Study Guide: Database Systems and ICT/

Networking
Database Topics

1. Difference between Database and DBMS

A database is an organized collection of data stored electronically. In computing, it is “an organized

collection of data” 1 . A Database Management System (DBMS) is the software system that manages and
interacts with this data. It provides tools for data definition, querying, updating, and administration 1 . In
other words, the database holds the data, while the DBMS is the engine that stores, retrieves, and secures
that data 1 2 . For example, MySQL or Oracle is a DBMS, and the tables and records you create within it
constitute the database.

Key Points:
- Database: Data storage (tables, files, etc.)
- DBMS: Software layer (query processor, storage manager) handling data operations 1

- The DBMS enforces security, integrity, and provides interfaces (SQL) for data access 1 2 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which statement best describes the difference between a database and a DBMS?
- A. A database is the data itself; a DBMS is the software that manages the data 1 .
- B. A DBMS is the data, and a database is the user interface.
- C. Both are the same thing.
- D. A database includes the software; a DBMS is the storage hardware.
- Answer: A.

1. Which of the following is a function of a DBMS but not of a database?

2. A. Storing raw data.
3. B. Executing queries to retrieve data.
4. C. Holding tables and records.
5. D. Maintaining the collection of data.
6. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define “database” and “DBMS” in simple terms.
Answer: A database is a collection of organized data (like tables). A DBMS is the software that stores and
manages that data 1 .
- Why do we need a DBMS instead of using raw files?
Answer: A DBMS provides query languages, concurrency control, integrity enforcement, and security, which
raw files do not 1 2 .
- Give an example of a database system.

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Answer: For example, a MySQL installation (DBMS) plus its customer and order tables (database) is a
database system 1 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain the difference between a database and a database management system (DBMS).
Answer: A database is the actual data storage (tables of data) and a DBMS is the software that enables
users to interact with that data. The DBMS handles tasks like parsing SQL queries, optimizing them,
enforcing constraints, and ensuring data security 1 2 . Essentially, the database is passive storage, while
the DBMS actively manages and queries that data.

1. What are the core responsibilities of a DBMS?

Answer: A DBMS ensures reliable data storage and retrieval. Its responsibilities include interpreting
user queries, optimizing execution, managing transactions (ACID compliance), enforcing integrity
constraints (like primary keys), handling concurrent access, and maintaining backups 1 3 . In
sum, the DBMS mediates between applications and the data, providing structured access and
administration tools.

2. Describe the components that make up a database system.

Answer: A database system comprises (a) the database (structured data files) and (b) the DBMS
software. Together with applications, this forms the database system 1 . The DBMS software
includes a query processor, storage manager, data dictionary, and other components (see later
section) that handle data operations and integrity on the stored database.

2. Types of Databases (Structured vs. Unstructured)

Structured databases contain data in fixed formats (tables with rows and columns). They follow a
predefined schema, making data storage and search efficient. Examples include relational databases (SQL
databases) where fields like name, date, price are in columns. In contrast, unstructured databases store
data without a fixed schema 4 . Unstructured data can include text documents, images, audio or video
files. For instance, email bodies or social media posts are unstructured. Such data is often stored in
document or NoSQL databases. Semi-structured forms (like JSON or XML) lie in between.

For example, a customer list in Excel is structured: each row has ID, Name, Date (fixed columns) 4 . The
diagram below shows a sample structured dataset (table of purchases):

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Figure: Example of structured data in a table (Excel).

In practice, organizations use structured databases (RDBMS) for well-defined data and NoSQL or file stores
for unstructured data. Structured data is easy to query with SQL, while unstructured data may require
specialized search or analysis tools 4 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following is an example of structured data?
- A. A JSON document with nested attributes (no fixed schema).
- B. A relational table with specified columns (fixed schema) 4 .
- C. A photo image file on disk.
- D. An audio recording.
- Answer: B.

1. What distinguishes an unstructured database?

2. A. It only stores images.
3. B. It has no fixed schema or predefined format 4 .
4. C. It uses only SQL.
5. D. It cannot store text.

6. Answer: B.

7. Which type of database is most appropriate for large-scale text or media content?

8. A. Relational database (SQL).

9. B. Unstructured (NoSQL/document) database 4 .
10. C. Spreadsheet.
11. D. Flat file with fixed columns.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define structured data.
Answer: Structured data is highly organized, fits into a fixed schema of rows and columns, and can be easily
queried (e.g., SQL tables) 4 .
- Define unstructured data.
Answer: Unstructured data has no fixed schema or format. Examples include text documents, images,
audio files and emails 4 . It is stored in its native form, such as in document or key-value databases.
- Give an example of a structured and an unstructured data source.
Answer: An example of structured data is a database table of customer records. An example of
unstructured data is a collection of email texts or video files.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Compare and contrast structured and unstructured databases.
Answer: Structured databases use a rigid schema (tables with defined columns) 4 , so data fits neatly in
rows/columns (e.g., SQL databases). They allow efficient queries on fields (like SQL queries). Unstructured
databases have no strict schema; they store raw content (e.g., JSON, multimedia) 4 . Structured data is
easier to search by specific fields, whereas unstructured data may require full-text search or machine

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learning. Structured systems emphasize data integrity and normalization, while unstructured systems
emphasize flexibility and scale.

1. Why might an organization choose a NoSQL database over a traditional SQL database?
Answer: Organizations may use NoSQL databases to handle large volumes of semi-structured or
unstructured data (e.g. logs, social media, images) that do not fit a fixed schema 4 . NoSQL
databases (document stores, key-value stores, etc.) allow flexible schemas and horizontal scaling,
which is beneficial for big data or rapidly changing data formats.

2. Explain semi-structured data and give an example.

Answer: Semi-structured data has some organizational properties but no strict schema. Examples
are XML or JSON records. For instance, a JSON document of user preferences has keys and values but
the structure can vary between records. Many NoSQL document databases (e.g., MongoDB) handle
semi-structured data.

3. Primary and Secondary Keys (with Functions)

A primary key is an attribute (or set of attributes) that uniquely identifies each record in a table. By
definition, a primary key’s values must be unique and not null 5 . Its main function is to enforce entity
integrity: no two rows share the same primary key value, ensuring every record can be found
unambiguously. For example, a “UserID” column might be a table’s primary key.

A secondary key (also called an alternate key) is another column or set of columns that also uniquely
identifies rows, but is not chosen as the primary key 6 . Secondary keys have the same uniqueness
property as primary keys, but the database uses them less often. They provide additional paths to retrieve
data (e.g., an email column that is unique but not the primary key).

Key Functions:
- Uniqueness: Ensures one-to-one mapping of key to record (applies to both primary and secondary keys)
5 6 .

- Indexing: Keys are often indexed to speed up searches by that key.

- Referential Integrity: Primary keys are used in foreign key relationships to link tables.
- Data Integrity: Prevents duplicate or null key values (primary key constraint) 5 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following is NOT a property of a primary key?
- A. It must have unique values.
- B. It can have NULL values.
- C. It uniquely identifies table rows 5 .
- D. It is often used in foreign key references.
- Answer: B (Primary keys cannot be NULL 5 ).

1. What is a secondary (alternate) key?

2. A. Any non-unique column.
3. B. Another unique key (not chosen as primary) that can identify rows 6 .
4. C. A composite key of two primary keys.
5. D. A key used only for encryption.

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 6. Answer: B.

7. Why are keys important in a relational database?

8. A. They speed up data encryption.

9. B. They uniquely identify records and maintain integrity.
10. C. They store user passwords.
11. D. They allow data to be stored on disk.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is a primary key?
Answer: A primary key is a column (or combination of columns) whose values uniquely identify each record
in a table. No two rows share the same primary key value, and it cannot be NULL 5 .
- What is a secondary key?
Answer: A secondary (alternate) key is an alternate unique identifier for records. It also uniquely identifies
rows (like a primary key) but is not the main key chosen by the database 6 .
- How does a primary key enforce data integrity?
Answer: By ensuring uniqueness and non-null constraints, a primary key ensures no duplicate or missing
identifiers, preserving entity integrity in the database 5 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain the roles of primary and secondary keys in a relational database.
Answer: Primary keys uniquely identify table rows, providing the main reference for accessing and linking
data. They enforce uniqueness and not-null rules 5 . Secondary (alternate) keys serve the same
uniqueness purpose but offer alternative lookup paths. For example, if “EmployeeID” is primary, “Email”
could be a secondary key (if it’s unique). Keys are also used for creating foreign-key relationships between
tables, linking data across the database.

