the capitalist system is entirely eradicated, the state system will also cease to
exist, and people will govern themselves, which is called communism.

Concept of Alienation

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In 1844, Karl Marx wrote a book titled "Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts," in which he
explained that humans experience four types of alienation:

1. From Production: Today, humans are alienated from production as capitalists exploit
workers to such an extent that they are treated like mere commodities.

2. From Colleagues: According to Marx, the pressure created by capitalists has caused
workers to become alienated from their coworkers due to the burden of work.

3. From Nature: In the primitive era, humans were connected to nature, and all their activities
were intertwined with it. However, over time, humans have become entirely detached from
nature.

4. From Themselves: Nowadays, people think less about themselves and more about their
parents, siblings, coworkers, or friends, becoming alienated from their own thoughts.

Criticisms of Marxism
1. Utopian Vision: Marxism envisions a society that is both classless and stateless. However,
even Marxist countries lack a practical solution to achieve this. Philosophers like Karl Popper
consider Marxist ideas to be unrealistic and utopian.

2. Advocacy of Violence: Marxists believe that violence is necessary for social change.
However, violence cannot be universally accepted as a legitimate means to achieve goals in
any situation.

3. Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Marxism advocates for the dictatorship of the working class,
which is essentially an exaggerated form of authoritarianism by rulers.

4. Lack of Political Diversity: While Marxism claims to promote socialist democracy, in reality,
it results in a form of authoritarianism where no other political party is allowed to exist.

5. Flaws in the Theory of Surplus Value: In Marx's theory of surplus value, labor is considered
the sole determinant of a commodity's value. This is flawed because other factors like demand,
time, location, and market conditions also influence the determination of value.

6. Suppression of Religious Freedom: Marxist countries like Russia, China, Poland, Hungary,
Yugoslavia, and Cuba claim to allow religious freedom. However, in practice, their policies often
suppress religious propagation and discourage faith-based activities.

7. Alternative Origins of the State: According to sociologist MacIver, the state was not created
for exploitation but to uphold justice within tribes. Marx's interpretation of the state's origin as an
exploitative entity is considered inaccurate.

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8. Fear of Anarchy: Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle argue that the absence of the state
would lead to chaos and lawlessness in society. In such a scenario, power and might would
dominate, creating a "might makes right" situation.

5. What do you understand about the theory of anarchism? What is the relevance of
anarchist ideas in today's times?
अराजकतावाद के सिद्धांत से आप क्या समझते है ? आज के दौर में अराजकतावादी विचारों की क्या प्रासंगिकता
है ?

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OR/अथवा

Criticize the anarchist idea of the state.

राज्य के अराजकतावादी विचार की आलोचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

How do the principles of anarchism differ from those of social order? Discuss this.
अराजकतावाद के सिद्धांतों और सामाजिक व्यवस्था में कैसे अंतर होता है ? इस पर चर्चा कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

What is the relevance of anarchism in today's times? Explain its importance and impact
in detail.
आज के समय में अराजकतावाद की प्रासंगिकता क्या है ? इसका महत्त्व और प्रभाव विस्तारपर्व
ू क बताएं।

OR/अथवा

Give examples of anarchist ideas of the state. What impact do these ideas have on
society and government policies?
राज्य के अराजकतावादी विचारों के उदाहरण दीजिए। इन विचारों का समाज और सरकारी नीतियों पर कैसा प्रभाव
होता है ?

OR/अथवा

Consider the relationship of anarchism to the political system and society.

राजनीतिक प्रणाली और समाज में अराजकतावाद के संबध
ं पर विचार कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

Consider the challenges and solutions to anarchism.

अराजकतावाद के विरुद्ध चन
ु ौतियों और समाधानों पर विचार करें ।

Meaning of Anarchism
The term "anarchism" originates from the Greek word "anarchia," which means "absence of a
ruler."

The fundamental principle of anarchism is that humans can establish a just society through
mutual cooperation. Hence, justice in society will be achieved when the government is

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completely abolished. Therefore, the goal of anarchism is to abolish the state and all forms of
political power.

Anarchists view the state as a true evil and regard human nature as inherently good, while
considering society as a natural institution.

Anarchism is a theory that advocates for the removal of the state to solve human problems, and
views the state as an artificial construct created by humans.

Anarchism inspires freedom, equality, and social justice, and believes that prosperity and social
improvement can come not from political power but from social harmony.

Anarchist Thinkers

1. Epicurus and Cynics: These were anarchist thinkers in the ancient world who valued
human self-control over politics and sought peace by distancing from political authority.

