CHAPTER 1

SATELLITE ORBITS

1.1 Introduction to Satellite Communication

Satellites are specifically made for the purpose of telecommunication. They are used for
mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals, TV and
Radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region on the
earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the size of the footprint,
complexity of traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations.
A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area.
When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus
minimizing the interference to other systems. This leads to more efficient spectrum usage.
Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the
designated geographical area. Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for
short and long term effects throughout its life time.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit and if
subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces. The following are the applications of
satellites.
 Weather Forecasting
 Radio and TV Broadcasting
 Military Satellites
 Navigation Satellites
 Global Telephone
 Connecting Remote Area
 Global Mobile Communication

1.2 Kepler’s laws

Satellites orbiting the earth follow the same laws that govern the motion of the planets
around the sun. Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which interact
through gravitation. The massive of the two bodies is referred to as the primary and the other, the
secondary or satellite.

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Kepler’s First Law
Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an
ellipse. An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2 as shown in Figure 1.1. The center of mass of
the two-body system, termed the bary center, is always center of the foci.
The semi major axis of the ellipse is denoted by ‘a’ and the semi minor axis, by ‘b’. The
eccentricity ‘e’ is given by

Fig 1.1 Foci F1 and F2, the semi major axis a, and the semi minor axis b of an ellipse

Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law states that for equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal
areas in its orbital plane focused at the bary center. Referring to Figure 1.2, assuming the satellite
travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 second, then the areas A1 and A2 will be equal. The average
velocity in each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and because of the equal area law, it follows that the
velocity at S2 is less than that at S1.

Fig 1.2 The areas A1and A2 swept out in unit time are equal

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the
cube of the mean distance between the two bodies. The mean distance is equal to the semi major
axis a.

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For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be written in the form

Where ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and the earth‘s geocentric
gravitational constant is given by

1.3 Newton’s laws

Newton's First law
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in
motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. This law is also called "the law of inertia".
Newton's Second law
Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object
being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).
Newton's Third law
For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action. This means that for every force
there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. Whenever an object pushes
another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.

1.4 Orbital Parameters

Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the Earth. It is the major axis
of the orbit. One-half of this line‟s length is the semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s mean
distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to
north
Inclination: The angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s equatorial plane. It’s measured at
the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going from East to North. This angle is
commonly denoted as i.
Line of Nodes: The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the centre of Earth.

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Prograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction as the Earth’s rotation.
Its inclination is always between 00 to 900. Many satellites follow this path as earth’s velocity
makes it easier to lunch these satellites.
Retrograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction counter to the earth’s
rotation.
Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the orbital plane at the
earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.
Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space, the position of ascending
node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the longitude of ascending node changes and cannot be
used for reference. Thus for practical determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing
the ascending node are used. For absolute measurement, a fixed reference point in space is
required. It could also be defined as “right ascension of the ascending node; right ascension is the
angular position measured eastward along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox vector to
the hour circle of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the satellite with reference to
the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s position, measured at the
Earth’s centre.

Fig 1.3 Apogee height ha, Perigee height hp, and inclination i; La is the line of a p s i d e s

Fig 1.4 Pro-grade and Retrograde Orbits

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 Fig 1.5 Argument of Perigee ‘w’ and Right Ascension of the Ascending Node

1.5 Orbital Perturbations

An orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth, considered to be a perfect sphere and the
force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal force. This force is supposed to balance the
gravitational pull of the earth. In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the
motion of the satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along with the
atmospheric drag. The effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on geostationary earth
satellites where as the atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit satellites.
1.5.1 Effects of Non-Spherical Earth
As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some variations in the path followed
by the satellites around the primary. As the Earth is bulging from the equatorial belt, it is the
forces resulting from an oblate Earth which act on the satellite produce a change in the orbital
parameters. This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of the nodes and the latitude
of the point of perigee. This leads to rotation of the line of apsides. As the orbit itself is moving
with respect to the Earth, the resultant changes are seen in the values of argument of perigee and
right ascension of ascending node.
Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as the “Satellite
Graveyard” is observed. The non-spherical shape leads to the small value of eccentricity at the
equatorial plane. This causes a gravity gradient on GEO satellite and makes them drift to one of
the two stable points which coincide with minor axis of the equatorial ellipse.
1.5.2 Atmospheric Drag
For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is more pronouncing. The
impact of this drag is maximum at the point of perigee. The drag (pull towards the Earth) has an
effect on velocity of Satellite. This causes the satellite not to reach the apogee height successive
revolutions. This leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and eccentricity. Satellites in
service are maneuvered by the earth station back to their original orbital position.

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1.6 Station Keeping
In addition to having its attitude controlled, it is important that a geo- stationary satellite be
kept in its correct orbital slot. The equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes geostationary satellites
to drift slowly along the orbit, to one of two stable points, at 75°E and 105°W. To counter this
drift, an oppositely directed velocity component is imparted to the satellite by means of jets, which
are pulsed once every 2 or 3 weeks. These maneuvers are called as east-west station-keeping
maneuvers.
Satellites in the 6/4-GHz band must be kept within 0.1° of the designated longitude and in
the 14/12-GHz band, within 0.05°.

Fig 1.5 Typical Satellite Motion

1.7 Geo stationary and Non Geo-stationary orbits

1.7.1 Geo stationary Orbit
A geostationary orbit is one in which a satellite orbits the earth at exactly the same speed
as the earth turns and at the same latitude, specifically zero, the latitude of the equator. A satellite
orbiting in a geostationary orbit appears to be hovering in the same spot in the sky, and is directly
over the same patch of ground at all times.
A geosynchronous orbit is one in which the satellite is synchronized with the earth's
rotation, but the orbit is tilted with respect to the plane of the equator. A satellite in a
geosynchronous orbit will wander up and down in latitude, although it will stay over the same line
of longitude. A geostationary orbit is a subset of all possible geosynchronous orbits.
The person most widely credited with developing the concept of geostationary orbits is
noted science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke (Islands in the Sky, Childhood's End, Rendezvous
with Rama, and the movie 2001: a Space Odyssey). Others had earlier pointed out that bodies
traveling a certain distance above the earth on the equatorial plane would remain motionless with
respect to the earth's surface. But Clarke published an article in 1945's Wireless World that made
the leap from the Germans' rocket research to suggest permanent manmade satellites that could
serve as communication relays.

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 Geostationary objects in orbit must be at a certain distance above the earth; any closer and
the orbit would decay, and farther out they would escape the earth's gravity altogether. This
distance is 35,786 kilometers from the surface. The first geo-synchrous satellite was orbited in
1963, and the first geostationary one the following year. Since the only geostationary orbit is in a
plane with the equator at 35,786 kilometers, there is only one circle around the world where these
conditions obtain.
This means that geostationary 'real estate' is finite. While satellites are in no danger of
bumping in to one another yet, they must be spaced around the circle so that their frequencies do
not interfere with the functioning of their nearest neighbors.
1.7.2 Geostationary Satellites
There are 2 kinds of manmade satellites - One kind of satellite ORBITS the earth once or
twice a day and the other kind is called a communications satellite and it is PARKED in a
STATIONARY position 35,900 km above the equator of the STATIONARY earth. A type of the
orbiting satellite includes the space shuttle and the international space station which keep a low
earth orbit (LEO) to avoid the Van Allen radiation belts.
The most prominent satellites in medium earth orbit (MEO) are the satellites which
comprise the GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS).
1.7.3 Global Positioning System
The global positioning system was developed by the U.S. military and then opened to
civilian use. It is used today to track planes, ships, trains, cars or anything that moves. Anyone can
buy a receiver and track their exact location by using a GPS receiver.

Fig 1.6 GPS satellites orbit at a height of about 19,300 km and orbit the earth once every 12 hours
These satellites are traveling around the earth at speeds of about 7,000 mph. GPS satellites are
powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries onboard to keep them running when there's
no solar power. Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path. The
satellites have a lifetime of about 10 years until all their fuel runs out.
At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the force of gravity is cancelled by the centrifugal
force of the rotating universe. This is the ideal spot to park a stationary satellite.

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 Fig 1.7 At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the earth's force of gravity is canceled by the
centrifugal force of the rotating universe
1.7.4 Non Geo-Stationary Orbit
For the geo-stationary case, the most important of these are the gravitational fields of the
moon and the sun and the non-spherical shape of the earth. Other significant forces are solar
radiation pressure and reaction of the satellite to motor movement within the satellite. As a result,
station- keeping maneuvers must be carried out to maintain the satellite within limits of its
nominal geostationary position.
An exact geostationary orbit is not attainable in practice, and the orbital parameters vary with
time. The two-line orbital elements are published at regular intervals. The period for a
geostationary satellite is 23 h, 56 min, 4 s, or 86,164 s. The reciprocal of this is 1.00273896
rev/day, which is about the value tabulated for most of the satellites as in Figure 1.7. Thus these
satellites are geo-synchronous, in that they rotate in synchronism with the rotation of the earth.
However, they are not geostationary. The term geosynchronous satellite is used in many cases
instead of geostationary to describe these near-geostationary satellites.
In general a geosynchronous satellite does not have to be near-geostationary, and there are
a number of geosynchronous satellites that are in highly elliptical orbits with comparatively large
inclinations. The small inclination makes it difficult to locate the position of the ascending node,
and the small eccentricity makes it difficult to locate the position of the perigee. However, because
of small inclination, the angles w and Ω can be assumed to be in the same plane. The longitude of
the sub-satellite point is the east early rotation from the Greenwich meridian.

The Greenwich sidereal time (GST) gives the eastward position of the Greenwich meridian
relative to the line of Aries, and hence the sub-satellite point is at longitudeand the mean longitude
of the satellite is given by

The above equation can be used to calculate the true anomaly and because of the small
eccentricity, this can be approximated as v= M + 2esinM.

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1.8 Look Angle Determination
The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and Elevation angles. They are
required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite. Look angles are calculated by
considering the elliptical orbit. These angles change in order to track the satellite. For
geostationary orbit, these angle values do not change as the satellites are stationary with respect to
earth. Thus large earth stations are used for commercial communications.
For home antennas, antenna beam-width is quite broad and hence no tracking is essential.
This leads to a fixed position for these antennas.

Fig 1.8 Geometry used in determining the look angles for Geostationary Satellites

Fig 1.9 Spherical Geometry related to Figure 1.8

With respect to the figure 1.8 and 1.9, the following information is needed to determine the look
angles of geostationary orbit.
 Earth Station Latitude: λE
 Earth Station Longitude: ΦE
 Sub-Satellite Point’s Longitude: ΦSS
 ES: Position of Earth Station
 SS: Sub-Satellite Point
 S: Satellite
 d: Range from ES to S
 ζ: angle to be determined

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 Fig 1.10 Plane triangle obtained from Figure 1.8
Considering Figure 1.9, it’s a spherical triangle. All sides are the arcs of a great circle. Three sides
of this triangle are defined by the angles subtended by the centre of the earth.
 Side a: angle between North Pole and radius of the sub-satellite point.
 Side b: angle between radius of Earth and radius of the sub-satellite point.
 Side c: angle between radius of Earth and the North Pole.
 a =900 and such a spherical triangle is called quadrantal triangle. c = 90 0 – λ
 Angle B is the angle between the plane containing c and the plane containing a.
Thus, B = ΦE-ΦSS
 Angle A is the angle between the plane containing b and the plane containing c.
 Angle C is the angle between the plane containing a and the plane containing b.
Thus, a = 900 c = 900 - λE
B = ΦE-ΦSS
Thus, b = arcos (cos B cos λE)
And A = arcsin (sin |B| / sin b)
Applying the cosine rule for plane triangle to the triangle of F i g u r e 1.10,

Applying the sine rule for plane triangles to the triangle of Figure 1.10, allows the angle of
elevation to be found:

1.9 Limits of Visibility

The east and west limits of geostationary are visible from any given Earth station. These
limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth station and antenna elevation. The lowest
elevation is zero but in practice, to avoid reception of excess noise from Earth. Some finite
minimum value of elevation is issued. The earth station can see a satellite over a geostationary arc
bounded by +- (81.30) about the earth station’s longitude.

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1.10 Eclipse
It occurs when Earth’s equatorial plane coincides with the plane the Earth’s orbit around
the sun. Near the time of spring and autumnal equinoxes, when the sun is crossing the equator, the
satellite passes into sun’s shadow. This happens for some duration of time every day. These
eclipses begin 23 days before the equinox and end 23 days after the equinox. They last for almost
10 minutes at the beginning and end of equinox and increase for a maximum period of 72 minutes
at a full eclipse.
The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional during the eclipse period and the
satellite is made to operate with the help of power supplied from the batteries. A satellite will have
the eclipse duration symmetric around the time t=Satellite Longitude/15 + 12 hours. A satellite at
Greenwich longitude 0 will have the eclipse duration symmetric around 0/15 UTC +12hours =
00:00 UTC.
The eclipse will happen at night but for satellites in the east it will happen late evening
local time. For satellites in the west eclipse will happen in the early morning hour’s local time. An
earth caused eclipse will normally not happen during peak viewing hours if the satellite is located
near the longitude of the coverage area. Modern satellites are well equipped with batteries for
operation during eclipse.

Fig 1.11 A satellite east of the earth station enters eclipse during daylight busy hours at the
earth station. A Satellite west of earth station enters eclipse during night hours

1.11 Sub satellite Point

Sub satellite Point is the point at which a line between the satellite and the center of the Earth
intersects the Earth’s surface. The location of the point is expressed in terms of latitude and
longitude. If one is in the US it is common to use -
 Latitude – degrees north from equator
 Longitude – degrees west of the Greenwich meridian
The Location of the sub satellite point may be calculated from coordinates of the rotating system
as:

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 Fig 1.12 Sub satellite Point

1.12 Sun Transit Outage

Sun transit outage is an interruption or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused
by interference from solar radiations. Sun appears to be an extremely noisy source which
completely blanks out the signal from satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes.
They occur for a maximum period of 10 minutes.
Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and October, that is, around
the time of the equinoxes. At these times, the apparent path of the sun across the sky takes it
directly behind the line of sight between an earth station and a satellite.
As the sun radiates strongly at the microwave frequencies used to communicate with
satellites (C-band, Ka band and Ku band) the sun swamps the signal from the satellite. The effects
of a sun outage can include partial degradation, that is, an increase in the error rate, or total
destruction of the signal.

Fig 1.13 Earth Eclipse of a Satellite and Sun transit Outage

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1.13 Launching Procedures
Introduction
Low Earth Orbiting satellites are directly injected into their orbits. This cannot be done in case of
GEOs as they have to be positioned 36,000kms above the Earth’s surface. Hence Launch vehicles
are used to set these satellites in their orbits. These vehicles are reusable. They are also known as
Space Transportation System (STS). When the orbital altitude is greater than 1,200 km it will be
expensive to inject the satellite in its orbit directly. For this purpose, a satellite must be placed to a
transfer orbit between the initial lower orbit and destination orbit. The transfer orbit is commonly
known as Hohmann-Transfer Orbit.
Orbit Transfer

Fig 1.14 Orbit Transfer Positions

Hohmann Transfer Orbit
This manoeuvre is named after the German Civil Engineer Walter Hohmann, who first
proposed it. He didn't work in rocketry professionally but was a key member of Germany's
pioneering Society for Space Travel that included people such as Willy Ley, Hermann, and
Werner von Braun. He published his concept of how to transfer between orbits in his 1925 book,
The Attainability of Celestial Bodies.
The transfer orbit is selected to minimize the energy required for the transfer. This orbit
forms a tangent to the low attitude orbit at the point of its perigee and tangent to high altitude orbit
at the point of its apogee.