1. How does a database use keys to speed up data retrieval?

Answer: Databases create indexes on key columns. When a key is defined (primary or secondary),
the DBMS automatically builds an index. This index allows the database to quickly locate rows by key
value (often using a B-tree or hash structure) rather than scanning the entire table. Thus, keys
greatly improve search and join performance.

2. Give an example table with a primary key and a secondary key and explain their use.
Answer: Consider a Users table with columns UserID (primary key) and Email (secondary
key). UserID uniquely identifies each user. A query like
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserID = 123 uses the primary key. Alternatively, Email is
also unique; queries like SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Email='[email protected]' use the
secondary key. Although not the primary key, the database can index on Email so it retrieves the
user quickly by that alternate key.

4. Characteristics of a Good Database

A high-quality database meets several key criteria. Important characteristics include:

- Data Integrity and Consistency: Data should be accurate and consistent. Constraints and transactions

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(ACID properties) ensure that the database never contains contradictory or invalid data 7 3 .
- Minimal Redundancy: Data should not be unnecessarily duplicated. Reducing redundancy (normalization)
avoids inconsistency and saves storage 8 .
- Concurrency Support: Multiple users should be able to access and modify the database simultaneously
without conflicts 9 . Concurrency control (locking, transactions) ensures this.
- Multiple User Views: Different users/applications may have different views of the data. A good DBMS
supports external schemas so each user sees only relevant data 10 .
- Security: Access controls (passwords, roles) should restrict data access to authorized users only.
Encryption and audit trails enhance security.
- Scalability and Performance: The database should perform queries efficiently even as data grows. Proper
indexing and query optimization help maintain speed.
- Backup and Recovery: The system must provide reliable backup mechanisms and ways to recover data
after failures or attacks, ensuring availability 11 .
- Adherence to ACID: Transactions should be Atomic, Consistent, Isolated, Durable (ACID) 3 , meaning all
or none of a transaction’s operations apply and integrity is always maintained.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which property ensures that all parts of a transaction are fully completed or fully undone?
- A. Atomicity (from ACID) 3 .
- B. Consistency.
- C. Isolation.
- D. Durability.
- Answer: A.

1. Which of these is a characteristic of a well-designed database?

2. A. High redundancy of data.
3. B. Data integrity (accurate, consistent data) 7 .
4. C. Only one user access allowed at a time.
5. D. No backup system.

6. Answer: B.

7. What does the “D” in ACID stand for?

8. A. Distributed.
9. B. Durable (after a crash, committed data remains) 3 .
10. C. Dependent.
11. D. Data-centric.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- What are the ACID properties of a transaction?
Answer: ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability. Together they ensure transactions are
processed reliably: either all operations occur (Atomicity), the database stays in a valid state (Consistency),
transactions don’t interfere (Isolation), and completed transactions survive system failures (Durability) 3 .
- Why should a database minimize data redundancy?
Answer: Minimizing redundancy (no duplicate data) prevents inconsistencies and anomalies. If one copy is
updated but another is not, the data diverges. Less redundancy also saves space 8 .

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- Why is concurrency control important in a DBMS?
Answer: Concurrency control allows multiple users to safely read/write data at the same time. It prevents
conflicts (like lost updates or dirty reads) so that simultaneous transactions do not corrupt the database
9 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain the ACID properties and why they are important.
Answer: ACID ensures database reliability. Atomicity guarantees that a transaction’s operations all occur or
none occur, so partial updates don’t persist. Consistency means every transaction moves the database from
one valid state to another (integrity constraints hold). Isolation prevents concurrent transactions from
interfering (each transaction sees the database as if it were alone). Durability ensures that once a
transaction commits, its results persist even if there is a crash 3 . Together, ACID prevents data corruption
and ensures predictable behavior under concurrent access and failures.

1. List and describe three characteristics of a good database system.

Answer: Three key characteristics are: (1) Data Integrity – the database enforces rules (primary
keys, foreign keys, check constraints) so data stays accurate and consistent 7 . (2) Security – access
controls and encryption protect data from unauthorized use. (3) Availability and Recovery – regular
backups and redundancy strategies mean the database can be restored after a failure 11 . Other
characteristics include support for multiple users (concurrency) 9 , minimal data redundancy 8 ,
and efficient query performance.

2. How do multiple user views improve a database system?

Answer: Multiple user (external) views allow different users or applications to see only the relevant
portions of the data. For example, a payroll clerk might see employees’ salaries, while a manager
sees team performance metrics. This enhances security (users can’t see sensitive fields) and usability
(each view is tailored), while the DBMS handles mapping all views to the central database schema
10 .

5. Backup and Redundancy

Backup is maintaining copies of the data at specific points in time so that if data is lost or corrupted, it can
be restored 11 . For example, nightly snapshots of the database or differential/incremental backups.
Redundancy refers to having duplicate components or data to prevent single points of failure. This includes
hardware redundancy (like RAID disk arrays) and data replication. In replication, the database automatically
maintains multiple synchronized copies of data across different machines or locations 12 . Importantly,
replication is not the same as backup; replication spreads live copies for high availability, while backup
preserves historical copies 13 . Together, backup and redundancy ensure durability and availability: if one
server fails or data is corrupted, another copy can take over and data can be recovered 14 11 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What does backup in databases typically involve?
- A. Keeping multiple real-time copies of data.
- B. Storing a point-in-time copy of the data to restore from 11 .
- C. Encrypting all data for security.

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- D. Removing old data.
- Answer: B.

1. Which statement is true?

2. A. Replication and backup are the same process.
3. B. Replication provides time-stamped snapshots of data.
4. C. Redundancy can eliminate any single point of failure in the system 14 .
5. D. Backup ensures multiple users can work simultaneously.

6. Answer: C.

7. Which strategy improves database availability by having multiple copies of data?

8. A. Full backup.
9. B. Normalization.
10. C. Redundancy/Replication 12 .
11. D. Indexing.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is a database backup?
Answer: A database backup is a copy of the data (often at a certain time) stored separately, so that in case
of failure or data loss, the database can be restored to that point 11 .
- How is redundancy implemented in databases?
Answer: Redundancy is implemented by maintaining duplicate components or data. Examples include RAID
(disk redundancy) and database replication (keeping multiple live copies on different servers) 14 12 .
- Why should you not rely on replication alone instead of backup?
Answer: Replication keeps multiple copies synchronized in real-time; if a bad transaction is replicated, all
copies have the corruption. Backup, on the other hand, provides time-stamped snapshots. You need
backups to recover from accidental deletions or corruption because replication alone overwrites copies
rather than preserving old states 13 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Compare backup and redundancy/replication in database systems.
Answer: Backup and redundancy serve different purposes. Backups are periodic, point-in-time copies
stored offline; they allow recovery to a specific time if data is lost or damaged 11 . Redundancy/
Replication means keeping continuous copies (mirrors) of the data on multiple servers to avoid a single
point of failure 14 12 . Backup is for recovery (durability), whereas redundancy ensures high availability
(uptime). Together they provide robust protection: if one server fails, another has the data (redundancy),
and if data is corrupted, an older backup can restore it.

1. Describe a backup strategy for a mission-critical database.

Answer: A robust strategy might include nightly full backups and hourly incremental backups. Full
backups copy the entire database periodically, while incremental backups only copy changes since
the last full backup. Backups should be stored offsite or in the cloud for disaster safety. Additionally,
the strategy might involve continuous replication to a standby server (redundancy) so that, in case of
a primary server failure, the standby can take over immediately, and later the latest backup is
applied for complete recovery 11 .