2. William Godwin: He was the first modern anarchist. In his 1793 book "Enquiry
Concerning Political Justice," he wrote, "Society is a blessing, but Government, even in its best
state, is but a necessary evil."

3. P. J. Proudhon: Proudhon was the first thinker to call himself an anarchist. In his 1840
book "What is Property?", he wrote that the end of exploitation by man over man and the end of
the state are one and the same.

4. Mikhail Bakunin: Bakunin advocated for the immediate destruction of all political,
economic, and religious institutions through violent struggles and terrorist activities. He
promoted the creation of free associations, where all would have equal rights.

Beliefs, Principles, Relevance, Importance, and Features of

Anarchism

1. Anti-State: Anarchists believe all forms of government inherently create problems because
they restrict individual freedom. The state uses its power to control and dominate people. Thus,
representative systems (elections, democracy) only serve to maintain the existence of the ruling
elite.

According to Steiner, all states are tyrannical because they use control, restriction, or repression
to achieve their goals. Proudhon argued that democracy is merely constitutional tyranny.

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2. Opposition to Hierarchy: Anarchists believe that human beings are naturally moral
and can live peacefully without rulers or leaders. Therefore, they oppose hierarchical systems
and imagine a stateless society where people can cooperate with each other.

Some thinkers have considered the state's hierarchical structure as exploitative, where the state
claims a share in individual property through taxation.

3. Opposition to Centralization: Anarchists support decentralization instead of

centralization. They see decentralized systems as symbols of freedom and advocate for the
creation of free associations in society to prevent the marketization of power and promote social
equality.

4. Opposition to Religion: Anarchists oppose all forms of authority, including the state,
religion, and property. They argue that both state power and religious authority serve to further
the interests of those in power, often through tyranny and the exploitation of the common
people.

Anarchists see religion as based on superstition and divine fantasies rather than logical
reasoning. Those who believe in God, they argue, are promoting hypocrisy. Religious leaders
claim to be successors of God, thereby exploiting the masses.

5. Opposition to Capitalism: Just as anarchists oppose the state, they also oppose
capitalism, as it divides society into exploiters and exploited. Anarchists seek to end systems
where the poor are exploited.

Anarchists question the distribution of wealth, opposing capitalism because it perpetuates

divisions in society, creating a gap between the rich and the poor.

6. Opposition to Democracy and Representative Governance: Anarchists reject

all forms of government, whether democracy or authoritarian rule. They argue that even
democracy is a facade because it does not represent the true will of the people. During
elections, the public is shown a false reality, and power is retained by the elites.

7. Opposition to Private Property: Anarchists view private property as the root of all
evil. It divides society into two classes: the capitalist class, which exploits the poor and amasses
wealth without limit, and the poor, who struggle to meet their basic needs.

8. Equality in Society: Anarchist ideology advocates for equality in society. In modern

societies, where discrimination based on caste, gender, and religion still exists, anarchism calls
for the eradication of such divisions.

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Criticism of Anarchism
(1) Anarchism views the state as an unnecessary evil and criticizes it. However, this is entirely
wrong, as today the state has become a welfare institution.

(2) Anarchists have a blind faith in human nature, which is flawed. Most people are selfish and
do not care about the interests of society.

(3) Anarchists believe that in a stateless and classless society, crimes will cease, and all work
will be done based on mutual cooperation. However, this seems impractical.

(4) Anarchists support the use of violent means to achieve their goals, which should be
condemned.

(5) After the abolition of the state, anarchists place great importance on voluntary associations,
but these associations will not be able to perform all the functions of the state efficiently.

(6) The elimination of the state will not solve all problems; on the contrary, it will create several
new problems.

(7) Anarchists' perspective that every law is made to protect individual rights is incorrect. In the
modern era, many laws have been enacted for the welfare of workers.

6.Describe the conservative approach to political theory.

राजनीति सिद्धांत के रुढ़िवादी उपागम का वर्णन करो।

OR/अथवा

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Discuss the main bases of the tradition of conservatism?
रूढ़िवाद की परम्परा के मख्
ु य आधारों पर चर्चा कीजिये?

OR/अथवा

Write an essay on the historical and intellectual evolution of conservatism.

रूढ़िवाद के ऐतिहासिक एवं बौ‌द्धिक विकास पर एक निबंध लिखिए।

OR/अथवा

What is the basic principle of conservatism?

रूढ़िवाद का मल
ू सिद्धांत क्या है ?

OR/अथवा

What is the role of the principles of conservatism in society?

रूढ़िवाद के सिद्धांतों की समाज में क्या भमि
ू का है ?