1.14 Launch Vehicles and Propulsion

The rocket injects the satellite with the required thrust into the transfer orbit. With the STS,
the satellite carries a perigee kick motor which imparts the required thrust to inject the satellite in
its transfer orbit. Similarly, an apogee kick motor (AKM) is used to inject the satellite in its
destination orbit.

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 Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fully functional. The Earth Station
performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command function to control the satellite transits and
functionalities. Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's second and third laws. When a
system expels or accelerates mass in one direction the accelerated mass will cause a force of equal
magnitude but opposite direction on that system.
Kick Motor refers to a rocket motor regularly employed on artificial satellites destined for
a geostationary orbit. As the vast majority of geostationary satellite launches are carried out from
spaceports at a significant distance away from Earth's equator.
The carrier rocket would only be able to launch the satellite into an elliptical orbit of
maximum apogee 35,784-kilometres and with a non-zero inclination approximately equal to the
latitude of the launch site.
TT&C: It is a sub-system where the functions performed by the satellite control network to
maintain health and status, measure specific mission parameters and processing over time a
sequence of these measurement to refine parameter knowledge, and transmit mission commands to
the satellite.
Transfer Orbit
It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the Earth rotates at a greater
speed here than that at either pole. This extra speed at the equator means a rocket needs less thrust
and less fuel to launch into orbit.
In addition, launching at the equator provides an additional 1,036 mph of speed once the
vehicle reaches orbit. This speed bonus means the vehicle needs less fuel, and that freed space can
be used to carry more pay load.

Fig 1.5 Hohmann Transfer Orbit

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 Fig 1.16 Launching stages of a GEO
Rocket Launch
A rocket launch is the takeoff phase of the flight of a rocket. Launches for orbital
spaceflights, or launches into interplanetary space, are usually from a fixed location on the ground,
but may also be from a floating platform or potentially, from a super heavy An-225-class airplane.
Launches of suborbital flights (including missile launches), can also be from:
 a missile silo
 a mobile launcher vehicle
 a submarine
 air launch:
 from a plane (e.g. Scaled Composites Space Ship One, Pegasus Rocket, X-15)
 from a balloon (Rockoon, daVinci Project (under development))
 a surface ship (Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System)
 an inclined rail (e.g. rocket sled launch)

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 "Rocket launch technologies" generally refers to the entire set of systems needed to
successfully launch a vehicle, not just the vehicle itself, but also the firing control systems, ground
control station, launch pad, and tracking stations needed for a successful launch and/or recovery.
Orbital launch vehicles commonly take off vertically, and then begin to progressively lean over,
following a gravity turn trajectory.
Once above the majority of the atmosphere, the vehicle then angles the rocket jet, pointing it
largely horizontally but somewhat downwards, which permits the vehicle to gain and then
maintain altitude while increasing horizontal speed. As the speed grows, the vehicle will become
more and more horizontal until at orbital speed, the engine will cut off.

Fig 1.17 STS-7/Anik C2 mission scenario

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POST TEST MCQ:
1. INTELSAT stands for -
a) International Telecommunications Satellite
b) India Telecommunications Satellite
c) Inter Telecommunications Satellite
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

2. Kepler’s first law states that -

a) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be a circle
b) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an ellipse
c) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an sphere
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

3. For an elliptical orbit, the value of eccentricity is given by –

a) 0 < e < 1
b) e = 1
c) e = 0
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

4. Apogee means -
a) The point nearest from earth
b) The point farthest from earth
c) The point smallest from earth
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

5. Perigee means -
a) The point farthest from earth
b) The point longest from earth
c) The point closest approach to earth
e) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

6. Ascending node means -

a) The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north
b) The point longest from earth
c) The point closest approach to earth
f) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a
 7. True anomaly is -
a) The point longest from earth
b) The angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the earth’s center.
c) The point closest approach to earth
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

8. The down link frequency in the C band transponder is -

a) 6 GHz
b) 4 GHz
c) 14 GHz
d) 11 GHz
ANSWER: b

9. The application of satellite systems is -

a) Terrestrial Communication
b) Point To Point Communication
c) Weather forecasting
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

10. The following comes under the services of satellite systems.

a) Signal transmission
b) Information transmission
c) Broadcasting satellite services
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Satellites that are launched in to the orbit by using the rockets are called man-made satellites or
artificial satellites. Artificial satellites revolve around the earth because of the gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and satellites. Unlike the natural satellites (moon), artificial
satellites are used in various applications. The various applications of artificial satellites include:
1. Weather forecasting
2. Navigation
3. Astronomy
4. Satellite phone
5. Satellite television
6. Military satellite
7. Satellite internet
8. Satellite radio.
1. Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of the future of weather. The satellites that are used to
predict the future of weather are called weather satellites. Weather satellites continuously
monitor the climate and weather conditions of earth. They use sensors called radiometers for
measuring the heat energy released from the earth surface. Weather satellites also predict the
most dangerous storms such as hurricanes.
2. Navigation
Generally, navigation refers to determining the geographical location of an object. The satellites
that are used to determine the geographic location of aircrafts, ships, cars, trains, or any other
object are called navigation satellites. GPS (Global Positioning System) is an example of
navigation system. It allows the user to determine their exact location at anywhere in the world.
3. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, natural satellites,
comets, etc. The satellites that are used to study or observe the distant stars, galaxies, planets, etc.
are called astronomical satellites. They are mainly used to find the new stars, planets, and
galaxies. Hubble space telescope is an example of astronomical satellite. It captures the high-
resolution images of the distant stars, galaxies, planets etc.
4. Satellite phone
Satellite phone is a type of mobile phone that uses satellites instead of cell towers for
transmitting the signal or information over long distances. Mobile phones that use cell towers
will work only within the coverage area of a cell tower. If we go beyond the coverage area of a
cell tower or if we reach the remote areas, it becomes difficult to make a voice call or send text
messages with the mobile phones. Unlike the mobile mobiles, satellite phones have global
coverage. Satellites phones uses geostationary satellites and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for
transmitting the information. When a person makes a call from the satellite phone, the signal is
sent to the satellite. The satellite will receives that signal, processes it, and redirects the signal
back to the earth via a gateway. The gateway then send the signal or call to the destination by
using the regular cellular and landline networks. The usage of satellite phones is illegal in some
countries like Cuba, North Korea, Burma, India, and Russia.
5. Satellite television
Satellite television or satellite TV is a wireless system that uses communication satellites to
deliver the television programs or television signals to the users or viewers.
TV or television mostly uses geostationary satellites because they look stationary from the earth.
Hence, the signal is easily transmitted. When the television signal is send to the satellite, it
receives the signal, amplifies it, and retransmit it back to the earth. The first satellite television
signal was send from Europe to North America by using the Telstar satellite.
6. Military satellite
Military satellite is an artificial satellite used by the army for various purposes such as spying on
enemy countries, military communication, and navigation.
Military satellites obtain the secret information from the enemy countries. These satellites also
detect the missiles launched by the other countries in the space.
Military satellites are used by armed forces to communicate with each other. These satellites also
used to determine the exact location of an object.
7. Satellite internet
Satellite internet is a wireless system that uses satellites to deliver the internet signals to users.
High-speed internet is the main advantage of satellite internet. Satellite internet does not use
cable systems, but instead it uses satellites to transmit the information or signal.
8. Satellite radio
Satellite radio is a wireless transmission service that uses orbiting satellites to deliver the
information or radio signals to the consumers. It is primarily used in the cars. When the ground
station transmit signal to the satellite that is revolving around the earth, the satellite receives the
signal, amplifies it, and redirects the signal back to the earth (radio receivers in the cars).

CONCLUSION:
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to –
 Understand the basics of Communication Broadcasting
 Understand the fundamentals of Satellite Orbits and its parameters

REFERENCES:
1. Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communication”, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
2. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
3. N. Agarwal, “Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft”, Prentice Hall, 1986.
4. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, “Manual of Satellite Communications”, McGraw Hill, 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
7. M. Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan, 2003.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. State Kepler three Laws of Planetary motion. Illustrate in each case their relevance to
artificial satellites orbiting the earth.
2. In detail, discuss the various factors responsible for Orbital perturbations.
(a) Explain the need for Satellite communication.
(b) Describe the effect of solar eclipse on the performance of a geostationary satellite.
3. (a) What is a Geosynchronous Orbit? Discuss advantages & disadvantages of these
orbits.
(a) Explain about frequency allocation for Satellite services.
4. Write short notes on – (i) Limits of Visibility (ii) Sun Transit Outages.
5. A geostationary satellite is orbiting at 42, 000 km. If the radius of orbit of earth is 6385
km and the sun’s declination is 7 degrees, 15’, calculate the duration of the eclipse. Also
calculate the starting time of the eclipse if the satellite longitude is 83 degrees East.
 UNIT II / SPACE SEGMENT AND SATELLITE LINK DESIGN
SYLLABUS
Spacecraft Technology- Structure, Primary power, Attitude and Orbit control, Thermal control
and Propulsion, Communication Payload and supporting subsystems, Telemetry, Tracking and
command. Satellite Uplink and Downlink Analysis and Design, Link Power Budget, C/N
calculation, G/T ratio-Performance Impairments-System noise, Inter-modulation Noise, Noise
Temperature, Propagation Factors, Rain and Ice effects, Polarization.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

 To get exposed to various systems of Spacecraft Technology
 To understand the Design of Satellite Up and Down Links

PRE-TEST MCQ:
1. INTELSAT stands for -
a) International Telecommunications Satellite
b) India Telecommunications Satellite
c) Inter Telecommunications Satellite
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

2. Kepler’s first law states that -

a) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be a circle
b) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an ellipse
c) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an sphere
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

3. For an elliptical orbit, the value of eccentricity is given by –

a) 0 < e < 1
b) e = 1
c) e = 0
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a
4. Apogee means -
a) The point nearest from earth
b) The point farthest from earth
c) The point smallest from earth
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

5. Perigee means -
a) The point farthest from earth
b) The point longest from earth
c) The point closest approach to earth
e) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c
6. Ascending node means -
a) The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north
b) The point longest from earth
c) The point closest approach to earth
f) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

7. True anomaly is -
a) The point longest from earth
b) The angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the earth’s center.
c) The point closest approach to earth
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

8. The down link frequency in the C band transponder is -

a) 6 GHz
b) 4 GHz
c) 14 GHz
d) 11 GHz
ANSWER: b

9. The application of satellite systems is -

a) Terrestrial Communication
b) Point To Point Communication
c) Weather forecasting
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

10. The following comes under the services of satellite systems.

a) Signal transmission
b) Information transmission
c) Broadcasting satellite services
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

PRE-REQUISITE:
 Basic knowledge of Antennas and Digital Communication
 CHAPTER 2

SPACE SEGMENT AND SATELLITE LINK DESIGN

2.1 Spacecraft Technology- Structure

A satellite communications system can be broadly divided into two segments—a ground
segment and a space segment.
The space segment will obviously include the satellites, but it also includes the ground
facilities needed to keep the satellites operational, these being referred to as the Tracking,
Telemetry, and Command (TT&C) facilities. In many networks it is a common practice to employ
a ground station solely for the purpose of TT&C.

Fig 2.1 Satellite Structure

The equipment carried aboard the satellite also can be classified according to function. The
payload refers to the equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been launched.
In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the connecting link between
the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas is referred to as the Transponder. The transponder
forms one of the main sections of the payload, the other being the antenna subsystems. In this
chapter the main characteristics of certain bus systems and payloads are described.

2.2 The Power Supply

The primary electrical power for operating the electronic equipment is obtained from solar
cells. Individual cells can generate only small amounts of power and therefore, arrays of cells in
series-parallel connection are required. Figure 2.1 shows the solar cell panels for the HS 376
satellite manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications Company.

17
 In geostationary orbit the telescoped panel is fully extended so that both are exposed to
sun- light. At the beginning of life, the panels produce 940 W dc power, which may drop to 760 W
at the end of 10 years. During eclipse, power is provided by two nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) long-life
batteries, which will deliver 830 W. At the end of life, battery recharge time is less than 16 h.

Fig 2.2 Satellite Eclipse time as a function of the current day of the year
In cylindrical and solar-sail satellites, the cross-over point is estimated to be about 2 kW, where the
solar-sail type is more economical than the cylindrical type.

2.3 Attitude Control & Orbit Control

The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space. Much of the equipment carried
aboard a satellite is meant for the purpose of controlling its attitude. Attitude control is necessary,
to ensure that directional antennas point in the proper directions. In the case of earth
environmental satellites, the earth-sensing instruments must cover the required regions of the
earth, which also requires attitude control. A number of forces, referred to as disturbance torques,
can alter the attitude, some examples being the gravitational fields of the earth and the moon, solar
radiation, and meteorite impacts.
Attitude control must not be confused with station keeping, which is used for maintaining a
satellite in its correct orbital position, although the two are closely related. To exercise attitude
control, there must be available some measure of a satellite’s orientation in space and of any
tendency for this to shift. In one method, infrared sensors, referred to as horizon detectors, are used
to detect the rim of the earth against the background of space.
With the use of four such sensors, one for each quadrant, the center of the earth can be
readily established as a reference point. The attitude-control process takes place aboard the
satellite, but it is also possible for control signals to be transmitted from earth, based on attitude
data obtained from the satellite. Whenever a shift in attitude is desired, an attitude maneuver is
executed. The control signals needed to achieve this maneuver may be transmitted from an earth
station.

18
 Controlling torques may be generated in a number of ways. Passive attitude control refers
to the use of mechanisms which stabilize the satellite without putting a drain on the satellite’s
energy supplies; at most, infrequent use is made of these supplies, for example, when thruster jets
are impulsed to provide corrective torque. Examples of passive attitude control are spin
stabilization and gravity gradient stabilization.
The other form of attitude control is active control. With active attitude control, there is no
overall stabilizing torque present to resist the disturbance torques. Instead, corrective torques are
applied in response to disturbance torques. Methods used to generate active control torques include
momentum wheels, electromagnetic coils, and mass expulsion devices, such as gas jets and ion
thrusters.

Fig 2.3 Roll, Pitch, and Yaw Axes (b) RPY axes for Geostationary Orbit
The three axes which define a satellite’s attitude are its roll, pitch, and yaw (RPY) axes.
These are shown relative to the earth in Figure 2.3. All three axes pass through the center of
gravity of the satellite. For an equatorial orbit, movement of the satellite about the roll axis moves
the antenna footprint north and south; movement about the pitch axis moves the footprint east and
west; and movement about the yaw axis rotates the antenna footprint.
2.3.1 Spinning Satellite Stabilization
Spin stabilization may be achieved with cylindrical satellites. The satellite is constructed so
that it is mechanically balanced about one particular axis and is then set spinning around this axis.
For geostationary satellites, the spin axis is adjusted to be parallel to the N-S axis of the earth, as
illustrated in Figure 2.4. Spin rate is typically in the range of 50 to 100 rev/minute. Spin is initiated
during the launch phase by means of small gas jets.

19
 In the absence of disturbance torques, the spinning satellite would maintain its correct
attitude relative to the earth. Disturbance torques are generated in a number of ways, both external
and internal to the satellite.
Solar radiation, gravitational gradients, and meteorite impacts are all examples of external
forces which can give rise to disturbance torques. Motor-bearing friction and the movement of
satellite elements such as the antennas also can give rise to disturbance torques.