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 2. Why is redundancy important in preventing data loss?
Answer: Redundancy (e.g., RAID, database replication) means there are multiple physical copies of
the data. If one copy (or hardware component) fails, another copy is immediately available, so the
system continues running. This prevents downtime and data loss from hardware failures or site
outages 14 . It also allows maintenance on one node without taking the entire database offline.

6. Encryption

Encryption protects a database by transforming plaintext data into ciphertext using an algorithm and keys,
so unauthorized users cannot read it. In databases, encryption can be applied at rest (encrypting stored
data and backups) or in transit (encrypting data moving over the network). For example, Transparent Data
Encryption (TDE) encrypts the entire database files and backups so that even if disk files are stolen, the data
is unreadable without the key 15 . The basic idea is: “Database encryption is… a process that uses an
algorithm to transform data… into ciphertext that is incomprehensible without decryption” 15 . Common
algorithms include AES (symmetric) for bulk data and RSA (asymmetric) for key exchanges. Proper
encryption ensures confidentiality of sensitive data and compliance with privacy regulations.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is the main goal of database encryption?
- A. Improve query performance.
- B. Ensure data confidentiality (prevent unauthorized reading) 15 .
- C. Normalize the schema.
- D. Increase disk space.
- Answer: B.

1. What does TDE stand for in database security?

2. A. Transaction Data Example.
3. B. Transparent Data Encryption 16 .
4. C. Tabular Data Endpoint.
5. D. Temporary Data Entry.

6. Answer: B.

7. Which of these is an encryption algorithm often used in databases?

8. A. SQL.
9. B. AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) 15 .
10. C. RAID.
11. D. HTTP.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- Explain what database encryption does.
Answer: Database encryption encodes stored data into ciphertext so that without the decryption key, the
data is gibberish. This protects the data from being understood if an unauthorized party accesses the
storage 15 .
- What is encryption at rest vs in transit?
Answer: At rest encryption means encrypting data on storage media (disk), so files and backups are secure.

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In transit encryption secures data as it travels over networks (e.g., TLS for SQL connections) so
eavesdroppers cannot intercept plaintext.
- Give an example of a scenario where encryption is critical.
Answer: A health-care database storing patient records should use encryption at rest, so if someone steals
the database files, personal health data cannot be read without the key. Similarly, connecting to that
database over the internet should use SSL/TLS encryption.

Descriptive Questions:
1. How does encryption at rest protect a database’s data?
Answer: Encryption at rest means the database files are stored encrypted on disk. Even if an attacker gains
file-level access (e.g., steals a backup or disk), they cannot interpret the data without the encryption key 15 .
The DBMS automatically encrypts/decrypts data during reads/writes, making the process transparent to
applications. This guards against data theft from lost media or unauthorized disk access.

1. Compare symmetric vs asymmetric encryption in the context of databases.

Answer: Symmetric encryption (e.g., AES) uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data. It is fast
and used to encrypt large volumes of data (e.g., entire tablespace). Asymmetric encryption (e.g., RSA)
uses a key pair (public/private) and is used for key exchange or encrypting small pieces (like
encrypting the symmetric key itself). Databases often use a combination: a symmetric key encrypts
the data and that key is secured with asymmetric methods.

2. Why is encryption alone not enough for database security?

Answer: While encryption protects confidentiality, it doesn’t control access or prevent malicious
changes. You still need access controls, authentication, audit logging, and backups. Also, encryption
keys must be securely managed. If attackers obtain the keys, encrypted data can be decrypted.
Therefore, encryption is one layer among many (alongside authorization, auditing, etc.) in a
comprehensive security strategy.

7. Components of a Database System

A DBMS is composed of several key components 17 18 :

• Query Processor: Parses and executes user queries. It includes a DML compiler (translates SQL into
low-level instructions), a DDL interpreter (handles schema definitions), an embedded SQL pre-
compiler, and a Query Optimizer (chooses efficient query plans) 17 19 .

• Storage Manager (Database Engine): Manages data storage, retrieval, and updates on disk. It
includes modules for authorization (access control), integrity manager (enforcing constraints),
transaction manager (ensuring ACID), file manager (allocating disk space), and buffer manager
(caching pages in memory) 20 21 . This layer ensures the consistency and durability of the
database.

• Disk Storage: The actual physical files. Includes data files (holding tables, records), indexes (for fast
lookup), and a Data Dictionary (metadata repository) 18 . The data dictionary stores definitions of
tables, columns, keys, and constraints 18 .

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 • Database Schema and Architecture: Most DBMSs use a three-level architecture. The Internal
Level handles physical storage details. The Conceptual Level defines the logical schema (tables,
columns, relationships) independent of physical storage 22 . The External Level defines user-
specific views of the data (what each user is allowed to see). This separation provides data
independence: applications do not depend on the physical details of data storage 22 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which component of a DBMS chooses the best query execution plan?
- A. Storage Manager.
- B. Query Optimizer in the Query Processor 19 .
- C. Data Dictionary.
- D. Disk Storage.
- Answer: B.

1. Where is the database’s metadata (like table definitions) stored?

2. A. In data files.
3. B. In the Query Processor.
4. C. In the Data Dictionary 18 .
5. D. In application code.

6. Answer: C.

7. Which DBMS level defines the user view of data?

8. A. Internal level.
9. B. Conceptual level.
10. C. External level (user view) 22 .
11. D. Physical level.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is a data dictionary in a DBMS?
Answer: The data dictionary is a repository of metadata containing information about the database
structure (tables, columns, data types, constraints) 18 . It’s maintained by the DBMS to understand its own
schema.
- What is the function of the query optimizer?
Answer: The query optimizer analyses SQL queries and chooses an efficient execution plan (e.g., join order,
index use) to minimize resource usage 19 .
- Describe the conceptual level of DBMS architecture.
Answer: The conceptual level defines the logical schema of the entire database (tables, relationships,
constraints) independent of physical storage 23 . It hides hardware details from the user and applications.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Describe the main components of a DBMS and their roles.
Answer: A DBMS has: (a) Query Processor: interprets SQL, optimizes and executes queries 17 ; (b) Storage
Manager: interfaces between the DB and storage, handles transactions, locks, buffer management, and
enforces integrity 20 ; (c) Disk Storage: actual data files, indexes, and data dictionary (metadata) 18 ; (d)

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Transaction Manager: part of the storage manager that ensures ACID during concurrent operations. These
together allow users to query/update data without worrying about low-level file handling.

1. Explain the three-level DBMS architecture (internal, conceptual, external).

Answer: The Internal Level (physical level) concerns how data is stored on disk (file paths, indexes).
The Conceptual Level describes the entire database in logical terms (tables, relationships,
constraints) 22 . The External Level (view level) consists of individual user views (e.g., one user sees
only certain columns). This abstraction provides data independence: applications don’t need to
change if the storage details change, and users see only relevant data.

2. What is the role of the buffer manager in a DBMS?

Answer: The buffer manager (part of the storage manager) caches frequently accessed disk pages in
main memory. It handles reading pages from disk into memory and writing dirty pages back. This
improves performance by reducing direct disk I/O, and it coordinates concurrent access to shared
data pages 24 .

8. Types of Database Models (Hierarchical, Relational, etc.)

• Relational Model: Organizes data into tables (relations) with rows and columns. Each table has a
primary key, and relations between tables are defined by foreign keys 25 . This model (e.g., SQL
databases) is most common. It handles one-to-many and many-to-many relationships and supports
powerful queries via SQL 25 .

• Hierarchical Model: Data is organized in a tree-like structure where each record has exactly one
parent (except the root) and possibly many children 26 . It resembles a file system directory. This
model was used in early systems (e.g. IBM IMS) but is less common today 26 .

• Network Model: Extends the hierarchical model by allowing many-to-many relationships. A child
may have multiple parents, forming a graph structure 27 . It uses sets of records (CODASYL DBs).

• Object-Oriented Model: Data is stored as objects, similar to objects in programming. Objects

contain both data and methods. This model is useful for complex data like multimedia. It supports
inheritance and encapsulation 28 .

• Object-Relational Model: A hybrid where relational tables can have object-like data types (complex
types, inheritance). It combines SQL with object features (e.g. PostgreSQL's JSON support).