OR/अथवा

What is the contribution of conservatism to the constitutional and social structure?

रूढ़िवाद का संविधानिक और सामाजिक संरचना में क्या योगदान होता है ?

OR/अथवा

What are the main features of conservatism and its importance?

रूढ़िवाद की प्रमख
ु विशेषताएँ और इसका महत्त्व क्या है ?

Meaning of Conservatism
Conservatism is a political ideology that believes in and adopts principles and elements that
have been in place for a long time.

Conservatism does not accept change. It believes in adhering to traditions that have been
established. Conservative thinkers argue that the rules, laws, and regulations created by our
ancestors were made thoughtfully, and therefore, we should follow them.

Origin of Conservatism
At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution
brought about significant social, economic, and political changes, along with new inventions.

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Due to these changes and inventions, old traditions began to change, which led to the
emergence of conservative ideology.

Conservatives criticized these changes and inventions, emphasizing the need to adhere to old
traditions.

Beliefs/Principles/Significance of Conservatism

1. Emphasis on Traditions: According to conservatives, no society is perfect, and

therefore, modern rules cannot be entirely correct. Hence, they emphasize the importance of old
traditions.

2. Opposition to Change: Conservative thinkers believe that social, economic, and

political changes are not beneficial for humanity.

3. Realism: Conservative thinkers do not envision an ideal society but accept the real
situation (reality). They believe in focusing on what is happening rather than what should
happen.

4. Importance of Family, Religion, and Community: Conservatives generally value

family, religion, and community, and often criticize social changes that weaken these institutions.

5. Opposition to Broad Plans: Conservative thinkers do not see small societal changes
as a threat but regard large changes as significant dangers to society.

6. Support for Free Market and Capitalism: Conservatism supports a free-market

economy and limited government intervention in the economy. They believe that individual
freedom and free enterprise are the keys to economic prosperity.

7. Emphasis on Self-Reliance: Conservatives stress individual responsibility and

self-reliance, believing that people should be responsible for their well-being and should not rely
on the government for support.

8. Revolution-Free Society: Conservative thinkers want a revolution-free society because

they see revolution as the main cause of societal changes.

Therefore, conservative thinkers do not accept revolution as a means of creating a peaceful

society.

9. Opposition to Transformational Agreements: Conservatives oppose agreements

that bring about changes in society.

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10. Opposition to Rationalism: Conservative thinkers oppose all things that use logic or
reason because they believe that the root cause of changes is rationalism or intellect.

Types or Forms of Conservatism

1. Inherent Conservatism: This type of individual has an inherently conservative nature

and opposes a changing lifestyle.​
According to Rossiter, conservatism is an inherent and psychological state. An inherently
conservative person is characterized by tradition, inertia (attachment), fear, and competition.

2. Authoritarian Conservatism: According to this type of conservative, power should

remain with the group or class that previously held it, as no one else can wield power better
than that class or group.

3. Patriarchal Conservatism: In this type of conservatism, it is believed that the eldest

son should have full rights over the father's property, and women are excluded from this.

4. Situational Conservatism: A situational conservative seeks to maintain the existing

(old) state of affairs, meaning they try to keep things as they are.

They completely oppose social, economic, legal, religious, political, and cultural changes, as
they fear changes and prefer to preserve their traditions.

5. Political Conservatism: Political conservatives give recognition to those political parties

and institutions that have inherited morality.

These individuals also oppose reformative projects by parties and institutions, and they
excessively praise the past over the future.

Criticism or Evaluation of Conservatism

1. Critics argue that this ideology does not align with the modern age, which is why it has never
been fully adopted in any state.

2. Critics claim that the principles of this ideology have not been proven to be effective (correct),
so it cannot be adopted.

3. Critics believe that this ideology is based only on hypothetical facts and does not provide a
full understanding of reality.

4. Change is a natural law, and it is very necessary for society, so these conservative principles
will not prove to be correct for any society.

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5. Conservatives oppose broad plans and agreements, but plans and agreements have proven
to be meaningful for every society.

6. Conservative thinkers oppose rationalism, but in the modern era, the development of human
society is impossible without rationalism.

7. Feminist approach criticizes the mainstream of political theory. Please discuss.

नारीवादी दृष्टिकोण राजनीति सिद्धांत की मख्
ु यधारा का आलोचना करती है । विवचना काजिए।

OR/अथवा

Discuss the different thought groups of feminism.

नारीवाद के विभिन्न विचार समह
ू ों की विवेचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा
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Discuss the main approaches to the study of feminism.
नारीवाद के अध्ययन के मख्
ु य उपागमों की विवेचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

Discuss the difference between sex and gender according to feminist ideology.
नारीवादी विचारधारा के अनस
ु ार लिंग और जेंडर के अंतर की विवेचना कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

What are the challenges facing feminism?