Fig 2.4 Spin stabilization in the geostationary orbit

The overall effect is that the spin rate will decrease, and the direction of the angular spin
axis will change. Impulse-type thrusters, or jets, can be used to increase the spin rate again and to
shift the axis back to its correct N-S orientation.

Nutation, which is a form of wobbling, can occur as a result of the disturbance torques
and/or from misalignment or unbalance of the control jets. This nutation must be damped out by
means of energy absorbers known as nutation dampers. The antenna feeds can be connected
directly to the transponders without the need for radiofrequency rotary joints, while the complete
platform is despun. Of course, control signals and power must be transferred to the despun section
and a mechanical bearing must be provided. The complete assembly for this is known as the
bearing and power transfer assembly (BAPTA). Figure 2.5 shows a photograph of the internal
structure of the HS 376.

Certain dual-spin spacecraft obtain spin stabilization from a spinning fly- wheel rather than by
spinning the satellite itself. These flywheels are termed momentum wheels, and their average
momentum is referred to as momentum bias.

20
 Fig 2.5 HS 376 Spacecraft

2.3.2 Momentum wheel stabilization

In the previous section the gyroscopic effect of a spinning satellite is shown to provide
stability for the satellite attitude. Stability also can be achieved by utilizing the gyroscopic effect of
a spinning flywheel, and this approach is used in satellites with cube-like bodies and the
INTELSAT V type satellites. These are known as body-stabilized satellites. The complete unit,
termed a momentum wheel, consists of a flywheel, the bearing assembly, the casing, and an
electric drive motor with associated electronic control circuitry. The flywheel is attached to the
rotor, which consists of a permanent magnet providing the magnetic field for motor action. The
stator of the motor is attached to the body of the satellite. Thus the motor provides the coupling
between the flywheel and the satellite structure. Speed and torque control of the motor is exercised
through the currents fed to the stator.

21
 .
Fig 2.6 Alternative momentum wheel stabilization systems: (a) one-wheel, (b) two- wheel, (c) three-
wheel
When a momentum wheel is operated with zero momentum bias, it is generally referred to
as a reaction wheel. Reaction wheels are used in three- axis stabilized systems. Here each axis is
stabilized by a reaction wheel, as shown in Figure 2.6. Reaction wheels can also be combined with
a momentum wheel to provide the control needed.
Random and cyclic disturbance torques tends to produce zero momentum on average.
However, there will always be some disturbance torques that causes a cumulative increase in
wheel momentum, and eventually at some point the wheel saturates. In effect, it reaches its
maximum allowable angular velocity and can no longer take in any more momentum. Mass
expulsion devices are then used to unload the wheel, remove momentum from it. The operation of
the mass expulsion devices consumes part of the satellite’s fuel supply.
2.4 Thermal Control and Propulsion
Satellites are subject to large thermal gradients, receiving the sun’s radiation on one side
while the other side faces into space. In addition, thermal radiation from the earth and the earth’s
albedo, which is the fraction of the radiation falling on earth which is reflected, can be significant
for low-altitude earth-orbiting satellites, although it is negligible for geostationary satellites.

22
 Equipment in the satellite also generates heat which has to be removed. The most
important consideration is that the satellite’s equipment should operate as nearly as possible in a
stable temperature environment. Thermal blankets and shields may be used to provide insulation.
Radiation mirrors are often used to remove heat from the communications payload.
The mirrored thermal radiator for the Hughes HS 376 satellite can be seen in Figure 2.5.
These mirrored drums surround the communications equipment shelves in each case and provide
good radiation paths for the generated heat to escape into the surrounding space.
One advantage of spinning satellites compared with body-stabilized is that the spinning
body provides an averaging of the temperature extremes experienced from solar flux and the cold
back-ground of deep space. In order to maintain constant temperature conditions, heaters may be
switched on to make up for the heat reduction which occurs when transponders are switched off.
The INTELSAT VI satellite heaters are used to maintain propulsion thrusters and line
temperatures.

2.5 Communication Payload and Supporting Subsystems

The physical principle of establishing communication connections between remote communication
devices dates back to the late 1800s when scientists were beginning to understand
electromagnetism and discovered that electromagnetic radiation generated by one device can be
detected by another located at some distance away.
By controlling certain aspects of the radiation, useful information can be embedded in the EM
waves and transmitted from one device to another. The second major module is the
communication payload, which is made up of transponders. A transponder is capable of -
 Receiving uplinked radio signals from earth satellite transmission stations (antennas).
 Amplifying received radio signals.
 Sorting the input signals and directing the output signals through input/output signal
multiplexers to the proper downlink antennas for retransmission to earth satellite receiving
stations (antennas).

2.6 Telemetry, Tracking and Command Subsystem (TTC)

The TT&C subsystem performs several routine functions aboard the spacecraft. The
telemetry function could be interpreted as measurement at a distance. It refers to the overall
operation of generating an electrical signal proportional to the quantity being measured and
encoding and transmitting this to a distant station, which for the satellite is one of the earth stations.

23
 Data transmitted as telemetry signals include attitude information such as that obtained
from sun and earth sensors; environmental information such as the magnetic field intensity and
direction, the frequency of meteorite impact etc and spacecraft information such as temperatures,
power supply voltages, and stored-fuel pressure.
The telemetry subsystem transmits information about the satellite to the earth station, while
the command subsystem receives command signals from the earth station, often in response to
telemetered information. The command subsystem demodulates and decodes the command signals
and routes these to the appropriate equipment needed to execute the necessary action. Thus attitude
changes may be made, communication transponders switched in and out of circuits, antennas
redirected, and station-keeping maneuvers carried out on command. It is important to prevent
unauthorized commands from being received and decoded, and the command signals are often
encrypted.
Encrypt is derived from a Greek word kryptein, meaning to hide, and represents the process
of concealing the command signals in a secure code. This differs from the normal process of
encoding which converts characters in the command signal into a code suitable for transmission.
Tracking of the satellite is accomplished by having the satellite transmit beacon signals which are
received at the TT&C earth stations. Tracking is obviously important during the transfer and drift
orbital phases of the satellite launch. Once it is on station, the position of a geo-stationary satellite
will tend to be shifted as a result of the various disturbing forces. Therefore, it is necessary to be
able to track the satellite’s movement and send correction signals as required.
2.6.1 Transponders
A transponder is the series of interconnected units which forms a single communications
channel between the receive and transmit antennas in a communications satellite. Some of the units
utilized by a transponder in a given channel may be common to a number of transponders. Thus,
although reference may be made to a specific transponder, this must be thought of as an equipment
channel rather than a single item of equipment.
Before describing in detail the various units of a transponder, the overall frequency
arrangement of a typical C-band communications satellite will be examined briefly. The
bandwidth allocated for C-band service is 500 MHz, and this is divided into sub-bands, one
transponder.

24
A typical transponder bandwidth is 36 MHz, and allowing for a 4-MHz guard-band between
transponders, 12 such transponders can be accommodated in the 500-MHz bandwidth.

Fig 2.7 Satellite Control System

By making use of polarization isolation, this number can be doubled. Polarization isolation refers
that carriers, which may be on the same frequency but with opposite senses of polarization, can be
isolated from one another by receiving antennas matched to the incoming polarization. With linear
polarization, vertically and horizontally polarized carriers can be separated in this way, and with
circular polarization, left-hand circular and right-hand circular polarizations can be separated.
Because the carriers with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in frequency, this technique
is referred to as frequency reuse. Figure 2.8 shows part of the frequency and polarization plan for a
C-band communications satellite.

25
 Fig 2.8 Section of an Uplink Frequency and Polarization Plan

Frequency reuse also may be achieved with spot-beam antennas, and these may be
combined with polarization reuse to provide an effective bandwidth of 2000 MHz from the actual
bandwidth of 500 MHz. For one of the polarization groups, Figure 2.8 shows the channeling
scheme for the 12 transponders in more detail. The incoming, or uplink, frequency range is 5.925
to 6.425 GHz. The frequency conversion shifts the carriers to the downlink frequency band, which
is also 500 MHz wide, extending from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz. At this point the signals are channelized
into frequency bands which represent the individual transponder bandwidths.
2.6.2 The wideband receiver
The wideband receiver is shown in more detail in Fig. 2.10. A duplicate receiver is provided
so that if one fails, the other is automatically switched in. The combination is referred to as a
redundant receiver, meaning that although two are provided, only one is in use at a given time.
The first stage in the receiver is a low-noise amplifier (LNA). This amplifier adds little
noise to the carrier being amplified, and at the same time it provides sufficient amplification for
the carrier to override the higher noise level present in the following mixer stage.

26
 Fig 2.9 Satellite Transponder Channels

Fig 2.10 Satellite Wideband Receiver

It is more convenient to refer all noise levels to the LNA input, where the total receiver noise
may be expressed in terms of an equivalent noise temperature. In a well-designed receiver, the
equivalent noise temperature referred to the LNA input is basically that of the LNA alone. The
overall noise temperature must take into account the noise added from the antenna. The equivalent
noise temperature of a satellite receiver may be on the order of a few hundred kelvins.
The LNA feeds into a mixer stage, which also requires a local oscillator (LO) signal for
the frequency-conversion process. With advances in field-effect transistor (FET) technology, FET
amplifiers, which offer equal or better performance, are now available for both bands. Diode mixer
stages are used. The amplifier following the mixer may utilize bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
at 4 GHz and FETs at 12 GHz, or FETs may in fact be used in both bands.

27
2.6.3 The input de-multiplexer
The input de-multiplexer separates the broadband input, covering the frequency range 3.7
to 4.2 GHz, into the transponder frequency channels. This provides greater frequency separation
between adjacent channels in a group, which reduces adjacent channel interference. The output
from the receiver is fed to a power splitter, which in turn feeds the two separate chains of
circulators.

Fig 2.11 Satellite Input Multiplexer

The full broadband signal is transmitted along each chain, and the channelizing is achieved
by means of channel filters connected to each circulator. Each filter has a bandwidth of 36 MHz
and is tuned to the appropriate center frequency, as shown in Fig. 2.11. Although there are
considerable losses in the demultiplexer, these are easily made up in the overall gain for the
transponder channels.
2.6.4 The power amplifier
The fixed attenuation is needed to balance out variations in the input attenuation so that
each transponder channel has the same nominal attenuation, the necessary adjustments being made
during assembly. The variable attenuation is needed to set the level as required for different types
of service. Because this variable attenuator adjustment is an operational requirement, it must be
under the control of the ground TT&C station.
Traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) are widely used in transponders to provide the
final output power required to the transmit antenna. Figure 2.12 shows the schematic of a traveling
wave tube (TWT) and its power supplies. In the TWT, an electron-beam gun assembly consisting
of a heater, a cathode, and focusing electrodes is used to form an electron beam. A magnetic field
is required to confine the beam to travel along the inside of a wire helix.

28
 Fig 2.12 Satellite TWTA

The magnetic field can be provided by means of a solenoid and dc power supply. The
comparatively large size and high power consumption of solenoids make them unsuitable for use
aboard satellites and lower-power TWTs are used which employ permanent-magnet focusing. The
wave will travel around the helical path at close to the speed of light, but it is the axial component
of wave velocity which interacts with the electron beam.
This component is less than the velocity of light approximately in the ratio of helix pitch to
circumference. Because of this effective reduction in phase velocity, the helix is referred to as a
slow wave structure. The advantage of the TWT over other types of tube amplifiers is that it can
provide amplification over a very wide bandwidth. Input levels to the TWT must be carefully
controlled, however to minimize the effects of certain forms of distortion. The results from the
nonlinear transfer characteristic of the TWT are illustrated in Figure 2.13.

Fig 2.13 Power Transfer Characteristics of a TWT

29
 At low-input powers, the output-input power relationship is linear. At higher power inputs, the
output power saturates, the point of maximum power output being known as the saturation point.
The saturation point is a very convenient reference point and input and output quantities are
usually referred to it. The linear region of the TWT is defined as the region bound by the thermal
noise limit at the low end and by what is termed the 1-dB compression point at the upper end. This
is the point where the actual transfer curve drops.

2.7 Satellite Uplink and Downlink Analysis and Design

2.7.1 Introduction
The link-power budget calculations basically relate two quantities, the transmit power and
the receive power, and show in detail how the difference between these two powers is accounted
for. Link-budget calculations are usually made using decibel or decilog quantities. Where no
ambiguity arises regarding the units, the abbreviation dB is used. For example, Boltzmann’s
constant is given as 228.6 dB, although, strictly speaking, this should be given as 228.6 deci logs
relative to 1 J/K.
2.7.2 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
A key parameter in link-budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic radiated power,
conventionally denoted EIRP. The maximum power flux density at some distance ‘r’ for
transmitting antenna of gain ‘G i'

An isotropic radiator with an input power equal to GPS would produce the same flux
density. Hence, this product is referred to as the EIRP, or EIRP is often expressed in decibels
relative to 1 W, or dBW. Let PS be in watts; then [EIRP] = [PS] x [G] dB , where [PS] is also in
dBW and [G] is in dB.

2.7.3 Transmission Losses

The [EIRP] may be thought of as the power input to one end of the transmission link, and
the problem is to find the power received at the other end. Losses will occur along the way, some
of which are constant. Other losses can only be estimated from statistical data, and some of these
are dependent on weather conditions, especially on rainfall.
The first step in the calculations is to determine the losses for clear- weather or clear-sky
conditions. These calculations take into account the losses, including those calculated on a statistical
basis which does not vary with time. Losses which are weather-related, and other losses which
fluctuate with time, are then allowed for by introducing appropriate fade margins into the
transmission equation.

30
Free-space transmission:
As a first step in the loss calculations, the power loss resulting from the spreading of the
signal in space must be determined.
Feeder losses:
Losses will occur in the connection between the receive antenna and the receiver proper.
Such losses will occur in the connecting waveguides, filters, and couplers. These will be denoted by
RFL, or [RFL] dB, for receiver feeder losses.
Antenna misalignment losses:
When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation is to have the earth station and
satellite antennas aligned for maximum gain, as shown in Figure 2.14. There are two possible
sources of off-axis loss, one at the satellite and one at the earth station. The off-axis loss at the
satellite is taken into account by designing the link for operation on the actual satellite antenna
contour; this is described in more detail in later sections. The off-axis loss at the earth station is
referred to as the antenna pointing loss. Antenna pointing losses are usually only a few tenths of a
decibel. In addition to pointing losses, losses may result at the antenna from misalignment of the
polarization direction. The polarization misalignment losses are usually small, and it will be
assumed that the antenna misalignment losses, denoted by [AML], include both pointing and
polarization losses resulting from antenna misalignment.

Fig 2.14 (a) Satellite and earth-station antennas aligned for maximum gain; (b) earth station situated on a
given satellite “footprint,” and earth-station antenna misaligned.

2.8 The Link-Power Budget Equation

The losses for the link have been identified, the power at the receiver, which is the power
output of the link, may be calculated simply as [EIRP] [LOSSES] [GR], where the last quantity is
the receiver antenna gain. The major source of loss in any ground-satellite link is the free-space
spreading loss [FSL], the basic link-power budget equation taking into account this loss only.
However, the other losses also must be taken into account, and these are simply added to [FSL].

31
The losses for clear-sky conditions are
[LOSSES] = [FSL] +[RFL] +[AML]+[AA] -[PL] equation for the received power is then
[PR] = [EIRP] X [GR] -[LOSSES]
Where
[PR] - the received power, dBW
[EIRP] - equivalent isotropic radiated power, dBW [FSL] free-space spreading loss, dB
[RFL] - receiver feeder loss, dB
[AML] -antenna misalignment loss, dB
[AA] - atmospheric absorption loss, dB [PL] polarization mismatch loss, dB

2.8.1 Amplifier Noise Temperature

Consider first the noise representation of the antenna and the low noise amplifier (LNA)
shown in Fig. 2.15. The available power gain of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the noise
power output, as Pno.