• NoSQL Models: Not strictly part of traditional DBMS models but widely used now. Includes
document databases (e.g. JSON documents), key-value stores, column-family, and graph databases.
These are designed for scalability and flexible schemas. In the 2000s, non-relational (NoSQL)
databases became popular for large-scale or unstructured data 29 .

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which database model uses tables with rows and columns?
- A. Hierarchical.
- B. Relational 25 .
- C. Network.

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- D. Object-oriented.
- Answer: B.

1. In which model can a record have multiple parents (many-to-many)?

2. A. Hierarchical.
3. B. Relational.
4. C. Network 27 .
5. D. Star.

6. Answer: C.

7. Which model organizes data as a tree with a single root?

8. A. Network.
9. B. Object-relational.
10. C. Hierarchical 26 .
11. D. Relational.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is a primary key in the relational model?
Answer: In the relational model, the primary key is a column (or set of columns) chosen to uniquely identify
each row in a table 25 . It can be referenced by foreign keys in other tables.
- How does a network model differ from a hierarchical model?
Answer: The network model allows many-to-many relationships and multiple parents per record 27 ,
whereas the hierarchical model restricts each record to a single parent 26 .
- Give an example of an object-oriented database feature.
Answer: An object-oriented database might support inheritance (one object type extends another) or store
complex objects like images with associated methods 28 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Compare hierarchical, relational, and network database models.
Answer: The hierarchical model (tree structure) organizes records with one parent-child chain 26 . It’s
rigid: each child has only one parent. The network model extends this to allow multiple parents (a record
can appear in several parent sets) 27 . The relational model is table-based: data stored in rows/columns,
and tables related by keys 25 . Relational is the most flexible, supporting ad-hoc queries and complex joins.
Hierarchical/network models require predefined paths to reach data and are less flexible.

1. What are NoSQL databases and when are they used?

Answer: NoSQL databases (document, key-value, graph, etc.) are non-relational systems designed
for scalability and flexible schemas. They became popular in the 2000s for handling large volumes of
unstructured or semi-structured data 29 . For example, MongoDB (document store) is used when
data does not fit fixed tables. They often sacrifice some relational features (like JOINs) in exchange
for horizontal scaling and schema flexibility.

2. Explain why the relational model became dominant in the 1980s.

Answer: The relational model became dominant due to its simplicity and flexibility 29 . Its use of
tables with a declarative query language (SQL) made it easier to design, query, and maintain than

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 earlier models. It abstracts away storage details, provides a strong mathematical foundation (set
theory), and easily handles most common data relationships. Standardization (SQL) and commercial
products (Oracle, DB2) also drove adoption.

9. Procedural vs Non-Procedural Languages in DBMS

Non-procedural (declarative) languages allow users to specify what data to retrieve, not how to retrieve it.
SQL is a classic example: you write a query like SELECT name FROM Employees WHERE
department='Sales' and the DBMS figures out the best way to execute it. In contrast, procedural
languages require step-by-step instructions on how to perform operations. Procedural extensions in DBMS
(like PL/SQL, T-SQL) let you write loops, conditionals, and explicit control flow. In summary, SQL is a non-
procedural query language (specify the desired result), whereas procedural languages (PL/SQL, for
example) let you script exact procedures with control logic 30 .

Key Differences: In non-procedural languages (SQL) “the user has to specify only what to do and not how to
do” it 30 . In procedural languages, you write the sequence of operations. Non-procedural queries are
generally shorter and handled by the DBMS optimizer, whereas procedural code is more like traditional
programming.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which language is an example of a non-procedural (declarative) database language?
- A. C.
- B. SQL 30 .
- C. Assembly.
- D. Java.
- Answer: B.

1. What is the key difference between procedural and non-procedural languages?

2. A. Procedural languages are faster.
3. B. Non-procedural languages specify what to do, not how to do it 30 .
4. C. Procedural languages use SQL.
5. D. There is no difference.

6. Answer: B.

7. Which of the following is a procedural extension in DBMS?

8. A. SQLite.
9. B. PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) 30 .
10. C. XML.
11. D. HTML.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- Why is SQL considered a non-procedural language?
Answer: Because with SQL you state what data you want (e.g., conditions on rows), and the DBMS decides
how to get it. You do not write loops or step-by-step instructions 30 .

14
- Give an example of a task that requires a procedural language in a DBMS.
Answer: Complex business logic like an iterative calculation (e.g., computing factorial or batch processing
with loops and error handling) requires a procedural language (PL/SQL, T-SQL) since SQL alone cannot
express loops or conditionals directly.
- Name a benefit of using non-procedural query languages.
Answer: They are simpler and allow the DBMS optimizer to choose the best execution strategy. The user
need not worry about physical storage or join algorithms.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how a stored procedure in a DBMS uses procedural language features.
Answer: A stored procedure (e.g. in PL/SQL) can include variables, loops (FOR, WHILE), conditional
statements (IF), and explicit cursors. This allows processing multiple rows in steps, calling functions, and
complex logic. The procedure is compiled into an execution plan, but the developer wrote the exact
sequence of operations. This is useful for tasks like batch updates, calculations, or enforcing business rules
that require procedural control.

1. Discuss the advantages of non-procedural query languages like SQL.

Answer: Non-procedural languages let users express queries succinctly without specifying an
algorithm. The DBMS optimizer then figures out an efficient access plan. This results in simpler code
and portability: SQL queries can run on any compliant DBMS. It also allows data independence: as
long as the schema doesn’t change, queries need no modification if data is stored differently.

2. How do procedural extensions (like PL/SQL) complement SQL?

Answer: Procedural extensions add control structures to SQL. They allow loops, variables, exception
handling, and modularity (procedures/functions). This means you can write complex logic that uses
SQL statements inside. For example, you might fetch a cursor of rows with SQL, then loop over them
in PL/SQL to perform calculations. Thus, they enable advanced programming constructs while still
working within the database environment.

ICT and Networking Topics

1. ICT Definition and Components

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an umbrella term encompassing technologies for
processing and transmitting information. It integrates computing and telecommunications. According to
Wikipedia, ICT stresses “unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone
lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage,
and audiovisual systems, enabling users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information” 31 .

Components of ICT include:

- Hardware: Computers, servers, networking devices (routers, switches), mobile devices, etc.
- Software: Operating systems, applications, databases, middleware.
- Networks and Telecom: Local/Wide area networks, internet, telephony, wireless, satellites. For example,
ICT covers any communication device (radio, television, cell phones) and services (video conferencing,
online education) 32 .
- Data/Content: Information being processed – databases, documents, multimedia.
- People and Procedures: Users, administrators, and protocols/policies governing technology use.

15
Together, these components allow modern digital services like e-commerce, e-learning, and telemedicine.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What does ICT stand for?
- A. Internet and Computer Technology.
- B. Information and Communication Technology 31 .
- C. Internal Communication Transmission.
- D. Integrated Circuit Terminal.
- Answer: B.

1. Which of the following is considered an ICT component?

2. A. A router (network hardware).
3. B. A spreadsheet.
4. C. The English language.
5. D. Chlorine.

6. Answer: A (hardware).

7. ICT encompasses which of the following?

8. A. Only computer hardware.

9. B. Telecom networks, computer hardware, and software applications 32 .
10. C. Only radio broadcasting.
11. D. Only telephone lines.
12. Answer: B.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define ICT in your own words.
Answer: ICT refers to all technologies used to create, store, transmit, and manipulate information. It
combines computing (hardware/software) with communication (networks, telephony) to enable things like
the internet, mobile communications, and information systems 31 .
- List two examples of ICT components.
Answer: Examples include: a wireless router (network hardware), the Microsoft Office suite (software), and
fiber optic cables (communication infrastructure). ICT also includes devices like smartphones and services
like email.
- Give an example of an ICT application in education.
Answer: An example is an e-learning platform (online classes, virtual labs), which uses computers and
internet networks to deliver educational content remotely.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how ICT integrates telecommunications and computing.
Answer: ICT unifies telecom and computing by using digital networks to transmit data. For instance, VoIP is
telephony over IP networks. Smartphones combine computing power with wireless communication. ICT
ensures these systems work together: a packet of voice data is routed through networks like any other

16
data, integrating telecom (voice) into computing infrastructure 31 . The convergence is seen in services like
video conferencing (audio/video over the internet), which rely on both fields.