नारीवाद के सामने क्या चन
ु ौतियाँ हैं ?

OR/अथवा

What do you understand by Simone Di Bua's statement "A woman is not born, but
becomes a woman"?
सिमोन दी बआ
ु के कथन "कोई औरत पैदा नहीं होती, बल्कि औरत बन जाती है " से आप क्या समझते है

OR/अथवा

What is feminism? Explain with its different types नारीवाद क्या है ? इसके विभिन्न प्रकारों सहित
व्याख्या कीजिए।

Introduction: Historical Development of the Feminist Movement

The term "feminism" emerged after the 19th century, but the history of feminist movements is
much older.

In 1405, Christine de Pizan of Italy described women's rights in her book The Book of the City of
Ladies. Later, England, France, and Germany intensified feminist ideas.

The first book on modern feminism was A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary
Wollstonecraft, which discussed the French Revolution.

After the 19th century, thoughts on women spread like wildfire across the world.

In India, feminist ideas began with the "social reform movements," which condemned practices
like Sati and child marriage.

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French women were the first to demand that "gender-based discrimination would persist as long
as women were denied the right to vote."

In the United States, the famous Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 was the first movement
advocating women's rights.

Later in 1869, Stanton and Susan B. Anthony started a movement for women’s voting rights.

In 1893, New Zealand became the first country to grant women the right to vote in elections. By
1918 and 1920, the United Kingdom and the United States had also extended voting rights to
women.

The success of these movements spread feminism worldwide, and by the early 20th century,
women began forming their organizations.

In 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union in the United
Kingdom (UK). Feminist ideologies gained more traction after 1960.

From these movements, the ideology of "feminism" was born.

Feminist Ideologies
The concept of feminism began with the belief that women are considered inferior and harmful
compared to men.

Feminist ideology primarily addresses gender-based discrimination and focuses on the roles
and rights of women.

This concept highlights the injustices faced by women and explores remedies to address them.

Feminism uses "gender" as the primary basis to investigate gender discrimination.

Feminists argue that the differences made in society based on the biological differences
between men and women are illogical.

From ancient times, women have not been given appropriate recognition in social life and have
been kept in a subordinate position.

Feminist thinkers assert that the differing images of men and women are not rooted in biological
differences but are the result of cultural conditioning.

These beliefs promote male control over women's lives in social settings, leading to the
establishment of patriarchy. This patriarchal system is the root cause of women's exploitation.

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Thus, feminists believe that women's subordinate position is a social construct that must be
challenged.

Main Schools or Branches of Feminism

Under the feminist movement, various ideas have been presented. Feminists have differing
opinions on the causes, forms, and solutions to women's inequality and oppression.

Division of Society by Sex and Gender

To understand feminism, it is essential to differentiate between sex and gender, as they are not
the same. Sex refers to biological differences, while gender is understood in social terms.

Sex is natural, whereas gender is human-made.

The patriarchal system uses biological differences to reinforce its dominance. Through this
manipulation, men have positioned themselves as the rulers of the world, while women are
relegated to the role of subordinates.

Nivedita Menon also asserts that biological determinism has been a significant tool for women’s
oppression throughout history. Such determinism has relegated women to a subordinate
position.

To understand this better, we must examine Simone de Beauvoir's statement in her 1949 work
The Second Sex, where she famously says, "One is not born but, rather, becomes a
woman."

Women are shaped by society because the upbringing of boys and girls differs from birth. For
instance, toys, clothes, colors, and even behavior are distinctly assigned based on gender.

For example, girls are taught from childhood not to roam freely or go out after sunset, while
boys are taught that "boys don't cry" and "boys are fearless."

Boys are molded to be brave, while girls are made to appear delicate. This differentiation is
maintained to separate their roles. Boys' sphere is broad, while girls' sphere is confined to the
home.

Gender determination plays a significant role in sustaining patriarchy. In some cases, biological
differences are used to construct gender-based differences and assign social roles accordingly.

For instance, childbirth and breastfeeding are sex-based differences that only women can
perform. However, taking care of a child, raising them, and nurturing them are gender-based

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roles that men can also perform. Yet, society imposes these responsibilities on women based on
gender roles.

Thus, gender-based differences are imposed by society. While humans cannot alter natural
laws, they can change the societal norms and cultural constructs they have created. This is why
feminists often criticize gender roles, as these are the primary factors keeping women in
subordinate positions.

Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism is an early feminist ideology that advocates for women’s rights based on the
principles of liberalism.

This ideology prefers gradual and legal reforms over revolution. Thinkers associated with this
school support equality, making it a "reformist movement."

The main idea of liberal feminism is that all humans are created equal by God. Therefore, liberal
feminists emphasize equality between men and women.

They argue that the root cause of women’s exploitation lies in societal customs, which are
created by men and benefit them.

According to liberal feminists, women and men have equal potential, and they should be given
equal opportunities in social, political, and economic spheres.

Society has historically burdened women with additional responsibilities, limiting their potential
and denying them the right to make their own decisions. Women have been expected to follow
others' instructions.

Liberal feminists demanded equal rights for women. Their efforts were instrumental in granting
women the right to vote.

Prominent liberal feminists include Mary Wollstonecraft, J.S. Mill, Betty Friedan, and Carole
Pateman.

Mary Wollstonecraft

In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, a groundbreaking

work that raised awareness of women’s rights and became a historical milestone.

Mary Wollstonecraft advocated for women’s rights and freedom through a step-by-step
approach.

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She questioned the exclusion of women from citizenship rights and demanded equal rights for
men and women.

Marxist Feminism
In their early works, Marx and Engels spoke very little about the question of women, as Marx
believed that women would attain freedom under socialism.

Engels developed these ideas in his seminal work The Origin of the Family, Private Property,
and the State (1884).

In this book, Engels depicted how women’s physical and reproductive labor was confined to
childbirth, family care, and private property maintenance. However, he argued that their
oppression was not natural but a result of patriarchy.

The rise of private property and its concentration in the hands of men pushed women into
obscurity.

Marxist feminists argue that class exploitation under capitalism is the root cause of women’s
oppression. Therefore, they advocate for movements to dismantle the capitalist system to
achieve women’s liberation.

According to Marxists, women’s oppression in society is not caused by men but by the social,
political, and economic structures in which individuals live.

One of the main criticisms of Marxist feminism is its overemphasis on economic factors.

Marxist Feminist Women’s Movements

In the early 20th century, several women’s organizations emerged, including the Women’s
Indian Association (WIA, 1917), All India Women’s Conference (AIWC, 1926), and National
Council of Women in India (NCWI, 1925).

Although many of these organizations started with limited goals, their scope expanded over
time.

It is often assumed that only educated middle-class women participated in such movements.
However, during colonial times, women from tribal and rural areas also took part in struggles
and revolutions alongside men. Thus, not only urban women but also those from rural and tribal
areas actively participated in these movements.

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During the 1970s, autonomous women’s movements grew in India. Educated women affiliated
with political parties or women’s organizations actively engaged in politics and promoted
women’s movements.

These movements began to focus on new issues such as violence against women, the inclusion
of both parents' names in school forms, legal reforms regarding property rights, employment,
dowry, and protection against sexual harassment.

Notable examples include the protests against the Mathura Rape Case (1978) and the Maya
Tyagi Rape Case (1980), which led to widespread agitation.

It has also been acknowledged that women’s movements are diverse because women belong to
different classes and have varying needs and concerns.

Radical Feminism
Radical feminism, often abbreviated as "RadFem" and also known as transformational
feminism, emerged primarily after World War II.

This ideology demands significant changes to social systems, aiming to dismantle male
dominance both socially and economically.

This ideology advocates for equality in private life. Radical feminists view society as a
patriarchal system where men dominate and oppress women.

Radical feminists strive to abolish patriarchy through struggle, challenging issues such as
women’s sexual objectification, rape, and other forms of violence.

They believe men use social systems and other methods of control to subjugate women.

Prominent radical feminist thinkers include Simone de Beauvoir, Shulamith Firestone, Kate
Millett, Virginia Woolf, Adrienne Rich, and Iris Marion Young.

French feminist Simone de Beauvoir, in her book The Second Sex (1949), famously wrote, "A
woman is not born but made." She argued that in a patriarchal society, women are relegated to
the status of the "second sex."

Virginia Woolf highlighted women’s dependent status, stating, "As a woman, I have no country."

In The Dialectic of Sex (1970), Shulamith Firestone provided a new interpretation of feminism
and gave the movement a new direction. She viewed technological advancement as a means
for women’s liberation.

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Kate Millett, in her book Sexual Politics (1970), argued for feminism to take the form of a political
movement. She asserted that the relationship between men and women is not natural but
political. Male control over women is not due to biological differences but a result of social
structures.

Millett’s book significantly advanced the women’s liberation movement in the United States.