Fig 2.15 LNA Amplifier Gain

For the moment, the noise power per unit bandwidth, which is simply noise energy in joules as
shown by the following Equation. The input noise energy coming from the antenna is
N0,ant = kTant

2.8.2 The Uplink

The uplink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the earth station is transmitting the
signal and he satellite is receiving it tspecifically that the uplink is being considered.

32
 In the above equation, the values to be used are the earth station EIRP, the satellite
receiver feeder losses, and satellite receiver G/T. The free-space loss and other losses which are
frequency-dependent are calculated for the uplink frequency.
2.8.3 Input back-off
Since the number of carriers are present simultaneously in a TWTA, the operating point must be
backed off to a linear portion of the transfer characteristic to reduce the effects of inter modulation
distortion. Such multiple carrier operation occurs with frequency- division multiple access
(FDMA). The point to be made here is that backoff (BO) must be allowed for in the link- budget
calculations. Suppose that the saturation flux density for single-carrier operation is known. Input
BO will be specified for multiple-carrier operation, referred to the single- carrier saturation level.
The earth-station EIRP will have to be reduced by the specified BO, resulting in an uplink value of
[EIRP] U = [EIRPS] U + [BO]i
2.8.4 The earth station HPA
The earth station HPA has to supply the radiated power plus the transmit feeder losses,
denoted here by TFL, or [TFL] dB. These include waveguide, filter, and coupler losses between the
HPA output and the transmit antenna. The earth station may have to transmit multiple carriers and its
output also will require back off, denoted by [BO]HPA. The earth station HPA must be rated for a
saturation power output given by
[PHPA,sat] = [PHPA] + [BO]HPA

2.8.5 Downlink
The downlink of a satellite circuit is the one in which the satellite is transmitting the signal and
the earth station is receiving it. Equation can be applied to the downlink, but subscript D will be used
to denote specifically that the downlink is being considered.

In the above equation, the values to be used are the satellite EIRP, the earth- station
receiver feeder losses, and the earth-station receiver G/T. The free space and other losses are
calculated for the downlink frequency. The resulting carrier-to-noise density ratio appears at the
detector of the earth station receiver.
2.8.6 Output back-off
Where input BO is employed as described in a corresponding output BO must be allowed for
in the satellite EIRP. As the curve of Figure 2.16 shows that output BO is not linearly related to
input BO. A rule of thumb, frequently used, is to take the output BO as the point on the curve which
is 5 dB below the extrapolated linear portion. Since the linear portion gives a 1:1 change in decibels,
the relationship between input and output BO is [BO]0 [BO]i 5 dB. For example, with an input
BO of [BO]i 11 dB, the corresponding output BO is [BO]0

33
 Fig 2.16 Input and output back- off relationship for the satellite traveling-wave-tube amplifier

2.9 Effects of Rain

In the C band and, more especially, the Ku band, rainfall is the most significant cause of
signal fading. Rainfall results in attenuation of radio waves by scattering and by absorption of
energy from the wave. Rain attenuation increases with increasing frequency and is worse in the Ku
band compared with the C band. This produces a depolarization of the wave; in effect, the wave
becomes elliptically polarized. This is true for both linear and circular polarizations, and the effect
seems to be much worse for circular polarization. The C/N0 ratio for the downlink alone, not
counting the PNU contribution, is PR/PND, and the combined C/N0 ratio at the ground receiver
is

Fig 2.17 (a) Combined uplink and downlink (b) power flow diagram

The reason for this reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals method is that a single signal power is
being transferred through the system, while the various noise powers, which are present are
additive. Similar reasoning applies to the carrier-to-noise ratio, C/N.

34
2.10 Inter-modulation and Interference
Inter-modulation interference is the undesired combining of several signals in a nonlinear
device, producing new, unwanted frequencies which can cause interference in adjacent receivers
located at repeater sites. Not all interference is a result of inter-modulation distortion. It can come
from co-channel interference, atmospheric conditions as well as man-made noise generated by
medical, welding and heating equipment.
Most inter-modulation occurs in a transmitter's nonlinear power amplifier (PA). The next
most common mixing point is in the front end of a receiver. Usually it occurs in the unprotected
first mixer of older model radios or in some cases an overdriven RF front-end amp.
Inter-modulation can also be produced in rusty or corroded tower joints, guy wires,
turnbuckles and anchor rods or any nearby metallic object, which can act as a nonlinear
"mixer/rectifier" device.
2.11 Propagation Characteristics and Frequency Considerations
2.11.1 Introduction
A number of factors resulting from changes in the atmosphere have to be taken into
account when designing a satellite communications system in order to avoid impairment of the
wanted signal. Generally, a margin in the required carrier-to-noise ratio is incorporated to
accommodate such effects.
2.11.2 Radio Noise
Radio noise emitted by matter is used as a source of information in radio-astronomy and
in remote sensing. Noise of a thermal origin has a continuous spectrum, but several other radiation
mechanisms cause the emission to have a spectral-line structure. Atoms and molecules are
distinguished by their different spectral lines. For other services such as satellite communications
noise is a limiting factor for the receiving system. Generally, it is inappropriate to use receiving
systems with noise temperatures which are much less than those specified by the minimum
external noise. From about 30 MHz to about 1 GHz cosmic noise predominates over atmospheric
noise except during local thunderstorms, but will generally be exceeded by man-made noise in
populated areas.
In the bands of strong gaseous absorption, the noise temperature reaches maximum values
of some 290 K. At times, precipitation will also increase the noise temperature at frequencies
above 5 GHz. Figure 2.18 gives an indication of sky noise at various elevation angles and
frequencies.

Fig 2.18 Sky-Noise Temperature for Clear Air

35
2.12 System Reliability and Design Lifetime
2.12.1 System reliability
Satellites are designed to operate dependably throughout their operational life, usually a
number of years. This is achieved through stringent quality control and testing of parts and
subsystems before they are used in the construction of the satellite. Redundancy of key
components is often built in so that if a particular part or subassembly fails, another can perform
its functions. In addition, hardware and software on the satellite are often designed so that ground
controllers can reconfigure the satellite to work around a part that has failed.
2.12.2. Design lifetime
The Milstar constellation has demonstrated exceptional reliability and capability, providing
vital protected communications to the warfighter,” said Kevin Bilger, vice president and general
manager, Global Communications Systems, Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Sunnyvale.
“Milstar’s robust system offers our nation worldwide connectivity with flexible, dependable and
highly secure satellite communications.”
The five-satellite Milstar constellation has surpassed 63 years of combined successful
operations, and provides a protected, global communication network for the joint forces of the
U.S. military. In addition, it can transmit voice, data, and imagery, and offers video
teleconferencing capabilities. The system is the principal survivable, endurable communications
structure that the President, the Secretary of Defense and the Commander, U.S. Strategic
Command use to maintain positive command and control of the nation's strategic forces.
In addition to this 10-year milestone for Flight-5, each of the first two Milstar satellites has
been on orbit for over 16 years – far exceeding their 10-year design life. The next-generation
Lockheed Martin-built Advanced EHF satellites, joining the Milstar constellation, provide five
times faster data rates and twice as many connections, permitting transmission of strategic and
tactical military communications, such as real-time video, battlefield maps and targeting data.
Advanced EHF satellites are designed to be fully interoperable and backward compatible with
Milstar.
Headquartered in Bethesda, Md., Lockheed Martin is a global security company that
employs about 123,000 people worldwide and is principally engaged in the research, design,
development, manufacture, integration and sustainment of advanced technology systems, products
and services. The Corporation's net sales for 2011 were $46.5 billion.

36
POST TEST MCQ:
1. The attitude control system in a spacecraft is a -
a) System that achieves & maintains the required attitudes for satellites
b) System that maintains the velocity of the satellites
c) System that maintains the fuel control of satellites
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

2. The payload is an -
a) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been stabilized in
orbit.
b) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been launched.
c) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been both stabilized
and launched in orbit.
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

3. The transponder is an -
a) Equipment which provides the connecting link between the satellite’s transmit &
receive antennas
b) Equipment which provides the power supply
c) Equipment which provides both the connecting link between the satellite’s transmit &
receive antennas and provides the power supply
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

4. The meaning of spin stabilized satellite is -

a) The body of the satellite spins at about 300 to 1000 rpm about the axis
b) The body of the satellite spins at about 3000 to 10000 rpm about the axis
c) The body of the satellite spins at about 30 to 100 rpm about the axis
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

5. The concept of frequency reuse is -

a) The carrier with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in frequency
b) The carrier with same senses of depolarization may overlap in frequency
c) The carrier with same senses of polarization may overlap in amplitude
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

6. The Inter modulation distortion is -

a) a more serious form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in
AM/PM conversion
b) a less form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in AM/PM
conversion
 c) a moderate form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in
FM/PM conversion
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: a

7. The diplexer is device where -

a) The transmit signals are separated
b) The receive signals are separated
c) Both the transmit & receives signals are separated
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: c

8. The polarization interleaving is an overlap occurs between the channels which are -
a. Alternating polarized left hand circular & right hand circular to reduce interference to
acceptable levels
b. Alternating polarized left hand flat & right hand elliptical to reduce interference to
acceptable levels.
c. Alternating polarized left hand elliptical & right hand flat to reduce interference to
acceptable levels.
d. None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

9. The definition of S/N ratio is the ratio of -

a) Signal power to noise power at the receiver input.
b) Signal power to noise power at the transmitter input.
c) Signal power to noise power at the receiver output.
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: c

10. What is an EIRP?

a) It is a measure of transmitted power of an antenna.
b) It is a measure of received power of an antenna.
c) It is a measure of power loss at the antenna.
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: a

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Satellites that are launched in to the orbit by using the rockets are called man-made satellites or
artificial satellites. Artificial satellites revolve around the earth because of the gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and satellites. Unlike the natural satellites (moon), artificial
satellites are used in various applications. The various applications of artificial satellites include:
1. Weather forecasting
2. Navigation
3. Astronomy
4. Satellite phone
5. Satellite television
6. Military satellite
7. Satellite internet
8. Satellite radio.
1. Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of the future of weather. The satellites that are used to
predict the future of weather are called weather satellites. Weather satellites continuously
monitor the climate and weather conditions of earth. They use sensors called radiometers for
measuring the heat energy released from the earth surface. Weather satellites also predict the
most dangerous storms such as hurricanes.
2. Navigation
Generally, navigation refers to determining the geographical location of an object. The satellites
that are used to determine the geographic location of aircrafts, ships, cars, trains, or any other
object are called navigation satellites. GPS (Global Positioning System) is an example of
navigation system. It allows the user to determine their exact location at anywhere in the world.
3. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, natural satellites,
comets, etc. The satellites that are used to study or observe the distant stars, galaxies, planets, etc.
are called astronomical satellites. They are mainly used to find the new stars, planets, and
galaxies. Hubble space telescope is an example of astronomical satellite. It captures the high-
resolution images of the distant stars, galaxies, planets etc.
4. Satellite phone
Satellite phone is a type of mobile phone that uses satellites instead of cell towers for
transmitting the signal or information over long distances. Mobile phones that use cell towers
will work only within the coverage area of a cell tower. If we go beyond the coverage area of a
cell tower or if we reach the remote areas, it becomes difficult to make a voice call or send text
messages with the mobile phones. Unlike the mobile mobiles, satellite phones have global
coverage. Satellites phones uses geostationary satellites and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for
transmitting the information. When a person makes a call from the satellite phone, the signal is
sent to the satellite. The satellite will receives that signal, processes it, and redirects the signal
back to the earth via a gateway. The gateway then send the signal or call to the destination by
using the regular cellular and landline networks. The usage of satellite phones is illegal in some
countries like Cuba, North Korea, Burma, India, and Russia.
5. Satellite television
Satellite television or satellite TV is a wireless system that uses communication satellites to
deliver the television programs or television signals to the users or viewers.
TV or television mostly uses geostationary satellites because they look stationary from the earth.
Hence, the signal is easily transmitted. When the television signal is send to the satellite, it
receives the signal, amplifies it, and retransmit it back to the earth. The first satellite television
signal was send from Europe to North America by using the Telstar satellite.
6. Military satellite
Military satellite is an artificial satellite used by the army for various purposes such as spying on
enemy countries, military communication, and navigation.
Military satellites obtain the secret information from the enemy countries. These satellites also
detect the missiles launched by the other countries in the space.
Military satellites are used by armed forces to communicate with each other. These satellites also
used to determine the exact location of an object.
7. Satellite internet
Satellite internet is a wireless system that uses satellites to deliver the internet signals to users.
High-speed internet is the main advantage of satellite internet. Satellite internet does not use
cable systems, but instead it uses satellites to transmit the information or signal.
8. Satellite radio
Satellite radio is a wireless transmission service that uses orbiting satellites to deliver the
information or radio signals to the consumers. It is primarily used in the cars. When the ground
station transmit signal to the satellite that is revolving around the earth, the satellite receives the
signal, amplifies it, and redirects the signal back to the earth (radio receivers in the cars).

CONCLUSION:
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to –
 To understand the various systems of Spacecraft Technology
 To understand the Design of Satellite Up and Down Links

REFERENCES:
1. Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communication”, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
2. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
3. N. Agarwal, “Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft”, Prentice Hall, 1986.
4. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, “Manual of Satellite Communications”, McGraw Hill, 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
7. M. Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan, 2003.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Explain overall System Noise Temperature in detail.
2. Describe the space craft configuration, communication payload and supporting systems
briefly with relevant diagrams.
3. In detail, explain the effects of rain in Satellite Circuit Performance.
4. Describe the simplifie block diagram of a Communication Satellite Transponder.
5. Write a short note on “Telemetry Tracking and Command System”.
6. Explain the Communication Subsystem in a spacecraft in detail.
7. What are the factors that affect the uplink and down link design in geostationary satellite
system? Discuss in detail.
8. Derive the expression for C/N ratio of Space Link power budget.
 UNIT III / EARTH SEGMENT
SYLLABUS
Introduction – Receive – Only home TV systems (TVRO) – Outdoor UNIT – Indoor UNIT for analog
(FM) TV – Master antenna TV system (MATV) – Community Antenna TV system (CATV) – Transmit –
Receive earth stations, Antennas, Terrestrial Interface, Equipment Measurements on G/T, C/N, EIRP,
Antenna Gain

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

 To understand the various types of TV Systems
 To understand the fundamentals of Earth Segment of a Satellite system

PRE-TEST MCQ:
1. The attitude control system in a spacecraft is a -
a) System that achieves & maintains the required attitudes for satellites
b) System that maintains the velocity of the satellites
c) System that maintains the fuel control of satellites
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

2. The payload is an -
a) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been stabilized in orbit.
b) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been launched.
c) Equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been both stabilized and launched
in orbit.
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

3. The transponder is an -
a) Equipment which provides the connecting link between the satellite’s transmit & receive antennas
b) Equipment which provides the power supply
c) Equipment which provides both the connecting link between the satellite’s transmit & receive
antennas and provides the power supply
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a
4. The meaning of spin stabilized satellite is -
a) The body of the satellite spins at about 300 to 1000 rpm about the axis
b) The body of the satellite spins at about 3000 to 10000 rpm about the axis
c) The body of the satellite spins at about 30 to 100 rpm about the axis
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

5. The concept of frequency reuse is -

a) The carrier with opposite senses of polarization may overlap in frequency
b) The carrier with same senses of depolarization may overlap in frequency
c) The carrier with same senses of polarization may overlap in amplitude
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a
6. The Inter modulation distortion is -
a) a more serious form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in AM/PM
conversion
b) a less form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in AM/PM conversion
c) a moderate form of distortion introduced by nonlinear transfer characteristic in FM/PM conversion
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: a

7. The diplexer is device where -

a) The transmit signals are separated
b) The receive signals are separated
c) Both the transmit & receives signals are separated
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: c

8. The polarization interleaving is an overlap occurs between the channels which are -
a. Alternating polarized left hand circular & right hand circular to reduce interference to acceptable
levels
b. Alternating polarized left hand flat & right hand elliptical to reduce interference to acceptable
levels.
c. Alternating polarized left hand elliptical & right hand flat to reduce interference to acceptable
levels.
d. None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

9. The definition of S/N ratio is the ratio of -

a) Signal power to noise power at the receiver input.
b) Signal power to noise power at the transmitter input.
c) Signal power to noise power at the receiver output.
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: c

10. What is an EIRP?

a) It is a measure of transmitted power of an antenna.
b) It is a measure of received power of an antenna.
c) It is a measure of power loss at the antenna.
d) None of t he ot her me nt io ned o pt io ns
ANSWER: a

PRE-REQUISITE:
 Basic knowledge of Antennas and Digital Communication
 CHAPTER 3

SATELLITE ACCESS
3.1 Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video
Communications satellites are used to carry telephone, video, and data signals, and can use
both analog and digital modulation techniques.
Modulation:
It is method by which modification of a carrier’s parameters such as amplitude, frequency,
phase, or a combination of them in dependence on the symbol to be sent.
Multiplexing:
It is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each communication channel with a
minimum of interference and a maximum of medium utilization. Communication channel refers to
an association of sender(s) and receiver(s) that want to exchange data. It is one of several
constellations of a carrier’s parameters defined by the used modulation scheme.
Voice, Data, Video:
The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at this time were analog,
adapted from the technology developed for the change to digital voice signals made it easier for
long-distance.