1. Discuss the role of ICT in business.

Answer: ICT enables modern businesses through data management, communication, and
automation. Databases and ERP systems organize business data. Email, intranets, and video
conferencing facilitate fast communication. ICT tools like CRM (Customer Relationship Management)
systems analyze data to improve marketing. Online commerce platforms reach customers globally.
Essentially, ICT streamlines operations (e.g. inventory tracking), enhances decision-making with data
analytics, and connects businesses with customers and partners instantaneously.

2. How do hardware and software components of ICT depend on each other?

Answer: Hardware (computers, networks) provides the physical infrastructure, while software runs
on that hardware to perform tasks. For example, a web server (hardware) uses server software (like
Apache) to host a website. The hardware cannot function for data processing without appropriate
software, and software relies on hardware to execute. Both are essential ICT components.

2. Network and Internet Basics

A computer network is a set of interconnected computers and devices that share resources and
communicate with each other. Formally, it is “a set of computers sharing resources… using common
communication protocols over digital interconnections” 33 . Networks can range from small (a LAN in an
office) to large (WAN connecting cities). Key features include network interface cards (NICs) in each device,
and communication protocols (like TCP/IP) that govern data exchange.

The Internet is a global network of networks. It is the “global system of interconnected computer networks
that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate” 34 . In essence, the Internet connects
millions of private, public, academic, business and government networks. It supports services like the World
Wide Web, email, and file sharing. The Internet relies on hierarchical infrastructure (from personal routers
to ISPs to backbone networks) and the DNS system for resolving names to IP addresses.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following best describes a computer network?
- A. A single computer with many hard drives.
- B. A set of computers sharing resources using communication protocols 33 .
- C. Only wireless devices.
- D. A list of IP addresses.
- Answer: B.

1. What is the Internet?

2. A. A social media app.
3. B. A single supercomputer.
4. C. The global system of interconnected networks using TCP/IP 34 .
5. D. A programming language.

6. Answer: C.

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 7. Which protocol suite underlies the Internet?

8. A. HTTP.
9. B. FTP.
10. C. IP/TCP (Internet Protocol suite) 34 .
11. D. SMTP.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define a network in one sentence.
Answer: A network is a collection of computers and devices linked by communication channels, allowing
them to share resources and exchange data 33 .
- What is the difference between a LAN and a WAN?
Answer: A LAN (Local Area Network) covers a small geographic area (like an office), while a WAN (Wide Area
Network) spans larger distances (cities or countries) often by linking multiple LANs.
- What is an IP address?
Answer: An IP address is a unique numeric label assigned to each device on a TCP/IP network, used for
identifying and routing data between devices across networks.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how the Internet works at a high level.
Answer: The Internet works by routing data in packets across interconnected networks using the TCP/IP
protocol. When you send data (e.g. a web request), it is broken into packets with source/destination IP
addresses. Routers on the network forward each packet toward its destination based on IP. Along the way,
DNS resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses. The Internet’s backbone consists of many
networks joined at exchange points. This distributed design means data can travel multiple paths and still
reach the destination (routing).

1. Describe the OSI or TCP/IP layers briefly.

Answer: In the TCP/IP model: (a) Link Layer handles hardware and local network (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
(b) Internet Layer uses IP to route packets across networks. (c) Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) provides
reliable (TCP) or fast (UDP) data transfer between hosts. (d) Application Layer includes protocols like
HTTP, SMTP, etc., which user applications use. Each layer serves the one above it and is served by the
one below.

2. What is DNS and why is it essential?

Answer: DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (e.g. example.com)
into IP addresses that computers use to communicate 35 . It’s essential because it allows users to
use memorable names instead of numeric IPs. DNS uses a distributed hierarchy of name servers
(root, TLD, authoritative) to resolve names quickly. Without DNS, we would have to know IP
addresses for every site we visit.

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3. Server Types and Functions

A server is a computer (hardware) or program (software) that provides services to other computers (clients)
over a network 36 . Common server types include:

• Web Server: Hosts websites and serves HTTP content. For example, Apache or Nginx software
running on a server machine publishes web pages to browsers 37 .
• Database Server: Runs a DBMS (like MySQL, Oracle) and provides database services to applications.
It manages data storage/retrieval and handles client queries 38 .
• File Server: Stores and manages files in a centralized location. Clients connect to it to save and
access shared documents and media. The server enforces file permissions and supports multiple
users concurrently 39 .
• Email Server: Handles sending and receiving email. It uses protocols like SMTP, IMAP or POP3. For
example, when you send an email, it passes through an email (SMTP) server to the recipient’s mail
server 40 .
• DNS Server: Translates domain names to IP addresses. It acts like the Internet’s directory, returning
IP addresses when given domain names 35 .
• Other Servers: DHCP servers (assign IP addresses), FTP servers (file transfers), application servers
(run business logic), etc.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which server type serves web pages to browsers?
- A. Mail Server.
- B. File Server.
- C. Web Server 37 .
- D. Proxy Server.
- Answer: C.

1. What is the primary function of a file server?

2. A. To host websites.
3. B. To provide centralized file storage to clients 39 .
4. C. To send email.
5. D. To translate domain names.

6. Answer: B.

7. Which server resolves domain names to IP addresses?

8. A. FTP Server.
9. B. DHCP Server.
10. C. Web Server.
11. D. DNS Server 35 .
12. Answer: D.

Short Answer Questions:

- What does a database server do?
Answer: A database server runs database software and handles data storage and query processing for
client applications. It manages concurrent database access, enforces security, and returns query results 38 .

19
- How does a web server differ from a file server?
Answer: A web server specifically serves web content over HTTP to browsers. A file server simply stores and
shares files over the network. The web server may generate dynamic content; a file server just provides
static files.
- Give an example of when you would use an FTP server.
Answer: You might use an FTP server to allow remote employees to upload and download large files (e.g.,
backups, datasets) to a central location. FTP is useful for file sharing over the internet with client software.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how a web server and a database server might interact in a web application.
Answer: In a web application, the web server (e.g., Apache) handles client HTTP requests and serves pages.
When dynamic data is needed (e.g., user info), the web server communicates with the database server (e.g.,
MySQL) using queries. The DB server retrieves or updates the data and returns results (often as SQL result
sets). The web server then uses that data to construct HTML to send back to the client. In this way, the web
server provides the frontend, while the database server provides the backend data.

1. Describe the role of a DNS server in accessing a website.

Answer: When a user enters “example.com” in a browser, the DNS server is queried to find the
corresponding IP address 35 . The browser first asks the local DNS resolver, which may contact root
and TLD servers if needed. Once the IP is obtained from the authoritative DNS server, the browser
can send HTTP requests to the web server at that IP. Without DNS, users would have to remember
numeric IPs.

2. What is a proxy server and how does it differ from the servers above?
Answer: A proxy server acts as an intermediary between clients and other servers. For example, a
web proxy forwards client requests to web servers and caches results. This is different from the
above servers (which provide specific services). A proxy provides services on behalf of clients, often
for security, caching, or filtering. It’s not specifically one of the types listed, but is a common network
appliance.

4. Transmission Media (Guided and Unguided)

Transmission media refers to the physical means to transfer data signals between devices. It is broadly
classified into:
- Guided (Wired) Media: Uses physical cables that guide the signal. Examples include twisted-pair cables,
coaxial cables, and optical (fiber) cables. In guided media, the signal travels along the conductor, confined
within it 41 . Twisted-pair (Ethernet cable) is common in LANs, coax is used in cable networks, and fiber
optic (glass fiber) carries light pulses for high-speed, long-distance links 42 . Guided media is generally
secure and high-speed but limited by cable length.