Radical Feminist Women’s Movements

In 1971, 28 German actresses and journalists launched a campaign against abortion restrictions
under the headline "We Had Abortions" in Stern magazine.

In 1974, journalist Alice Schwarzer convinced 329 doctors to publicly support abortion rights.
Radical feminists in Germany, France, and the Netherlands managed women’s centers that
provided abortion-related counseling and support.

Feminist Movements in India

Male dominance is a reality of almost every society, and Indian society is no exception. Across
nearly all sections of Indian society, women have historically been relegated to a lower status.

Despite comprising half of the population, women have long been deprived of fundamental
rights. Therefore, feminism in India has revolved around opposing patriarchy and fighting for
equal rights.

If we examine feminist movements in India, they can be broadly divided into three phases:

1. First Phase (1850-1915)

Feminist movements in India differ from those in the West because they were closely tied to the
19th-century social reform movements and the anti-colonial struggle.

The first feminist movement in India focused on eradicating superstitious traditions in society,
such as the Sati system, child marriage, and the Devadasi system.

Social reformers and thinkers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami
Vivekananda, Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Fatima Sheikh, Tarabai Shinde, Swami
Dayanand Saraswati, Pandita Ramabai, and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan addressed women’s issues
with significant importance.

These reformers worked toward women’s education, widow remarriage, and women’s rights
through various organizations and legal reforms.

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2. Second Phase (1915-1947)

The second phase was marked by women’s active participation in societal movements. During
this period, women joined the freedom struggle as well as labor movements.

Various organizations, such as the Women’s Indian Association (1917), were established, and
legal reforms like the Sarda Act (1929) were enacted.

During the national movement, efforts by Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to uplift
women were noteworthy. While Mahatma Gandhi openly opposed practices like Sati, child
marriage, dowry, purdah, untouchability, and the exploitation of widows, Dr. Ambedkar worked
on legal reforms, including maternity leave, voting rights, and constitutional provisions such as
the right to equality and the elimination of gender discrimination to empower women.

Notable feminist figures of this period include Kamini Roy, Sarala Devi Chaudhurani, and
Durgabai Deshmukh.

3. Third Phase (1947 to Present)

The third phase of feminist movements in India, post-independence, focuses on achieving

equality in both public and private life.

This phase is primarily centered around social, economic, and political equality, access to
education, property rights, and the elimination of gender discrimination.

In contemporary times, prominent Indian feminist thinkers and activists include Meghna Pant,
Brinda Karat, Madhu Kishwar, Medha Patkar, Gita Sahgal, Vandana Shiva, Nivedita Menon,
Neera Desai, and Ruth Vanita.

8. Describe the postmodern approach to political theory.

राजनीतिक सिद्धांत के उत्तर आधनि
ु क उपागम का वर्णन करो।

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OR/अथवा

What is postmodernism? What are its main features and importance?

उत्तर आधनि
ु कतावाद क्या है ? इसकी मख्
ु य विशेषताएँ और महत्व क्या है ?

OR/अथवा

What is the place of postmodernism in political theory? How does it differ from
traditional theories?
राजनीतिक सिद्धांत में उत्तर आधनि
ु कतावाद का क्या स्थान है ? यह पारं परिक सिद्धांतों के साथ कैसे विभिन्न
है ?

Or/अथवा

What is the place of postmodernism in political theory? How does it differ from
traditional theories?
राजनीतिक सिद्धांत में उत्तर आधनि
ु कतावाद का क्या स्थान है ? यह पारं परिक सिद्धांतों के साथ कैसे विभिन्न
है ?

OR/अथवा

How has the concept of truth changed in postmodernism? What could be its political and
social consequences?
उत्तर आधनिु कतावाद में सत्य की धारणा कैसे बदली है ? इसका राजनीतिक और सामाजिक परिणाम क्या हो
सकते हैं?

OR/अथवा

How does postmodernism give importance to diversity in society? What could be its
political message?
कैसे उत्तर आधनि
ु कतावाद समाज में विविधता को महत्व दे ता है ? इसका राजनीतिक संदेश क्या हो सकता है ?

OR/अथवा

According to postmodernism, how do language and cultural context influence political

currents?
उत्तर आधनि
ु कतावाद के अनस
ु ार, भाषा और सांस्कृतिक संदर्भ कैसे राजनीतिक धाराओं को प्रभावित करते हैं?

Meaning of Postmodernism

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The term "Postmodernism" is derived from the combination of two words: "Post" (meaning
"after") and "Modernism." Thus, postmodernism refers to the period or condition that comes
after modernism.

Scholars have debated the nature of postmodernism. Some consider it the end of modernism,
while others view it as an extension of modernism.