Fig 3.1 Modulation and Multiplexing

Communication carriers to mix digital data and telephone Fiber-optic Cable Transmission
Standards System Bit rate (Mbps) 64- kbps Voice channel capacity Stuffing bits and words are
added to the satellite data stream as needed to fill empty bit and word spaces. It is primarily for
video provided that a satellite link's overall carrier-to-noise but in to older receiving equipment at
System and Satellite Specification Ku- band satellite parameters.

37
Modulation and Multiplexing:
In analog television (TV) transmission by satellite, the baseband video signal and one or
two audio subcarriers constitute a composite video signal. Digital modulation is obviously the
modulation of choice for transmitting digital data are digitized analog signals may conveniently
share a channel with digital data, allowing a link to carry a varying mix of voice and data traffic.
Digital signals from different channels are interleaved for transmission through time division
multiplexing TDM carry any type of traffic that can carry voice, video, or data as the marketplace
demands.
Hybrid multiple access schemes can use time division multiplexing of baseband channels
which are then modulate.

3.2 Analog – Digital Transmission System

3.2.1 Analog vs. Digital Transmission
The Comparison at two levels of transmission can be done as follows -
 Data—continuous (audio) vs. discrete (text)
 Signaling—continuously varying electromagnetic wave vs. sequence of voltage pulses.
The following are the various reasons to shift towards digital transmission despite large analog
base
• Improving digital technology
• Data integrity. Repeaters take out cumulative problems in transmission. Can thus
transmit longer distances.
• Easier to multiplex large channel capacities with digital
• Easy to apply encryption to digital data
• Better integration if all signals are in one form. Can integrate voice, video and
digital data.

Fig 3.2 Basic Communication Systems

38
3.2.2 Digital Data/Analog Signals
Modem is a device to convert digital data to analog signal as well as to translate between
bit-serial and modulated carrier signals. To send digital data using analog technology, the sender
generates a carrier signal at some continuous tone (e.g. 1-2 kHz in phone circuits) that looks like a
sine wave. The following techniques are used to encode digital data into analog signals.

Fig 3.3 Digital /Analog Transmitter and Receiver

he resulting bandwidth is centered on the carrier frequency.

• Amplitude-shift modulation: Vary the amplitude of the signal. Used to transmit digital
data over optical fiber.
• Frequency-shift modulation: Two or more tones are used, which are near the carrier
frequency. Used in a full-duplex modem.
• Phase-shift modulation: Systematically shift the carrier wave at uniformly spaced
intervals.
For instance, the wave could be shifted by 45, 135, 225, 315 degree at each timing mark. In
this case, each timing interval carries 2 bits of information. Why not shift by 0, 90, 180, 270?
Shifting zero degrees means no shift and an extended set of no shifts leads to clock
synchronization difficulties.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): Divide the frequency spectrum into smaller
subchannels, giving each user exclusive use of a subchannel. One problem with FDM is that a user
is given all of the frequency to use, and if the user has no data to send, bandwidth is wasted — it
cannot be used by another user.
Time division multiplexing (TDM): Use time slicing to give each user the full bandwidth, but for
only a fraction of a second at a time. Again, if the user doesn’t have data to send during his time
slice, the bandwidth is not used.
Statistical multiplexing: Allocate bandwidth to arriving packets on demand. This leads to the
most efficient use of channel bandwidth because it only carries useful data. That is, channel
bandwidth is allocated to packets that are waiting for transmission and a user generating no
packets doesn’t use any of the channel resources.

39
 3.3 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) has become the synonym for digital television and for
data broadcasting world-wide. DVB services have recently been introduced in Europe, in
North and South America, in Asia, Africa and Australia.

Fig 3.4 Digital Video Broadcasting Systems

3.4 Multiple Access Techniques

The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and every mobile user
in the cell, and is referred as broadcasting. Transmission from the mobile users in the uplink to
the BS is many-to-one, and is referred to as multiple access. Multiple access schemes to allow
many users to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum resources. They should not
result in severe degradation in the performance of the system as compared to a single user
scenario. The approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband and wideband.
The following are the various Multiple Accessing Techniques with possible conflict and conflict-
free.
 Random access
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an example is Code division multiple access
(CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

40
3.4.1. Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user, one for downlink and one for
uplink.
 A large interval between these frequency bands must be allowed so that interference is
minimized.

Fig 3.5 Frequency Separation

3.4.2 Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use one contiguous frequency
allocation, but two separate time slots to provide both a forward and reverse link.
 Because transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates in time, this
scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
 As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the communication quality in
both directions is the same. This is different from FDD.

Figure 3.6 Time Slot

41
 3.4.3 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel. During the
period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency band.

Figure 3.7 FDMA Channels

 All channels in a cell are available to all the mobiles. Channel assignment is carried out on a
first-come first- served basis.
 The number of channels, given a frequency spectrum BT, depends on the modulation
technique (hence Bw or Bc) and the guard bands between the channels 2Bguard.
 These guard bands allow for imperfect filters and oscillators and can be used to minimize
adjacent channel interference.
 FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

Figure 3.8 FDMA/TDD

Nonlinear effects in FDMA:
 In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the BS. The power
amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation are
nonlinear.
 The nonlinear ties generate inter-modulation frequencies.
 Undesirable harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause interference to
adjacent services.
 Undesirable harmonics present inside the band cause interference to other users in the
mobile system.

42
3.4.4 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 TDMA systems divide the channel time into frames. Each frame is further partitioned into
time slots. In each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.
 Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital modulation must be used.
 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be thought of as a
particular time slot of every frame, where N time slots comprise a frame.

Figure 3.9 TDMA Channels

Features:
 Multiple channels per carrier or RF channels.
 Burst transmission since channels are used on a timesharing basis. Transmitter can be
turned off during idle periods.
 Narrow or wide bandwidth – depends on factors such as modulation scheme, number of
voice channels per carrier channel.
 High ISI – Higher transmission symbol rate, hence resulting in high ISI. Adaptive
equalizer required.

Figure 3.10 TDMA Channels time slot

 A guard time between the two time slots must be allowed in order to avoid
interference, especially in the uplink direction.

43
 Efficient power utilization: FDMA systems require a 3- to 6-dB power back off in order to
compensate for inter-modulation effects.
 Efficient handoff: TDMA systems can take advantage of the fact that the transmitter is
switched off during idle time slots to improve the handoff procedure. An enhanced link
control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a
subscriber by listening to neighboring base station during the idle slot of the TDMA frame.
 Efficiency of TDMA: It is a measure of the percentage of bits per frame which contain
transmitted data. The transmitted data include source and channel coding bits.

Where bOH includes all overhead bits such as preamble, guard bits, etc.
3.4.5 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Spreading signal (code) consists of chips
 Has Chip period and hence, chip rate
 Spreading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-random sequence)
 PN sequence is called a codeword
 Each user has its own codeword
 Codewords are orthogonal. (low autocorrelation)
 Chip rate is order of magnitude larger than the symbol rate.
 The receiver correlator distinguishes the senders signal by examining the wideband
signal with the same time-synchronized spreading code
 The sent signal is recovered by de-spreading process at the receiver.

Figure 3.11 CDMA Channels Transmission

44
 DSSS Transmitter:

Figure 3.12 CDMA Transmitter

DSSS Receiver:

Figure 3.13 CDMA Receiver

The available wideband spectrum is frequency divided into number of narrowband radio
channels. CDMA is employed inside each channel. The signals are spread using spreading
codes (direct sequence signals are obtained), but these signals are not transmitted over a
constant carrier frequency and they are transmitted over a frequency hopping carrier
frequency.
Advantages of CDMA:
 It is recognized that CDMA’s capacity gains over TDMA.
 FDMA are entirely due to its tighter, dynamic control over the use of the power domain.
 Choosing a new non-orthogonal PN sequence a CDMA system does not encounter the
difficulties of choosing a spare carrier frequency or time slot to carry a Traffic Channel
 Ensure that interference will not be too great if it begins to transmit -that there is still
enough space left in the power domain.
Disadvantages of CDMA:
 Satellite transponders are channelized too narrowly for roadband CDMA, which is
the most attractive form of CDMA.
 Power control cannot be as tight as it is in a terrestrial system because of long
round-trip delay.

45
3.5 Channel Allocation Schemes
In radio resource management for wireless and cellular network, channel allocation
schemes are required to allocate bandwidth and communication channels to base stations,
access points and terminal equipment.
The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/site by means of
frequency reuse, but still assure a certain grade of service by avoiding co-channel interference
and adjacent channel interference among nearby cells or networks that share the bandwidth.
There are two types of strategies that are followed:-
 Fixed: FCA, fixed channel allocation: Manually assigned by the network operator
 Dynamic:
 DCA, dynamic channel allocation,
 DFS, dynamic frequency selection
 Spread spectrum
3.5.1 Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):
In Fixed Channel Allocation or Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) each cell is given
a predetermined set of frequency channels. FCA requires manual frequency planning, which is
an arduous task in TDMA and FDMA based systems, since such systems are highly sensitive to
co- channel interference from nearby cells that are reusing the same channel. These results in
traffic congestion and some calls being lost when traffic gets heavy in some cells, and idle
capacity in other cells.
3.5.2. DCA and DFS:
Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in wireless networks with several
adjacent non-centrally controlled access points. A more efficient way of channel allocation
would be Dynamic Channel Allocation or Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) in which
voice channel are not allocated to cell permanently, instead for every call request base station
request channel from MSC.

3.6 Spread Spectrum Techniques

Spread spectrum can be considered as an alternative to complex DCA algorithms. Spread
spectrum avoids co-channel interference between adjacent cells, since the probability that users in
nearby cells use the same spreading code is insignificant. Thus the frequency channel allocation
problem is relaxed in cellular networks based on a combination of Spread spectrum and FDMA,
for example IS95 and 3G systems.
In packet based data communication services, the communication is bursty and the traffic
load rapidly changing. For high system spectrum efficiency, DCA should be performed on a
packet-by-packet basis. Examples of algorithms for packet-by-packet DCA are Dynamic Packet
Assignment (DPA), Dynamic Single Frequency Networks (DSFN) and Packet and resource
plan scheduling (PARPS).

46
 In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are
methods by which a signal generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in
the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are
used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications,
increasing resistance to natural interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to
limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a technique in which a telecommunication
signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the
original information. Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique
that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used
for multiple access and/or multiple functions. Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS),
direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp
spread spectrum (CSS).
These techniques are known since the 1940s and used in military communication
systems since the 1950s "spread" a radio signal over a wide frequency range several
magnitudes higher than minimum requirement.
Resistance to jamming: It is good at resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while
FH (frequency hopping) is better at resisting pulse jamming.
Resistance to fading: The high bandwidth occupied by spread- spectrum signals offer
some frequency diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the signal will encounter severe multipath
fading over its whole bandwidth, and in other cases the signal can be detected using e.g. a Rake
receiver.
Multiple access capability: Also known as code-division multiple access (CDMA) or code-
division multiplexing (CDM). Multiple users can transmit simultaneously in the same
frequency band as long as they use different spreading codes.

3.7 Compression
At the broadcast center, the high-quality digital stream of video goes through an MPEG
encoder, which converts the programming to MPEG-4 video of the correct size and format for
the satellite receiver in your house. Encoding works in conjunction with compression to
analyze each video frame and eliminate redundant or irrelevant data and extrapolate
information from other frames. This process reduces the overall size of the file. Each frame
can be encoded in one of three ways:
 As an intraframe, which contains the complete image data. This method provides the
least compression.
 As a predicted frame, which contains just enough information to tell the satellite
receiver how to display the frame based on the most recently displayed intraframe or
predicted frame.

47
 As a bidirectional frame, which displays information from the surrounding intraframe
or predicted frames. Using data from the closest surrounding frames, the receiver
interpolates the position and color of each pixel.
This process occasionally produces artifacts -- glitches in the video image. One
artifact is macroblocking, in which the fluid picture temporarily dissolves into blocks.
Macroblocking is often mistakenly called pixilating, a technically incorrect term which
has been accepted as slang for this annoying artifact.
There really are pixels on your TV screen, but they're too small for your human
eye to perceive them individually -- they're tiny squares of video data that make up the
image you see.
The rate of compression depends on the nature of the programming. If the encoder
is converting a newscast, it can use a lot more predicted frames because most of the scene
stays the same from one frame to the next. In more fast-paced programming, things
change very quickly from one frame to the next, so the encoder has to create more intra-
frames. As a result, a newscast generally compresses to a smaller size than something like
a car race.
3.7.1 Encryption and Transmission:
After the video is compressed, the provider encrypts it to keep people from
accessing it for free. Encryption scrambles the digital data in such a way that it can only
be decrypted only if the receiver has the correct decryption algorithm and security keys.
Once the signal is compressed and encrypted, the broadcast center beams it directly to one
of its satellites. The satellite picks up the signal with an onboard dish, amplifies the signal
and uses another dish to beam the signal back to Earth, where viewers can pick it up.
3.7.2 Video and Audio Compression:
Video and Audio files are very large beasts. Unless we develop and maintain very
high bandwidth networks (Gigabytes per second or more) we have to compress to data.
Relying on higher bandwidths is not a good option -- M25 Syndrome: Traffic needs ever
increases and will adapt to swamp current limit whatever this is. The compression
becomes part of the representation or coding scheme which have become popular audio,
image and video formats.