• Unguided (Wireless) Media: Transmits signals through the air or space. Here, no physical conductor
is used. Instead, the signal is broadcast as electromagnetic waves. Examples are radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared. Radio is used for broadcast/multicast (e.g. Wi-Fi, cellular) because it
disperses widely 43 . Microwave links require line-of-sight (e.g. satellite or point-to-point links).
Infrared (light just below visible) is used for short-range, line-of-sight communication (e.g. remote
controls) 44 . Wireless media allows mobility and is easy to deploy but is subject to interference and
attenuation.

20
The diagram below categorizes the main types of transmission media:

Figure: Guided vs Unguided Transmission Media (example types).

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following is guided media?
- A. Wi-Fi signals.
- B. Twisted-pair cable 41 .
- C. Infrared light.
- D. Radio broadcast.
- Answer: B.

1. Which transmission medium typically requires line-of-sight and is used for satellite links?
2. A. Twisted-pair cable.
3. B. Infrared.
4. C. Microwave 43 .
5. D. Coaxial cable.

6. Answer: C.

7. In an Unguided medium, signals propagate:

8. A. Along a physical wire only.

9. B. Through fiber-optic cable only.
10. C. Through the air or vacuum 43 .
11. D. Through coaxial cable only.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- List three examples of guided transmission media.
Answer: Examples include: twisted-pair cable (used in Ethernet LANs), coaxial cable (used in cable TV and

21
broadband), and optical fiber cable (glass fibers carrying light) 42 .
- Name two unguided (wireless) media and an application of each.
Answer: Radio waves (e.g., FM radio, Wi-Fi, cellular communications) 45 ; Microwave (e.g., satellite TV,
point-to-point links); Infrared (e.g., remote controls, short-range data transfer between devices) 44 .
- Why is guided media generally more secure than unguided?
Answer: Guided media confines signals to a cable, making them hard to intercept without physically
tapping the cable. Unguided signals propagate in all directions and can be intercepted if an eavesdropper is
within range, so they require stronger encryption or shielding.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic cable as a guided medium.
Answer: Fiber optic cable uses light pulses in glass fibers, offering very high bandwidth and low signal
attenuation 46 . It can carry data over long distances without repeaters and is immune to electromagnetic
interference 46 . Its disadvantages are cost (more expensive than copper) and fragility (glass can break),
and it requires optical transceivers. Fiber is ideal for backbone networks and undersea cables.

1. Explain how wireless signals differ from wired signals in terms of coverage and interference.
Answer: Wireless signals (radio/microwave/IR) radiate into space, covering a wide area (radio) or
targeted line-of-sight (microwave). They allow mobility but suffer interference (other devices on
similar frequencies) and obstacles (buildings, trees can block/attenuate). Wired signals are confined,
so interference is mostly from physical cross-talk (which can be shielded against). A dropped packet
in wireless may simply not arrive, whereas in wired links it’s usually more reliable unless cables are
cut.

2. What factors should be considered when choosing a transmission medium for a network?
Answer: Important factors include required bandwidth (higher for media like fiber or microwave),
distance (fiber and microwave cover longer distances), environment (electromagnetic interference
favors fiber or shielded cable), mobility (wireless allows moving devices), installation cost, and
security needs. For example, indoor short-range might use Wi-Fi, while long-distance links use fiber
or satellite.

5. Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Characteristics

Electromagnetic (EM) waves span from very low frequencies (like power lines) up through radio,
microwaves, visible light, to X-rays. Key relations: the speed of light c relates frequency (f ) and wavelength
(λ ) by c = f × λ (in vacuum c ≈ 3 × 108 m/s) 47 . Thus, higher frequency means shorter wavelength, and
vice versa.

EM waves interact with materials via transmission, reflection, or absorption. If a material is transparent at a
frequency, the wave passes through; if it is opaque, the wave reflects or is absorbed 48 . For example, clear
glass is transparent to visible light but opaque to ultraviolet 48 .

Longer wavelengths (lower frequencies) tend to diffract and penetrate obstacles more effectively. As an
example, AM radio (long waves of hundreds of meters) can go “over and around” buildings and hills 49 . In
contrast, shorter wavelengths like FM radio or TV (meters or centimeters) require line-of-sight and will not
easily bend around obstacles 49 . This is why AM radio can be received at greater distances under varied
terrain, while FM/TV signals fade quickly without a clear path.

22
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. What is the relationship between wavelength and frequency of an EM wave?
- A. λ = c + f .
- B. c = f × λ (where c is speed of light) 47 .
- C. They are unrelated.
- D. f = λ/c .
- Answer: B.

1. A material that is opaque at a given frequency will:

2. A. Transmit the wave without change.
3. B. Reflect or absorb most of the wave 48 .
4. C. Increase the wave’s speed.
5. D. Convert it to sound.

6. Answer: B.

7. Why can very low-frequency (long-wavelength) radio waves reach submarines underwater?

8. A. They have high bandwidth.

9. B. They carry video data.
10. C. Long wavelengths penetrate conductors like salt water better than short ones 49 .
11. D. Submarines use special antennas.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- State the formula linking wave speed, frequency, and wavelength.
Answer: c = f × λ , where c (speed) is the product of frequency f and wavelength λ 47 .

• What happens to an EM wave when it encounters a surface it is opaque to?

Answer: The wave is mostly reflected or absorbed by the surface 48 , and very little (if any) is
transmitted through.

• Why do higher frequency signals often require line-of-sight between transmitter and receiver?
Answer: Higher frequency (short wavelength) signals (e.g. microwaves) have less ability to diffract
around obstacles and are easily blocked by buildings or terrain 49 . They travel in straighter paths
and can be absorbed by objects, so transmitter and receiver usually must see each other directly.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how frequency affects signal range and penetration.
Answer: Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, which diffract around obstacles and penetrate
materials better. This allows long-range propagation (e.g. AM radio waves going over hills) 49 . Higher
frequencies have shorter wavelengths and thus travel less distance and require direct paths. They also carry
more data (higher bandwidth) but attenuate faster in medium. For example, FM radio and microwaves need
clear paths or repeaters.

1. Describe what is meant by reflection and absorption of EM waves.

Answer: Reflection occurs when an EM wave bounces off a boundary (like a mirror). Absorption is

23
 when material particles absorb wave energy (often converting it to heat). Which effect dominates
depends on material and frequency. For instance, metals strongly reflect radio waves, while water
absorbs microwaves (heating them).

2. How does free-space path loss affect wireless transmission?

Answer: Free-space path loss is the reduction of signal power over distance due to spreading of the
wavefront. It increases with distance and frequency. Essentially, as waves propagate, energy is
spread over a larger area, so receivers get weaker signals. This must be overcome with amplification
or higher transmission power for long-range links.

6. Radio, Microwave, Infrared Transmission

Radio Waves: Long-wavelength EM waves used for a wide range of wireless communication. They can
travel large distances and even through obstacles like walls or foliage. Applications include AM/FM radio
broadcasting, cellular networks, and Wi-Fi (which uses UHF radio) 45 . Radio frequencies (from kHz to GHz)
cover from AM radio up to Wi-Fi. Because they can penetrate the environment well, they are suitable for
broad-area coverage.

Microwaves: Higher-frequency radio waves (GHz range) that provide high bandwidth but require line-of-
sight. Used for satellite links, point-to-point terrestrial links, and radar. For example, satellite TV and GPS
signals are microwave frequencies 50 . Their short wavelengths (centimeters) allow antennas to be small
and directional (like satellite dishes). However, microwaves are blocked by obstacles and weather (rain fade).

Infrared (IR): EM waves just below the visible spectrum (wavelengths ~700 nm to 1 mm). IR is used for very
short-range communication, such as TV remote controls and wireless computer peripherals (IrDA). It is
typically line-of-sight and easily blocked by obstacles (it cannot pass through walls). IR is safe and
unregulated, but limited to a few meters range 44 .

Key Comparison: Radio is low-frequency (e.g. 100 MHz for FM), microwave is higher (GHz), IR is even higher
frequency (hundreds of THz). As frequency increases, bandwidth for data can increase, but range and
penetration decrease.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which type of transmission is most suitable for satellite communication?
- A. Infrared.
- B. Microwaves 50 .
- C. Twisted-pair cable.
- D. AM radio.
- Answer: B.