Postmodernist thinker Arnold Toynbee declared the end of modernity and described
postmodernism as the condition following modernity. In his book A Study of History, he stated
that the modern era ended approximately between 1850 and 1875.

Development of Postmodernism
To understand the development of postmodernism, it is essential to consider the following
phases:

1. Pre-modernism (11th to 16th Century):- This period is often referred to as the medieval
era or the Dark Ages. During this time, society was heavily influenced by religion, the church,
and the belief in God. These institutions controlled society, often keeping it in ignorance.

2. Modernism (17th Century Onwards):- Modernism emerged when humans developed

the ability to reason and question. This era, marked by the Reformation, placed less emphasis
on religion, the state, or the church, and gave more importance to the individual, who was seen
as a rational being.

Modernism saw significant progress in science, technology, and society, resulting in numerous
inventions and the Industrial Revolution.

3. Postmodernism (20th Century Onwards):- Postmodernism is considered to have

begun in the 20th century and represents a shift from the ideals of modernism.

Definitions of Postmodernism

1. George Ritzer:- Postmodernism refers to a historical period that begins after the end of
modernity. It encompasses all forms of art and emphasizes a nuanced perspective toward these
forms.

2. Fredric Jameson:- He attributes postmodernism to a specific stage of capitalist

development. According to Jameson, postmodernism gives greater importance to the consumer
rather than multinational capitalism itself.

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3. Krishnadatt Paliwal:- Postmodernism began as a response to the oppressive discoveries
of science in the late 19th century.

4. Gopichand Narang:- Postmodernism is not the name of a single ideology but of multiple
ideologies. It seeks to eliminate outdated traditions and represents a new cultural condition,
marking the period after modernity.

5. Jagdishwar Chaturvedi:- Postmodernism signifies the beginning of a new era on Earth. It

represents the end of modernity and is conscious of change.

Principles, Relevance, and Features of Postmodernism

Stephen Hicks, in his book Postmodernism, describes the following features of postmodernism:

1. Reality of Society:- Postmodernist thinkers believe that what you believe to be true is the
truth, and the society you see is the reality—there is nothing beyond it.

2. Anti-Religious:- According to postmodernists, there is no such thing as religion or God;

God exists only in our minds.

Hence, postmodernists openly oppose all things related to religion, as they consider religion to
be a major obstacle to human progress.

3. Value to Communities:- Postmodernists give importance not just to the individual but to
communities, as every person lives their life within a community.

A person cannot separate themselves from the community, as they will inevitably need the
community at some point.

Thus, from ancient times until today, humans have lived within communities.

4. Importance of Language:- Postmodernists believe that language holds great significance

because it is not just for writing and reading but also helps us understand things.

Language is a gift that enhances our ability to think, and a language that a person cannot
comprehend is of no benefit to them.

5. Change through Revolution:- Postmodernists believe that old traditions which

perpetuate the oppression of individuals must be ended through revolution.

Such customs, traditions, and religions hinder individuals’ development and distract them from
their goals.

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6. Importance of Education:- Postmodernists do not value religious or scriptural education;
instead, they emphasize education that can uplift backward sections of society.

They aim to develop marginalized groups such as women, the poor, and laborers through
education, considering it highly important for these groups.

Opposition to Oppression: According to postmodernists, social oppression should be exposed

so that everyone can work together to find solutions to these problems.

7. Opposition to Reason (Argument):- Postmodernists believe that reason has always

been used to impose pressure on humans, and thus, they advocate for completely abandoning
the use of reason.

8. Opposition to Supreme Authority (Transcendental):- Postmodernists argue that

there is no such thing as heaven or hell, as only what we can see is real.

Humans are rational beings who know what is right and wrong, so there is no need for a God to
guide them in distinguishing between right and wrong.

Thus, according to postmodernists, God resides within the individual.

9. Expansion of Globalization:- Postmodernists value globalization highly and advocate for

the promotion of international trade, multinational companies, the global economy, and culture.

Criticisms or Evaluation of Postmodernism

1. Postmodernists completely oppose religion and God. However, critics argue that if religion is
entirely absent from society, a state of absolute irreligiosity may arise.

2. Critics state that postmodernism does not address the structure of society, even though, from
the perspective of political theory, social structure should have been given importance.

3. Postmodernists appear to support marginalized groups to some extent, but capitalist thinkers
criticize this stance.

4. According to critics, postmodernists consider traditions as negative and emphasize not

adopting them. However, not all traditions can be inherently bad.

5. Critics argue that postmodernists have not emphasized positivity anywhere completely,
focusing more on negativity throughout their discourse.