48
 Figure 3.14 Coding Schemes
Compression basically employs redundancy in the data:
 Temporal -- in 1D data, 1D signals, Audio etc.
 Spatial -- correlation between neighboring pixels or data items
 Spectral -- correlation between color or luminescence components. This uses the
frequency domain to exploit relationships between frequency of change in data.
 psycho-visual -- exploit perceptual properties of the human visual system.
Compression can be categorized in two broad ways:
Lossless Compression: Here data is compressed and can be reconstituted (uncompressed) without
loss of detail or information. These are referred to as bit-preserving or reversible compression
systems also.
Lossy Compression: Here the aim is to obtain the best possible fidelity for a given bit-rate or
minimizing the bit-rate to achieve a given fidelity measure. Video and audio compression
techniques are most suited to this form of compression. If an image is compressed it clearly needs to
uncompressed (decoded) before it can viewed/listened to. Some processing of data may be possible in
encoded form however. Lossless compression frequently involves some form of entropy encoding and
based in information theoretic techniques. Lossy compression use source encoding techniques that may
involve transform encoding, differential encoding or vector quantization.
3.7.3 MPEG Standards:
All MPEG standards exist to promote system interoperability among your computer,
television and handheld video and audio devices. They are:
 MPEG-1: the original standard for encoding and decoding streaming video and audio
files.
 MPEG-2: the standard for digital television, this compresses files for transmission of
high-quality video.
 MPEG-4: the standard for compressing high-definition video into smaller- scale files
that stream to computers, cell phones and PDAs (personal digital assistants).

49
  MPEG-21: also referred to as the Multimedia Framework. The standard that
interprets what digital content to provide to which individual user so that media plays
flawlessly under any language, machine or user conditions.

Figure 3.15 MPEG scheme

3.8 Encryption
It is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read an encrypted file, you must
have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is
called plain text ; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.

Figure 3.16 Encryption Methods

3.8.1 Symmetric Key Encryption

In symmetric-key schemes, the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Thus
communicating parties must have the same key before they can achieve secret
communication. In public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for
anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the
decryption key that enables messages to be read.

50
 Figure 3.16 General block diagram Encryption methods
3.8.2 Decryption:
It is the process of taking encoded or encrypted text or other data and converting it
back into text that you or the computer are able to read and understand. This term could
be used to describe a method of un-encrypting the data manually or with un-encrypting
the data using the proper codes or keys.
Data may be encrypted to make it difficult for someone to steal the information.
Some companies also encrypt data for general protection of company data and trade
secrets. If this data needs to be viewable, it may require decryption.

51
POST TEST MCQ:
1. With reference to satellite communication, the anti-jamming technique preferred is
a) key leverage
b) Frequency hopping
c) Once-only key
d) Frequency-spectrum modulation
ANSWER: b

2. MODEM is -
a) A circuit which carries out modulation and demodulation of a carrier frequency
b) An automatic repeat request a device for correcting errors
c) A system for transmitting high speed bursts
d) Anti-jamming technique installed on all communication satellites
ANSWER: a

3. PCM system is used in satellite communications for transmission of -

a) TV signal
b) Telegraph signal
c) Speech signal
d) All of the mentioned options
ANSWER: c

4. An antenna can be made more directional by -

a) Increasing its diameter
b) Increasing frequency of transmission
c) Both by increasing its diameter and frequency of transmission
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

5. Atmospheric drag has negligible effect on -

a) Geostationary satellites
b) MEO
c) LEO
d) None of other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

6. The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the following

a) Transmit stations only
b) Receive stations only
c) Both transmit and receive earth stations
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

7. MATV stands for -

a) Maximum Angular TV
b) Multi amplitude TV
 c) Master antenna TV
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

8. A MATV system is used to provide reception to a small group of users for example to the
tenants in an apartment building using the following media –
a) DBS TV/FM channels
b) FM channels
c) Ku (12-GHz) band
d) All of the mentioned options
ANSWER: a

9. CATV stands for -

a) Community antenna TV
b) Carrier Angular TV
c) Cost amplitude TV
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

10. The CATV system employs the following component with separate feeds available for each
sense of polarization.
a. Outdoor unit
b. Indoor unit
c. TV unit
d. None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Satellites that are launched in to the orbit by using the rockets are called man-made satellites or
artificial satellites. Artificial satellites revolve around the earth because of the gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and satellites. Unlike the natural satellites (moon), artificial
satellites are used in various applications. The various applications of artificial satellites include:
1. Weather forecasting
2. Navigation
3. Astronomy
4. Satellite phone
5. Satellite television
6. Military satellite
7. Satellite internet
8. Satellite radio.
1. Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of the future of weather. The satellites that are used to
predict the future of weather are called weather satellites. Weather satellites continuously
monitor the climate and weather conditions of earth. They use sensors called radiometers for
measuring the heat energy released from the earth surface. Weather satellites also predict the
most dangerous storms such as hurricanes.
2. Navigation
Generally, navigation refers to determining the geographical location of an object. The satellites
that are used to determine the geographic location of aircrafts, ships, cars, trains, or any other
object are called navigation satellites. GPS (Global Positioning System) is an example of
navigation system. It allows the user to determine their exact location at anywhere in the world.
3. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, natural satellites,
comets, etc. The satellites that are used to study or observe the distant stars, galaxies, planets, etc.
are called astronomical satellites. They are mainly used to find the new stars, planets, and
galaxies. Hubble space telescope is an example of astronomical satellite. It captures the high-
resolution images of the distant stars, galaxies, planets etc.
4. Satellite phone
Satellite phone is a type of mobile phone that uses satellites instead of cell towers for
transmitting the signal or information over long distances. Mobile phones that use cell towers
will work only within the coverage area of a cell tower. If we go beyond the coverage area of a
cell tower or if we reach the remote areas, it becomes difficult to make a voice call or send text
messages with the mobile phones. Unlike the mobile mobiles, satellite phones have global
coverage. Satellites phones uses geostationary satellites and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for
transmitting the information. When a person makes a call from the satellite phone, the signal is
sent to the satellite. The satellite will receives that signal, processes it, and redirects the signal
back to the earth via a gateway. The gateway then send the signal or call to the destination by
using the regular cellular and landline networks. The usage of satellite phones is illegal in some
countries like Cuba, North Korea, Burma, India, and Russia.
5. Satellite television
Satellite television or satellite TV is a wireless system that uses communication satellites to
deliver the television programs or television signals to the users or viewers.
TV or television mostly uses geostationary satellites because they look stationary from the earth.
Hence, the signal is easily transmitted. When the television signal is send to the satellite, it
receives the signal, amplifies it, and retransmit it back to the earth. The first satellite television
signal was send from Europe to North America by using the Telstar satellite.
6. Military satellite
Military satellite is an artificial satellite used by the army for various purposes such as spying on
enemy countries, military communication, and navigation.
Military satellites obtain the secret information from the enemy countries. These satellites also
detect the missiles launched by the other countries in the space.
Military satellites are used by armed forces to communicate with each other. These satellites also
used to determine the exact location of an object.
7. Satellite internet
Satellite internet is a wireless system that uses satellites to deliver the internet signals to users.
High-speed internet is the main advantage of satellite internet. Satellite internet does not use
cable systems, but instead it uses satellites to transmit the information or signal.
8. Satellite radio
Satellite radio is a wireless transmission service that uses orbiting satellites to deliver the
information or radio signals to the consumers. It is primarily used in the cars. When the ground
station transmit signal to the satellite that is revolving around the earth, the satellite receives the
signal, amplifies it, and redirects the signal back to the earth (radio receivers in the cars).
CONCLUSION:
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to –
 To understand the various types of TV systems
 To understand the fundamentals of Earth Segment

REFERENCES:
1. Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communication”, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
2. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
3. N. Agarwal, “Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft”, Prentice Hall, 1986.
4. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, “Manual of Satellite Communications”, McGraw Hill, 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
7. M. Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan, 2003.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Explain the Receive only home TV systems with a neat block diagram.
2. Explain the Master Antenna TV system with block diagram.
3. Describe and compare MATV and CATV systems.
4. Describe the Transmit-Receive Earth station in detail.
5. Write a short note on Equipment Measurements on G/T, C / N, EIRP, Antenna Gain
 UNIT IV SATELLITE ACCESS
SYLLABUS
Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video, Analog – digital transmission system,
Digital video Broadcast, multiple access: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, Assignment Methods,
Spread Spectrum communication, compression – encryption

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

 To understand the various types of Modulation and Multiplexing
 To understand the principles of various Multiple Access Techniques pertaining to
Satellite Systems

PRE-TEST MCQ:
1. With reference to satellite communication, the anti-jamming technique preferred is
a) key leverage
b) Frequency hopping
c) Once-only key
d) Frequency-spectrum modulation
ANSWER: b

2. MODEM is -
a) A circuit which carries out modulation and demodulation of a carrier frequency
b) An automatic repeat request a device for correcting errors
c) A system for transmitting high speed bursts
d) Anti-jamming technique installed on all communication satellites
ANSWER: a

3. PCM system is used in satellite communications for transmission of -

a) TV signal
b) Telegraph signal
c) Speech signal
d) All of the mentioned options
ANSWER: c

4. An antenna can be made more directional by -

a) Increasing its diameter
b) Increasing frequency of transmission
c) Both by increasing its diameter and frequency of transmission
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

5. Atmospheric drag has negligible effect on -

a) Geostationary satellites
b) MEO
c) LEO
d) None of other mentioned options
ANSWER: c
6. The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the following
a) Transmit stations only
b) Receive stations only
c) Both transmit and receive earth stations
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

7. MATV stands for -

a) Maximum Angular TV
b) Multi amplitude TV
c) Master antenna TV
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

8. A MATV system is used to provide reception to a small group of users for example to the tenants in an
apartment building using the following media –
a) DBS TV/FM channels
b) FM channels
c) Ku (12-GHz) band
d) All of the mentioned options
ANSWER: a

9. CATV stands for -

a) Community antenna TV
b) Carrier Angular TV
c) Cost amplitude TV
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

10. The CATV system employs the following component with separate feeds available for each sense of
polarization.
a. Outdoor unit
b. Indoor unit
c. TV unit
d. None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

PRE-REQUISITE:
 Basic knowledge of Antennas and Digital Communication
 CHAPTER 4

EARTH SEGMENT
4.1 EARTH STATION TECHNOLOGY
The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of transmit and
receive earth stations. The simplest of these are the home TV receive-only (TVRO)
systems, and the most complex are the terminal stations used for international
communications networks. Also included in the earth segment are those stations which
are on ships at sea, and commercial and military land and aeronautical mobile stations.
4.1.1. Terrestrial Interface
Earth station is a vital element in any satellite communication network. The
function of an earth station is to receive information from or transmit information to, the
satellite network in the most cost-effective and reliable manner while retaining the
desired signal quality. The design of earth station configuration depends upon many
factors and its location. But it is fundamentally governed by its location which are listed
below,
• In land
• On a ship at sea
• Onboard aircraft The factors are
• Type of services
• Frequency bands used
• Function of the transmitter
• Function of the receiver
• Antenna characteristics
4.1.2 Transmitter and Receiver
Any earth station consists of four major subsystems -
• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Antenna
• Tracking equipment
Two other important subsystems are
• Terrestrial interface equipment
• Power supply

52
The earth station depends on the following parameters
• Transmitter power
• Choice of frequency
• Gain of antenna
• Antenna efficiency
• Antenna pointing accuracy
• Noise temperature
The functional elements of a basic digital earth station are shown in the below figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Transmitter- Receiver

Digital information in the form of binary digits from terrestrial networks enters earth
station and is then processed (filtered, multiplexed, formatted etc.) by the base band
equipment. The encoder performs error correction coding to reduce the error rate, by
introducing extra digits into digital stream generated by the base band equipment. The
extra digits carry information.
• In satellite communication, I.F carrier frequency is chosen at 70 MHz for
communication using a 36 MHz transponder bandwidth and at 140 MHz for a transponder
bandwidth of 54 or 72 MHz On the receive side, the earth station antenna receives the
low-level modulated R.F carrier in the downlink frequency spectrum.
• The low noise amplifier (LNA) is used to amplify the weak received signals
and improve the signal to Noise ratio (SNR). The error rate requirements can be met more
easily. R.F is to be reconverted to I.F at 70 or 140 MHz because it is easier design a
demodulation to work at these frequencies than 4 or 12 GHz.

53
 • The demodulator estimate which of the possible symbols was transmitted based on
observation of the received if carrier. The decoder performs a function opposite that of
the encoder. Because the sequence of symbols recovered by the demodulator may contain
errors, the decoder must use the uniqueness of the redundant digits introduced by the
encoder to correct the errors and recover information-bearing digits.
• The information stream is fed to the base-band equipment for processing for
delivery to the terrestrial network. The tracking equipments track the satellite and align
the beam towards it to facilitate communication.
4.1.3 Earth Station Tracking System
Tracking is essential when the satellite drift, as seen by an earth station antenna is
a significant fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width. An earth station’s
tracking system is required to perform some of the functions such as Satellite acquisition,
Automatic tracking, Manual tracking, Program tracking.
4.2 ANTENNA TERRESTRIAL INTERFACE
The antenna system consist of -
 Feed System
 Antenna Reflector
 Mount
 Antenna tracking System
4.2.1 Feed System
The feed along with the reflector is the radiating/receiving element of
electromagnetic waves. The reciprocity property of the feed element makes the earth
station antenna system suitable for transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves.
The way the waves coming in and going out is called feed configuration. Earth
Station feed systems most commonly used in satellite communication are:
i) Axi-Symmetric
Configuration ii)Asymmetric
Configuration
In an axi-symmetric configuration the antenna axes are symmetrical with respect to the
reflector which results in a simple mechanical structure and antenna mount.
Primary Feed:
In primary, feed is located at the focal point of the parabolic reflector. Many
dishes use only a single bounce, with incoming waves reflecting off the dish surface to the
focus in front of the dish, where the antenna is located. When the dish is used to transmit
the transmitting antenna at the focus beams waves toward the dish, bouncing them off to
space. This is the simplest arrangement.

54
Cassegrain:
Many dishes have the waves make more than one bounce .This is generally called
as folded systems. The advantage is that the whole dish and feed system is more compact.
There are several folded configurations, but all have at least one secondary reflector also
called a sub reflector, located out in front of the dish to redirect the waves.
A common dual reflector antenna called Cassegrain has a convex sub reflector
positioned in front of the main dish, closer to the dish than the focus. This sub reflector
bounces back the waves back toward a feed located on the main dish’s center, sometimes
behind a hole at the center of the main dish. Sometimes there are even more sub reflectors
behind the dish to direct the waves to the fed for convenience or compactness.
Gregorian
This system has a concave secondary reflector located just beyond the primary
focus. This also bounces the waves back toward the dish.
Asymmetric Configuration
The performance of an axi-symmetric configuration is affected by the blockage of the
aperture by the feed and the sub reflector assembly. The result is a reduction in the
antenna efficiency and an increase in the side lobe levels. The asymmetric configuration
can remove this limitation..This is achieved by off- setting the mounting arrangement of
the feed so that it does not obstruct the main beam. As a result, the efficiency and side
lobe level performance are improved.
4.2.2 Antenna Reflector
Mostly parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna for the earth stations
because of the high gain available from the reflector and the ability of focusing a parallel
beam into a point at the focus where the feed element is located .For large antenna system
more than one reflector surfaces may be used in as in the cassegrain antenna system.
Earth stations are also classified on the basis of services for example:
1. Two way TV, Telephony and data
2. Two way TV
3. TV receive only and two way telephony and data
4. Two way data
From the classifications it is clear that the technology of earth station will vary
considerably on the performance and the service requirements of earth station.