1. Infrared communication is typically:

2. A. Long-range and omnidirectional.
3. B. Short-range and line-of-sight 44 .
4. C. Used for AM radio.
5. D. Penetrating through walls easily.

6. Answer: B.

24
 7. Which statement is true about radio waves?

8. A. They cannot travel through walls.

9. B. They are always shorter wavelength than microwaves.
10. C. They are used for Wi-Fi and cellular because they travel through obstacles 45 .
11. D. They require fiber optic cables.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is a common application of infrared communication?
Answer: Infrared is commonly used in TV remote controls and short-range data transfer between devices
(e.g., remote file transfer) 44 .
- Why are microwaves preferred over radio waves for satellite links?
Answer: Microwaves have much higher frequency (thus more bandwidth) and their higher energy can
penetrate the atmosphere with less interference from other radio sources, making them suitable for space
links. They also allow directional antennas (dishes) which are needed for satellite communication 50 .
- Give an example of radio wave usage in networking.
Answer: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) uses UHF radio waves around 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz to connect devices wirelessly to
a network.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Compare the range and obstacles for radio, microwave, and infrared signals.
Answer: Radio signals (MHz range) have the longest range and can penetrate buildings and vegetation, so
they cover wide areas. Microwaves (GHz) have medium range and require line-of-sight; obstacles like walls
or rain can block them. Infrared (hundreds of THz) has very short range (meters) and cannot penetrate walls
at all; it is essentially line-of-sight like a flashlight beam.

1. Explain why cellular phones and Wi-Fi use specific frequency bands (like 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz).
Answer: Cellular and Wi-Fi bands are allocated in the radio/microwave spectrum where antennas
can be reasonably sized and regulatory conditions allow. For example, 900 MHz (UHF) signals can
travel through buildings (good for indoor coverage) and still carry moderate data. 2.4 GHz (also UHF)
offers higher bandwidth (for Wi-Fi speeds) but less range. These bands balance range, capacity, and
device antenna size.

2. Describe one advantage of infrared communication and one limitation.

Answer: Advantage: Infrared is unlicensed and has abundant bandwidth, making it easy to use for
consumer devices like remote controls. Limitation: It requires direct line-of-sight and has a very short
range, so it’s not suitable for whole-room coverage or through obstacles 44 .

7. Bandwidth and Mbps vs MBps

Bandwidth in networking refers to the capacity of a communication channel – essentially how much data
can be transmitted per second. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps). Common units are kilobits
per second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), and gigabits per second (Gbps).

Importantly, network speeds are usually expressed in bits (lowercase “b”). For example, an internet
connection might be 100 Mbps (megabits per second). In contrast, bytes (uppercase “B”) are typically used

25
for file sizes and storage (megabytes MB, gigabytes GB). Remember: 1 byte = 8 bits 51 . Thus, 100 Mbps is
equivalent to about 12.5 MB/s (megabytes per second) of throughput under ideal conditions 52 51 .

A helpful mnemonic from Red Hat: “… your internet speed is not 100 MB/s; it is more like 100 Mb/s
(megabits per second) 53 .” Always note the lowercase “b” vs uppercase “B”.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which is larger: 1 MB/s or 1 Mb/s?
- A. 1 MB/s (megabyte per second) is larger, because 1 MB = 8 Mb.
- B. 1 Mb/s is larger.
- C. They are equal.
- D. Depends on protocol.
- Answer: A.

1. If an internet connection is 50 Mbps, approximately how many megabytes per second (MB/s) is that?
2. A. 50 MB/s.
3. B. 6.25 MB/s.
4. C. 8 MB/s.
5. D. 12.5 MB/s 52 .

6. Answer: D.

7. Why are network speeds usually measured in bits instead of bytes?

8. A. Bits allow use of decimal prefixes like kilo, mega more consistently.
9. B. Historical and because many networking components are specified in bits.
10. C. Because bits are smaller units, indicating finer granularity.
11. D. All of the above, and one byte = 8 bits 52 51 .
12. Answer: D.

Short Answer Questions:

- What does 100 Mbps mean?
Answer: 100 Mbps means 100 megabits per second of data throughput. It is the capacity of the channel to
transfer up to 100 million bits every second. In bytes, that is about 12.5 megabytes per second 52 .
- Convert 800 Mb/s to MB/s.
Answer: 800 Mb/s ÷ 8 = 100 MB/s. (Since 8 bits = 1 byte.)
- Why might a file download show a slower MB/s rate than the advertised Mbps?
Answer: Because the advertised speed is in megabits, but the download shows megabytes (divide by 8),
and also due to protocol overhead and other network factors.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain the difference between Mbps and MBps, and how confusion between them can occur.
Answer: Mbps (megabits per second) measures bits per second; MBps (megabytes per second) measures
bytes per second. Since 1 byte = 8 bits, 1 MBps = 8 Mbps 52 51 . Confusion arises because speed meters or

26
marketing often say “100 Mb” without clarifying “b”. For example, an ISP might advertise 100 Mbps, but
some people mistakenly think it’s 100 MB/s. The difference is a factor of eight.

1. How does increasing the bandwidth of a network link affect file transfer times?
Answer: Higher bandwidth (bps) allows more data per second, so files transfer faster. For example,
doubling the bandwidth roughly halves the transfer time (ignoring overhead). If you have 100 Mbps
instead of 50 Mbps, a 100 MB file would transfer in ~8 seconds instead of ~16 seconds (ideal case).

2. A 600 MB file is downloaded over a 12 Mbps link. How long should it take (approx.)?
Answer: First convert: 600 MB = 4800 Mb. At 12 Mbps, time ≈ 4800 Mb ÷ 12 Mb/s = 400 seconds
(about 6 minutes 40 seconds) in ideal conditions.

8. Digital vs Analog Systems

An analog system uses continuous signals to represent information. For example, a sine wave whose
amplitude varies smoothly in time is an analog signal. As defined in electrical terms, an analog signal can
take on any value in a continuous range 54 . Classic analog examples include old telephone lines
(continuous voltage varying with sound) or vinyl records (continuous grooves).

A digital system uses discrete (usually binary) signals. Information is encoded as sequences of bits (0s and
1s). A digital signal can take on only a finite set of values (e.g., high or low voltage) at any given instant 55 .
Computers and modern communication systems use digital signals because they are robust to noise and
can be easily processed by digital circuits.

Key Points:
- Analog signals are continuous and have infinitely many possible values 54 .
- Digital signals are discrete (finite set of values) 55 .
- Analog is simple to generate from sensors, but noise/distortion degrades quality over distance. Digital can
be repeated with regeneration (less quality loss) and compressed, but requires analog-to-digital conversion
for real-world signals.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which is true about analog signals?
- A. They are represented by sequences of bits.
- B. They vary continuously over time 54 .
- C. They can only have two possible values.
- D. They cannot be used for audio.
- Answer: B.

1. Which is an example of digital data?

2. A. A human voice waveform in the air.
3. B. A recorded MP3 file (binary).
4. C. A smooth audio sine wave.
5. D. An analog clock display.

6. Answer: B.

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 7. Why are digital signals generally preferred for long-distance communication?

8. A. They have infinite resolution.

9. B. They are cheaper to transmit.
10. C. They can be regenerated without accumulating noise, preserving data integrity.
11. D. They require no electronics to process.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define an analog signal.
Answer: An analog signal is a time-varying signal that can have any value in a continuous range. For
example, voltage that varies smoothly to carry sound 54 .
- Define a digital signal.
Answer: A digital signal represents information using discrete values (often two levels, 0 or 1). It carries
data as a sequence of bits 55 .
- How is sound processed in digital systems?
Answer: Sound (analog) is sampled and quantized by an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter), producing a
digital stream (bits) that can be transmitted or stored. A DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) is used to play it
back.