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9. Do we have a political obligation to obey the state? Discuss the scope of civil
disobedience in a liberal democratic republic.
क्या राज्य का पालन करना हमारा राजनीतिक दायित्व है ? उदार लोकतांत्रिक गणराज्य में सविनय अवज्ञा के
दायरे की चर्चा कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

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What is the meaning of political responsibility?
राजनीतिक दायित्व का क्या अर्थ है ?

Or/अथवा

Is it our political responsibility to obey the state? Discuss the scope of civil disobedience
in a liberal democratic republic.
क्या राज्य का पालन करना हमारा राजनीतिक दायित्व है ? उदार लोकतांत्रिक गणराज्य में सविनय अवज्ञा के
दायरे की चर्चा कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

Provide an account of the major debates on the question "why should we obey the
state?"
"हमें राज्य की आज्ञा क्यों माननी चाहिए" के प्रश्न पर प्रमख
ु बहसों का विवरण प्रदान कीजिए।

OR/अथवा

Write a short note on the idea of political responsibility towards the state. राज्य के प्रति
राजनीतिक दायित्व के विचार पर एक संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखिए।

Meaning of Political Obligation

Political obligation refers to a situation where an individual, group, or society is unable to change
a political process, decision, policy, or governmental aspect. It reflects the incapacity to either
cooperate with or resist such political processes.

This can restrict the social or economic progress of an individual or group, making it difficult for
them to achieve positive outcomes.

Why Should We Obey the State?

1. Consent of the People:- The state derives its authority from the consent of the people, as
they elect representatives through voting. The state represents the will of the people, and the
rules made by the state implicitly carry public consent. Therefore, we follow the state's
commands.

2. Social Duty:- The state is the supreme authority of society, and every citizen has a duty to
obey its commands. If citizens do not adhere to the state's rules, society may descend into
corruption and chaos.

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3. Legitimate Institution:- The state is a legitimate institution, as it operates with public
consent and holds constitutional status. Disobeying the state's rules indirectly amounts to
disrespecting the constitution itself.

4. Sovereignty:- The state is constitutionally endowed with sovereignty to protect the nation's
independence from foreign domination. Thus, the state's responsibility is to safeguard the
freedom and security of its people, making it necessary to follow its rules.

5. Protection from Foreign Powers:- Just as foreign powers ruled over India before 1947,
such powers may still threaten our independence. Therefore, following the state's rules is
essential to preserve our freedom and rights.

6. Social Order:- The state consists of three primary elements: the judiciary, the executive,
and the legislature. In any democratic society, these three elements are crucial for maintaining
social order. Hence, to uphold this social order, we comply with the rules created by the state or
its three branches.

Historical Development of Political Obligation

Ancient Era:- In ancient times, when Socrates was sentenced to death for opposing the state,
he presented certain principles related to the state, which were documented by Plato in his book
Crito:

1. Agreement:- The state is created by the people, and thus there is an agreement between the
state and the people. Hence, we cannot violate this agreement.

2. Gratitude:- Our birth, upbringing, and development have taken place in the state. Therefore,
we should express gratitude to the state by obeying it.

3. Principle of Fairness:- The laws made by the state have the consent of the people, and we
must adhere to them fairly.

4. Utilitarianism:- The state does everything for the development of the people that is supreme
and useful. Hence, it is necessary to obey the state.

Social Contract and Consent:- Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
introduced the theory of social contract and consent. According to this theory, before the
existence of the state, society was in a state of constant war. To protect themselves from this
situation, the people established the state through mutual agreement and consent. Therefore,
we should obey the state.

●​ Hobbes' Perspective:- The state is created by the people, and once established, it
cannot be removed.

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 ●​ Locke's Perspective: The state was created by the people to protect their natural rights
(life, liberty, and property). If a ruler fails to protect these rights, the people have the right
to remove that ruler and elect another.
●​ Rousseau's Perspective: The state was established by the people to fulfill their general
will or common needs.

Loyalty to Traditions:- This principle was presented by Edmund Burke, Hegel, and Michael
Oakeshott, suggesting that the tradition of obeying the state has been in practice since ancient
times. Therefore, we should continue to obey the state without questioning it.

Rational Principle:- This theory, presented by Plato, Aristotle, T.H. Green, and Bosanquet,
states that an individual can achieve their full development only by living under the state. Hence,
it is necessary to obey the state.

Modern Era:- The state is a legitimate institution that holds lawful authority. The laws created
by the state are based on moral grounds, as the state seeks compliance with these laws rather
than merely intimidating or coercing people.

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