55
 For mechanical design of parabolic reflector the following parameters are required to be
considered:
 Size of the reflector
 Focal Length /diameter ratio
 RMS error of main and sub reflector
 Pointing and tracking accuracies
 Speed and acceleration
 Type of mount
 Coverage Requirement
Wind Speed
The size of the reflector depends on transmit and receive gain requirement and
beamwidth of the antenna. Gain is directly proportional to the antenna diameter whereas
the beamwidth is inversely proportional to the antenna diameter .for high inclination angle
of the satellite, the tracking of the earth station becomes necessary when the beamwidth is
too narrow.
The gain of the antenna is given by Gain =
(η4ΠAeff)/ λ2
Where Aeff is the aperture Λ is wave length, Η is efficiency of antenna system. For a
parabolic antenna with circular aperture diameter D, the gain of the antenna is :
Gain= (η4Π/ λ2)( ΠD2/4)
= η (ΠD/ λ)2
The overall efficiency of the antenna is the net product of various factors such as
1. Cross Polarization
2. Spill over
3. Diffraction
4. Blockage
5. Surface accuracy
6. Phase error
7. Illumination
In the design of feed , the ratio of focal length F to the diameter of the reflector D of the antenna
system control the maximum angle subtended by the reflector surface on the focal point. Larger
the F/D ratio larger is the aperture illumination efficiency and lower the cross polarization.

56
 Figure 4.2 Antenna Sub Systems
4.2.3 Antenna Mount
Type of antenna mount is determined mainly by the coverage requirement and
tracking requirements of the antenna systems. Different types of mounts used for earth
station antenna are:
i) The Azimuth –elevation mount
This mount consists of a primary vertical axis. Rotation around this axis controls
the azimuth angle. The horizontal axis is mounted over the primary axis, providing the
elevation angle control.
ii) The X-Y mount
It consists of a horizontal primary axis (X-axis) and a secondary axis (Y- axis) and
at right angles to it. Movement around these axes provides necessary steering.
4.2.4 Antenna Tracking System
Tracking is essential when the satellite drift, as seen by an earth station antenna is
a significant fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width. An earth station’s tracking
system is required to perform some of the functions such as
i) Satellite acquisition
ii)Automatic tracking
iii)Manual tracking
iv)Program tracking
4.3 RECEIVE-ONLY HOME TV SYSTEMS (TVRO)
Planned broadcasting directly to home TV receivers takes place in the Ku (12-
GHz) band. This service is known as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) service. There is
some variation in the frequency bands assigned to different geographic regions. In the
Americas, for example, the down- link band is 12.2 to 12.7 GHz. The comparatively large
satellite receiving dishes [ranging in diameter from about 1.83 m (6 ft) to about 3-m (10 ft)
in some locations], which may be seen in some “backyards” are used to receive downlink TV
signals at C band (4 GHz).

57
 Originally such downlink signals were never intended for home reception but for
network relay to commercial TV outlets (VHF and UHF TV broadcast stations and cable
TV “head-end” studios).
4.3.1 The Indoor Unit
Equipment is now marketed for home reception of C-band signals, and some
manufacturers provide dual C-band/Ku-band equipment. A single mesh type reflector may
be used which focuses the signals into a dual feed- horn, which has two separate outputs, one
for the C-band signals and one for the Ku-band signals.
Much of television programming originates as first generation signals, also known
as master broadcast quality signals. These are transmitted via satellite in the C band to the
network head- end stations, where they are retransmitted as compressed digital signals to
cable and direct broadcast satellite providers.
 Another of the advantages, claimed for home C-band systems, is the larger number of
satellites available for reception compared to available for direct broadcast satellite
sys- terms.
 Although many of the C-band transmissions are scrambled, there are free channels that
can be received, and what are termed “wild feeds.”
 These are also free, but unannounced programs, of which details can be found in
advance from various publications and Internet sources.
 C-band users can also subscribe to pay TV channels, and another advantage claimed
is that subscription services are cheaper than DBS or cable because of the multiple-
source programming available.
 The most widely advertised receiving system for C-band system appears to be 4DTV
manufactured by Motorola.
This enables reception of:
 Free, analog signals and “wild feeds”
 Video Cipher ll plus subscription services
 Free DigiCipher 2 services
 Subscription DigiCipher 2 services

58
 Figure 4.3 TVRO System Block Diagram
4.3.2 The Outdoor Unit
This consists of a receiving antenna feeding directly into a low-noise
amplifier/converter combination. A parabolic reflector is generally used, with the
receiving horn mounted at the focus. A common design is to have the focus directly in
front of the reflector, but for better interference rejection, an offset feed may be used as
shown. Comparing the gain of a 3-m dish at 4 GHz with a 1-m dish at 12 GHz, the
ratio D/l equals 40 in each case, so the gains will be about equal. Although the free-
space losses are much higher at 12 GHz compared with 4 GHz.
The downlink frequency band of 12.2 to 12.7 GHz spans a range of 500 MHz,
which accommodates 32 TV/FM channels, each of which is 24-MHz wide. Obviously,
some overlap occurs between channels, but these are alternately polarized left-hand
circular (LHC) and right-hand circular (RHC) or vertical/horizontal, to reduce
interference to accept- able levels. This is referred to as polarization interleaving. A
polarizer that may be switched to the desired polarization from the indoor control unit is
required at the receiving horn.
The receiving horn feeds into a low-noise converter (LNC) or possibly a
combination unit consisting of a low-noise amplifier (LNA) followed by a converter. The

59
 combination is referred to as an LNB, for low-noise block. The LNB provides gain for the
broadband 12-GHz signal and then converts the signal to a lower frequency range so that
a low-cost coaxial cable can be used as feeder to the indoor unit.
The signal fed to the indoor unit is normally a wideband signal covering the range
950 to 1450 MHz This is amplified and passed to a tracking filter which selects the
desired channel, as shown in Fig. 4.3. As previously mentioned, polarization interleaving
is used, and only half the 32 channels will be present at the input of the indoor unit for
any one setting of the antenna polarizer. This eases the job of the tracking filter, since
alternate channels are well separated in frequency.
The selected channel is again down converted, this time from the 950- to 1450-
MHz range to a fixed intermediate frequency, usually 70 MHz although other values in
the very high frequency (VHF) range are also used. The 70-MHz amplifier amplifies the
signal up to the levels required for demodulation. A major difference between DBS TV and
conventional TV is that with DBS, frequency modulation is used, whereas with
conventional TV, amplitude modulation in the form of vestigial single side- band (VSSB)
is used.
The 70-MHz, FM intermediate frequency (IF) carrier therefore must be
demodulated, and the baseband information used to generate a VSSB signal which is fed
into one of the VHF/UHF channels of a standard TV set.

4.4 MASTER ANTENNA TV SYSTEM (MATV)

A master antenna TV (MATV) system is used to provide reception of DBS

TV/FM channels to a small group of users, for example, to the tenants in an apartment
building. It consists of a single outdoor unit (antenna and LNA/C) feeding a number of
indoor units, as shown in Fig.4.4.
It is basically similar to the home system already described, but with each user
having access to all the channels independently of the other users. The advantage is that
only one outdoor unit is required, but as shown, separate LNA/Cs and feeder cables
are required for each sense of polarization.
Compared with the single- user system, a larger antenna is also required (2- to 3-m
diameter) in order to maintain a good signal-to-noise ratio at all the indoor units.
Where more than a few subscribers are involved, the distribution system used is
similar to the community antenna (CATV) system described in the following section.

60
 Figure 4.4 MATV System Block Diagrams
4.5 COMMUNITY ANTENNA TV SYSTEM
The CATV system employs a single outdoor unit, with separate feeds available for
each sense of polarization, like the MATV system, so that all channels are made available
simultaneously at the indoor receiver. Instead of having a separate receiver for each user,
all the carriers are demodulated in a common receiver-filter system, as shown in Fig. The
channels are then combined into a standard multiplexed signal for transmission over cable
to the subscribers.
In remote areas where a cable distribution system may not be installed, the signal
can be rebroadcast from a low-power VHF TV transmitter. Figure 4.5 shows a remote
TV station which employs an 8-m (26.2-ft) antenna for reception of the satellite TV
signal in the C band.

61
 Figure 4.5 CATV System
With the CATV system, local programming material also may be distributed to
subscribers, an option which is not permitted in the MATV system.
4.6 TEST EQUIPMENT MEASUREMENTS ON G/T, C/NO, EIRP
Measurement of G/T of small antennas is easily and simply measured using the
spectrum analyzer method. For antennas with a diameter of less than meters it is not
normally necessary to point off from the satellite. A step in frequency would be required
into one of the satellite transponder guard bands.
However antennas with a G/T sufficiently large to enable the station to see the
transponder noise floor either a step in frequency into one of the satellite transponder
guard bands and/or in azimuth movement would be required. The test signal can be
provided from an SES WORLD SKIES beacon.
Procedure:

Figure 4.6 One possible arrangement for Measurement of G/T

62
  Set up the test equipment as shown below. Allow half an hour to warm up, and then
calibrate in accordance with the manufacturer’s procedures.
 Adjust the centre frequency of your spectrum analyzer to receive the SES WORLD
SKIES beacon (data to be provided on the satellite used for testing)
 Carefully peak the antenna pointing and adjust the polarizer by nulling
 The cross polarized signal. You cannot adjust polarization when using the circularly
polarized SES WORLD SKIES beacon.
(a) Configure the spectrum analyzer as follows:
Centre Frequency: Adjust for beacon or test signal frequency (to be advised). Use
marker to peak and marker to centre functions.
 Frequency Span: 100 KHz
 Resolution Bandwidth: 1 KHz
 Video Bandwidth: 10 Hz (or sufficiently small to limit noise variance)
 Scale: 5 dB/div
 Sweep Time: Automatic
 Attenuator Adjust to ensure linear operation. Adjust to provide the "Noise
floor delta" described in steps 7 and 8.
(b) To insure the best measurement accuracy during the following steps, adjust
the spectrum analyzers amplitude (reference level) so that the measured signal, carrier or
noise, is approximately one division below the top line of the spectrum analyzers display.
(c) Record the frequency and frequency offset of the test signal from the nominal
frequency: For example, assume the nominal test frequency is 11750 MHz but the
spectrum analyzer shows the peak at 11749 MHz The frequency offset in this case is -1
MHz
(d) Change the spectrum analyzer centre frequency as specified by SES WORLD
SKIES so that the measurement is performed in a transponder guard band so that only
system noise power of the earth station and no satellite signals are received. Set the
spectrum analyzer frequency as follows:
Centre Frequency = Noise slot frequency provided by the PMOC
(e) Disconnect the input cable to the spectrum analyser and confirm that the noise
floor drops by at least 15 dB but no more than 25dB. This confirms that the spectrum
analyser’s noise contribution has an insignificant effect on the measurement. An input
attenuation value allowing a "Noise floor Delta” in excess of 25 dB may cause

63
overloading of the spectrum analyser input. (i) Reconnect the input cable to the spectrum
analyser.
(j) Activate the display line on the spectrum analyser.
(k) Carefully adjust the display line to the noise level shown on the spectrum
analyser. Record the display line level.
(l) Adjust the spectrum analyser centre frequency to the test carrier frequency
recorded in step (e).
(m) Carefully adjust the display line to the peak level of the test carrier on the
spectrum analyser. Record the display line level.
(n) Determine the difference in reference levels between steps (l) and (j) which is
the (C+N)/N.
(o) Change the (C+N)/N to C/N by the following conversion:
This step is not necessary if the (C+N)/N ratio is more than 20 dB because the
resulting correction is less than 0.1 dB.

(p) Calculate the carrier to noise power density ratio (C/No) using:

The 2.5 dB figure corrects the noise power value measured by the log converters in the
spectrum analyser to a true RMS power level, and the SAcorr factor takes into account the
actual resolution filter bandwidth.
(q) Calculate the G/T using the following:

where,
EIRPSC – Downlink EIRP measured by the PMOC (dBW)
Acorr – Aspect correction supplied by the PMOC (dB)
FSL – Free Space Loss to the AUT supplied by the PMOC (dB)
La – Atmospheric attenuation supplied by the PMOC (dB)
(r) Repeat the measurement several times to check consistency of the result.

64
4.7 Antenna Gain:
Antenna gain is usually defined as the ratio of the power produced by the
antenna from a far-field source on the antenna's beam axis to the power produced by a
hypothetical lossless isotropic antenna, which is equally sensitive to signals from all
directions.

Figure 4.6 Measurement of Antenna Gain

Two direct methods of measuring the Rx gain can be used; integration of the Rx
sidelobe pattern or by determination of the 3dB and 10dB beamwidths. The use of pattern
integration will produce the more accurate results but would require the AUT to have a
tracking system. In both cases the test configurations for measuring Rx gain are identical,
and are illustrated in Figure 4.6.
In order to measure the Rx gain using pattern integration the AUT measures the
elevation and azimuth narrowband (±5° corrected) sidelobe patterns. The AUT then
calculates the directive gain of the antenna through integration of the sidelobe patterns.
The Rx gain is then determined by reducing the directive gain by the antenna
inefficiencies.
In order to measure the Rx gain using the beamwidth method, the AUT measures
the corrected azimuth and elevation 3dB/10dB beamwidths.

65
 From these results the Rx gain of the antenna can be directly calculated using the
formula below.

Where,
G is the effective antenna gain (dBi)
Az3 is the corrected azimuth 3dB beamwidth (°) El3 is the elevation 3dB beamwidth (°)
Az10 is the corrected azimuth 10dB beamwidth (°) El10 is the elevation 10dB beamwidth (°)
FLoss is the insertion loss of the feed (dB)
RLoss is the reduction in antenna gain due to reflector inaccuracies, and is given by:
RLoss =4.922998677( S dev f )2 dB
where: Sdev is the standard deviation of the actual reflector surface (inches) f is the
frequency (GHz).