Descriptive Questions:
1. Compare the advantages of digital signals over analog signals.
Answer: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and distortion. Because they use discrete levels,
amplifying or repeating them regenerates the original bits exactly (bit-perfect) rather than amplifying noise.
Digital data can also be easily encrypted, compressed, and error-checked. Additionally, digital systems
integrate well with computer processing (logic, storage).

1. Explain an example where analog signals are still used.

Answer: Analog signals are used in some sensors (like analog temperature sensors) and in classic
radio broadcasting (AM/FM radio transmit analog waveforms). Older audio/telephone systems were
analog. Analog remains in situations where high-fidelity continuous variation is needed and digital
conversion is impractical.

2. Describe how an analog signal is converted to digital in a communications system.

Answer: The process is called sampling and quantization. An ADC measures the analog signal’s
amplitude at regular time intervals (sampling) and assigns each sample a digital value (quantization).
The sampling rate must satisfy Nyquist criterion (at least twice the highest frequency in the signal) to
avoid losing information. These samples are then encoded as bits.

9. Modulation and Demodulation

Modulation is the process of encoding information onto a carrier wave by varying its properties. In
telecommunications, a carrier signal is typically a high-frequency sinusoid. To send a message (audio,
video, or digital data), we modulate the carrier’s amplitude, frequency, or phase according to the message
signal. As defined in communication theory: “Signal modulation is the process of varying one or more
properties of a periodic waveform… for the purpose of transmitting information” 56 .

28
For example, AM (Amplitude Modulation) varies the amplitude (strength) of the carrier in proportion to
the audio signal, and FM (Frequency Modulation) varies the carrier’s frequency with the audio 57 . These
analog modulation schemes have been used in AM/FM radio. In digital communications, we use schemes
like ASK/PSK/FSK or OFDM, where digital bits change the carrier’s parameters (e.g., different frequencies or
phases represent bit patterns) 58 .

Demodulation is the inverse process at the receiver side. A demodulator extracts the original message
signal from the modulated carrier 59 . For example, an AM radio demodulator retrieves the audio from the
amplitude variations of the received signal. A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates
digital data onto an analog carrier (for phone lines) and demodulates at the other end (hence “modem”).

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is the purpose of modulation?
- A. Increase the frequency of the message.
- B. Vary carrier wave properties to encode information 56 .
- C. Amplify the signal without distortion.
- D. Compress the data.
- Answer: B.

1. In amplitude modulation (AM), which carrier property is changed by the message?

2. A. Frequency.
3. B. Phase.
4. C. Amplitude 57 .
5. D. None; AM uses digital signals only.

6. Answer: C.

7. What is demodulation?

8. A. Encoding data onto a carrier.

9. B. Removing noise from a signal.
10. C. The inverse of modulation – extracting the message from a carrier 59 .
11. D. Combining multiple signals.
12. Answer: C.

Short Answer Questions:

- Define modulation in one sentence.
Answer: Modulation is varying a carrier wave’s properties (amplitude, frequency, or phase) to encode and
transmit information 56 .
- Give an example of analog modulation.
Answer: AM radio (Amplitude Modulation) – the amplitude of the radio-frequency carrier is varied
according to the audio signal 57 .
- What is a modem and what does it do?
Answer: A modem (modulator–demodulator) is a device that converts digital data into analog signals for
transmission over analog lines (modulation) and back again (demodulation) 59 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how AM and FM modulation encode audio onto a radio carrier.

29
Answer: In AM, the carrier’s amplitude is varied in step with the instantaneous amplitude of the audio
signal 57 . The frequency of the carrier remains constant, but its strength goes up and down with the sound
waveform. In FM, the carrier’s frequency is varied according to the audio; the carrier oscillates a bit faster or
slower as the sound amplitude changes 57 . The radio receiver demodulates by detecting these amplitude
or frequency variations and reconstructing the original sound waveform.

1. Why is modulation necessary for radio transmission?

Answer: Modulation shifts the audio or data to a much higher carrier frequency, which is necessary
for efficient transmission and to allow multiplexing. Higher-frequency signals can use smaller
antennas and can travel through the ionosphere or space. It also allows multiple signals to share the
same medium by assigning different carrier frequencies (frequency division). Without modulation,
we could not send low-frequency audio directly on long-distance channels.

2. Describe one digital modulation scheme (e.g., PSK or FSK).

Answer: Phase-Shift Keying (PSK): Digital data are represented by changes in the phase of a constant-
frequency carrier. For example, in BPSK, a binary ‘0’ might be phase 0°, and ‘1’ is 180°. The receiver
compares the incoming phase to reconstruct bits. PSK is robust and used in Wi-Fi and satellite links.
FSK is similar but changes frequency for each bit.

10. Types of Networking Devices (Hub, Switch, Router, Modem)

• Hub: A multi-port repeater operating at OSI Layer 1 (Physical Layer). It broadcasts any incoming data
packet to all ports (all attached devices) 60 . Thus, hubs create one shared collision domain and are
simple “dumb” devices. They are largely obsolete due to inefficiency.

• Switch: An intelligent device at Layer 2 (Data Link). It learns MAC addresses on each port and
forwards a received frame only to the port where the destination device is, rather than broadcasting
61 . This greatly reduces unnecessary traffic. A switch effectively creates separate collision domains

per port while still sharing the same broadcast domain.

• Router: Operates at Layer 3 (Network Layer). It routes packets between different networks using IP
addresses 62 . Routers maintain routing tables and choose paths for inter-network traffic. Home
routers often combine switch and router functions: they route between the local LAN and the ISP.

• Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): Converts signals between digital and analog form. Commonly,
it modulates digital data onto an analog carrier (e.g. telephone or cable line) and demodulates
inbound analog signals to digital 63 . For instance, a DSL modem lets digital computers use the
analog phone line infrastructure.

Each of these devices plays a specific role: hubs/switches connect devices within the same network, routers
connect different networks, and modems connect digital networks over analog transmission lines.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which device broadcasts incoming data to all its ports?
- A. Switch.
- B. Router.
- C. Hub 60 .

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- D. Modem.
- Answer: C.

1. Which device uses MAC addresses to forward frames?

2. A. Hub.
3. B. Switch 61 .
4. C. Router.
5. D. Firewall.

6. Answer: B.

7. What does a router primarily use to make forwarding decisions?

8. A. IP addresses 62 .
9. B. MAC addresses.
10. C. Port numbers.
11. D. Domain names.
12. Answer: A.

Short Answer Questions:

- What is the main function of a network switch?
Answer: A switch forwards data frames only to the destination port based on MAC address, thus reducing
unnecessary traffic and collisions 61 .
- How does a router differ from a switch in terms of network layers?
Answer: A router operates at Layer 3 and routes IP packets between networks 62 . A switch operates at
Layer 2 and forwards Ethernet frames within the same network based on MAC addresses 61 .
- Why is a modem needed to connect to the Internet over a phone line?
Answer: Because the phone line carries analog signals, a modem is needed to modulate the digital
computer data onto analog tones and demodulate incoming analog signals back to digital 63 .

Descriptive Questions:
1. Explain how NAT (Network Address Translation) on a home router works.
Answer: NAT allows multiple devices on a private LAN (with private IPs) to share a single public IP address.
The home router rewrites the source IP of outgoing packets to its own public IP and keeps track of port
mappings. When replies come back, the router maps them to the correct internal device. This enables one
public connection to serve many hosts, and also acts as a security boundary.

1. Describe the hierarchy of devices from a home network to the Internet.

Answer: In a home network, multiple devices (PCs, phones) connect via an Ethernet hub or switch to
the home router. The router has an integrated modem to connect to the ISP. The router directs local
traffic among devices and sends Internet-bound traffic through the modem. The modem interfaces
with the ISP’s equipment (over DSL, cable, etc.). The ISP’s routers then forward traffic over the wider
Internet.

2. What is the role of a Layer 3 switch or a gateway?

Answer: A Layer 3 switch is like a router but often with faster hardware. It can route IP packets
between VLANs or subnets within an organization. A gateway is a general term for any device that

31
 translates between different protocols or networks (for example, VoIP gateway translates between
voice protocols). It connects dissimilar networks (e.g., IPv4 to IPv6, or SMTP to SMS networks).

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