66
POST TEST MCQ:
1. The methods of multiple access techniques are -
a) TDMA
b) FDMA
c) Both TDMA and FDMA
d) None of other mentioned options

2. CDMA is an technique in which -

a) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal in frequency
alone
b) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal in time alone
c) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal both
frequency and time
d) None of the other mentioned options

3. The types of CDMA are -

a) Spread spectrum multiple access
b) Pulse address multiple access
c) Both Spread spectrum multiple access and pulse address multiple access
d) None of the other mentioned options

4. The Advantage of TDMA is -

a) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at less power o/p
b) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at maximum power o/p
c) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at moderate power o/p
d) None of the other mentioned options

5. The preamble are certain time slots at the beginning of -

a) Each burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
b) Two burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
c) Alternative burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
d) None of the other mentioned options

6. The importance of guard time is to -

a) Prevent the bursts from overlapping.
b) Position the bursts within each frame.
c) Both prevent the bursts from overlapping and position them within each frame.
d) None of the other mentioned options

7. The following is the type of digital speech interpolation -

a) Digital time assignment speech interpolation
b) Analog time assignment speech interpolation
c) Both Digital and Analog time assignment speech interpolation
d) None of other mentioned options
 8. The Space Division Multiplexing is a method by which spot beams are used to achieve the
satellites in –
a) Geostationary Orbit
b) Non-Geostationary Orbit
c) Polar Orbit
d) None of the other mentioned options

9. The processing gain is a factor by which the jamming or interference signal signal is -
a) Reduced
b) Increased
c) Either increased or reduced
d) None of the other mentioned options

10. A single access is a method by which -

a) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by a single transmission
from earth station.
b) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by a double
transmission from earth station.
c) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by multiple
transmissions from earth station.
d) None of the other mentioned options

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Satellites that are launched in to the orbit by using the rockets are called man-made satellites or
artificial satellites. Artificial satellites revolve around the earth because of the gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and satellites. Unlike the natural satellites (moon), artificial
satellites are used in various applications. The various applications of artificial satellites include:
1. Weather forecasting
2. Navigation
3. Astronomy
4. Satellite phone
5. Satellite television
6. Military satellite
7. Satellite internet
8. Satellite radio.
1. Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of the future of weather. The satellites that are used to
predict the future of weather are called weather satellites. Weather satellites continuously
monitor the climate and weather conditions of earth. They use sensors called radiometers for
measuring the heat energy released from the earth surface. Weather satellites also predict the
most dangerous storms such as hurricanes.
2. Navigation
Generally, navigation refers to determining the geographical location of an object. The satellites
that are used to determine the geographic location of aircrafts, ships, cars, trains, or any other
object are called navigation satellites. GPS (Global Positioning System) is an example of
navigation system. It allows the user to determine their exact location at anywhere in the world.
3. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, natural satellites,
comets, etc. The satellites that are used to study or observe the distant stars, galaxies, planets, etc.
are called astronomical satellites. They are mainly used to find the new stars, planets, and
galaxies. Hubble space telescope is an example of astronomical satellite. It captures the high-
resolution images of the distant stars, galaxies, planets etc.
4. Satellite phone
Satellite phone is a type of mobile phone that uses satellites instead of cell towers for
transmitting the signal or information over long distances. Mobile phones that use cell towers
will work only within the coverage area of a cell tower. If we go beyond the coverage area of a
cell tower or if we reach the remote areas, it becomes difficult to make a voice call or send text
messages with the mobile phones. Unlike the mobile mobiles, satellite phones have global
coverage. Satellites phones uses geostationary satellites and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for
transmitting the information. When a person makes a call from the satellite phone, the signal is
sent to the satellite. The satellite will receives that signal, processes it, and redirects the signal
back to the earth via a gateway. The gateway then send the signal or call to the destination by
using the regular cellular and landline networks. The usage of satellite phones is illegal in some
countries like Cuba, North Korea, Burma, India, and Russia.
5. Satellite television
Satellite television or satellite TV is a wireless system that uses communication satellites to
deliver the television programs or television signals to the users or viewers.
TV or television mostly uses geostationary satellites because they look stationary from the earth.
Hence, the signal is easily transmitted. When the television signal is send to the satellite, it
receives the signal, amplifies it, and retransmit it back to the earth. The first satellite television
signal was send from Europe to North America by using the Telstar satellite.
6. Military satellite
Military satellite is an artificial satellite used by the army for various purposes such as spying on
enemy countries, military communication, and navigation.
Military satellites obtain the secret information from the enemy countries. These satellites also
detect the missiles launched by the other countries in the space.
Military satellites are used by armed forces to communicate with each other. These satellites also
used to determine the exact location of an object.
7. Satellite internet
Satellite internet is a wireless system that uses satellites to deliver the internet signals to users.
High-speed internet is the main advantage of satellite internet. Satellite internet does not use
cable systems, but instead it uses satellites to transmit the information or signal.
8. Satellite radio
Satellite radio is a wireless transmission service that uses orbiting satellites to deliver the
information or radio signals to the consumers. It is primarily used in the cars. When the ground
station transmit signal to the satellite that is revolving around the earth, the satellite receives the
signal, amplifies it, and redirects the signal back to the earth (radio receivers in the cars).
CONCLUSION:
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to –
 To understand the various types of Modulation and Multiplexing
 To understand the various multiple access techniques

REFERENCES:
1. Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communication”, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
2. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
3. N. Agarwal, “Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft”, Prentice Hall, 1986.
4. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, “Manual of Satellite Communications”, McGraw Hill, 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
7. M. Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan, 2003.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Explain the operation of a FDMA system with relevant diagram.
2. Draw the frame format and explain the operation of TDMA system.
3. Explain about CDMA. Draw the neat sketch.
4. Define and explain the terms – Carrier recovery, Traffic data, Frame efficiency &
Channel capacity.
5. Explain in detail about Satellite switched TDMA.
6. Describe briefly about on board signal processing for FDMA/TDM system.
7. Explain the principle behind Spectrum spreading and de-spreading and how this is used
to minimize interference in CDMA system.
8. Explain the various types of multiplexing with relevant diagrams.
9. Write a short note on various types of modulation with illustrations.
 UNIT V SATELLITE APPLICATIONS
SYLLABUS
INTELSAT Series, INSAT, VSAT, Mobile satellite services: GSM, GPS, INMARSAT, LEO,
MEO, Satellite Navigational System. Direct Broadcast satellites (DBS)- Direct to home
Broadcast (DTH), Digital audio broadcast (DAB)- World space services, Business TV (BTV),
GRAMSAT, Specialized services – E –mail, Video conferencing, Internet.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

 To understand the various applications of Satellites
 To understand the various applications of World Space Services

PRE-TEST MCQ:
1. The methods of multiple access techniques are -
a) TDMA
b) FDMA
c) Both TDMA and FDMA
d) None of other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

2. CDMA is an technique in which -

a) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal in frequency alone
b) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal in time alone
c) Each signal is associated with a particular code used to spread the signal both frequency and time
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

3. The types of CDMA are -

a) Spread spectrum multiple access
b) Pulse address multiple access
c) Both Spread spectrum multiple access and pulse address multiple access
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c
4. The Advantage of TDMA is -
a) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at less power o/p
b) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at maximum power o/p
c) The transponder traveling wave tube can be operated at moderate power o/p
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: b

5. The preamble are certain time slots at the beginning of -

a) Each burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
b) Two burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
c) Alternative burst to carry timing & synchronizing information.
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a
6. The importance of guard time is to -
a) Prevent the bursts from overlapping.
b) Position the bursts within each frame.
c) Both prevent the bursts from overlapping and position them within each frame.
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

7. The following is the type of digital speech interpolation -

a) Digital time assignment speech interpolation
b) Analog time assignment speech interpolation
c) Both Digital and Analog time assignment speech interpolation
d) None of other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

8. The Space Division Multiplexing is a method by which spot beams are used to achieve the satellites in –
a) Geostationary Orbit
b) Non-Geostationary Orbit
c) Polar Orbit
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

9. The processing gain is a factor by which the jamming or interference signal signal is -
a) Reduced
b) Increased
c) Either increased or reduced
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

10. A single access is a method by which -

a) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by a single transmission from earth
station.
b) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by a double transmission from earth
station.
c) A transponder channel aboard a satellite may be fully loaded by multiple transmissions from earth
station.
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: a

PRE-REQUISITE:
 Basic knowledge of Antennas and Digital Communication
 CHAPTER 5

SATELLITE APPLICATIONS
5.1 INTELSAT Series
INTELSAT stands for International Telecommunications Satellite. The organization was
created in 1964 and currently has over 140 member countries and more than 40 investing entities. In
July 2001 INTELSAT became a private company and in May 2002 the company began providing
end-to-end solutions through a network of teleports, leased fiber and points of presence (PoPs)
around the globe.
Starting with the Early Bird satellite in 1965, a succession of satellites has been launched at
intervals of a few years. Figure 5.1 shows the evolution of some of INTELSAT satellites. In the
figure the capacity, in terms of number of voice channels, increased dramatically with each
succeeding launch, as well as the design lifetime. These satellites are in geostationary orbit -
appear to be stationary in relation to the earth. The geostationary satellites orbit in the earth’s
equatorial plane and their position is specified by their longitude.
For international traffic, INTELSAT covers three main regions—the Atlantic Ocean Region
(AOR), the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), and the Pacific Ocean Region (POR) and what is termed
Intelsat America’s Region. For the ocean regions the satellites are positioned in geostationary orbit above
the particular ocean, where they provide a transoceanic telecommunications route. For example,
INTELSAT satellite 905 is positioned at 335.5° east longitude.
The INTELSAT VII-VII/A series was launched over a period from October 1993 to June
1996. The construction is similar to that of V and VA/VB series in that the VII series has solar
sails rather than a cylindrical body.
The VII series was planned for service in the POR and also for some of the less demanding
services in the AOR. The antenna beam coverage is appropriate for that of the POR. Figure 5.2
shows the antenna beam footprints for the C-band hemispheric cover- age and zone coverage, as
well as the spot beam coverage possible with the Ku-band antennas. When used in the AOR, the
VII series satellite is inverted north for south, minor adjustments then being needed only to
optimize the antenna pat- terns for this region. The lifetime of these satellites ranges from 10 to 15
years depending on the launch vehicle.
Recent figures from the INTELSAT Web site give the capacity for the INTELSAT VII as
18,000 two-way telephone circuits and three TV channels; up to 90,000 two-way telephone
circuits can be achieved with the use of “digital circuit multiplication.” The INTELSAT VII/A has
a capacity of 22,500 two-way telephone circuits and three TV channels; up to 112,500 two-way
telephone circuits can be achieved with the use of digital circuit multiplication. As of May 1999,
four satellites were in service over the AOR, one in the IOR, and two in the POR.

67
 Figure 5.1 INTELSAT Series
The INTELSAT VIII-VII/A series of satellites was launched over the period February
1997 to June 1998. Satellites in this series have similar capacity as the VII/A series, and the
lifetime is 14 to 17 years. It is standard practice to have a spare satellite in orbit on high-
reliability routes and to have a ground spare in case of launch failure.
Thus the cost for large international schemes can be high; for example, series IX represents
a total investment of approximately $1 billion.

Figure 5.2 Region of Globe

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5.2 INSAT

INSAT or the Indian National Satellite System is a series of multipurpose geo-stationary

satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and
search and rescue operations commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic
communication system in the Asia Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space,
Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and
Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the
Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.
INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands to serve the television and
communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the Very High Resolution
Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for metrological imaging. The satellites also incorporate
transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for search and rescue missions in the South Asian
and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a member of the Cospas-Sarsat programme.

5.2.1 INSAT System

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System was ccommissioned with the launch of
INSAT-1B In August 1983. INSAT System was ushered in a revolution in India’s Television and
Radio Broadcasting, Telecommunications And Meteorological Sectors. It enabled the rapid
expansion of TV and Modern Telecommunication facilities to even the remote areas and Off-
Shore Islands.
5.2.2 Satellites in Service
Of the 24 Satellites launched in the course of the INSAT Program, 10 are still in operation.
Insat-2E is the last of the five satellites in Insat-2 Series and it carries 17 C-band and lower
extended C-band transponders providing zonal and global coverage with an effective isotropic
radiated power of 36 dbw. It also carries a very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) with
Imaging Capacity in the visible (0.55-0.75 µm), Thermal Infrared (10.5-12.5 µm) and Water
Vapour (5.7-7.1 µm) channels and provides 2x2 km, 8x8 km and 8x8 km ground resolution
respectively.
5.2.3 INSAT-3A
The multipurpose Satellite, INSAT-3A, was launched by Ariane in April 2003. It is located at 93.5
degree east longitude. The payloads on INSAT-3A are as follows:

 12 Normal C-Band Transponders (9 Channels provide expanded coverage from Middle

East to South East Asia with an EIRP Of 38 dbw, 3 Channels provide India coverage with
an EIRP Of 36 dbw and 6 extended C-Band transponders provide India coverage with an
EIRP of 36 dbw).
 A CCD Camera provides 1x1 Km ground resolution, in the visible (0.63 µm), near
Infrared (0.77-0.86 µm) and shortwave Infrared (1.55-1.70 µm) bands.

69
5.2.4 INSAT-3D
Launched in July 2013, INSAT-3D is positioned at 82 degree East Longitude. INSAT-3D
payloads include Imager, Sounder, Data Relay Transponder and Search & Rescue Transponder.
All the transponders provide coverage over large part of the Indian Ocean region covering India,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Seychelles, Sri Lanka And Tanzania for rendering distress
alert services
5.2.5 INSAT-3E
Launched In September 2003, INSAT-3E is positioned at 55 degree East Longitude and
carries 24 normal C-Band Transponders provide an edge of coverage EIRP of 37 dbw over India
and 12 extended C-Band Transponders provide an edge of coverage EIRP of 38 dbw over India.
5.2.6 KALPANA-1
KALPANA-1 is an exclusive Meteorological Satellite launched by PSLV in September
2002. It carries very High Resolution Radiometer and DRT payloads to provide meteorological
services. It is located at 74 degree East Longitude. Its first name was METSAT. It was later
renamed as KALPANA- 1 to commemorate Kalpana Chawla.
5.2.7 Edusat
It is configured for audio-visual medium employing Digital Interactive classroom lessons
and multimedia content. EDUSAT was launched by GSLV in September 2004. Its transponders
and their ground coverage are specially configured to cater to the educational requirements.
5.2.8 GSAT-2
Launched by the second flight of GSLV in May 2003, GSAT-2 is located at 48 degree
East Longitude and carries four normal C-Band Transponders to provide 36 dbw EIRP with India
coverage, Two Ku band transponders with 42 dbw EIRP over India and an MSS payload similar to
those on INSAT-3B And INSAT-3C.
5.2.9 INSAT-4 Series

Figure 5.3 INSAT 4A

70
 INSAT-4A is positioned at 83 degree East longitude along with INSAT-2E and INSAT-
3B. It carries 12 Ku band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders employing 140 W TWTAs to provide
an EIRP of 52 dBW at the edge of coverage polygon with footprint covering Indian main land and
12 C-band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders provide an EIRP of 39 dBW at the edge of coverage
with expanded radiation patterns encompassing Indian geographical boundary, area beyond India
in southeast and northwest regions. Tata Sky, a joint venture between the TATA Group and STAR
uses INSAT-4A for distributing their DTH service.

 INSAT-4A
 INSAT-4B
 Glitch In INSAT 4B
 China-Stuxnet Connection
 INSAT-4CR
 GSAT-8 / INSAT-4G
 GSAT-12 /GSAT-10
5.3 VSAT
VSAT stands for very small aperture terminal system. This is the distinguishing feature of
a VSAT system, the earth-station antennas being typically less than 2.4 m in diameter. The trend is
toward even smaller dishes, not more than 1.5 m in diameter.
In this sense, the small TVRO terminals for direct broadcast satellites are labeled as
VSATs, but the appellation is usually reserved for private networks, providing two-way
communications facilities. Typical user groups include banking and financial institutions, airline
and hotel booking agencies, and large retail stores with geographically dispersed outlets.

Figure 5.4 Block Diagram of VSAT

71
5.3.1 VSAT Network
The basic structure of a VSAT network consists of a hub station which provides a
broadcast facility to all the VSATs in the network and the VSATs themselves which access the
satellite in some form of multiple-access mode. The hub station is operated by the service
provider, and may be shared among a number of users, with each user organization has exclusive
access to its own VSAT network.
Time division multiplexing is the normal downlink mode of transmission from hub to the
VSATs, and the transmission can be broadcast for reception by all the VSATs in a network. A
form of demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) is employed in some systems in which channel
capacity is assigned in response to the fluctuating demands of the VSATs in the network. Most
VSAT systems operate in the Ku band, although there are some C- band systems in existence.
Applications:
 Supermarket shops (ATM machines, stock sale updates and stock ordering).
 Chemist shops
 Shoppers Drug Mart - Pharmaprix.
 Broadband direct to the home. e.g. Downloading MP3 audio to audio players.
 Broadband direct small business, office etc, sharing local use with many PCs.
 Internet access from on board ship Cruise ships with internet cafes, commercial shipping
communications.

5.4 Mobile Satellite Services - GSM

5.4.1 GSM Services and Architecture
If a work involves some form of wireless public communications, we are likely to
encounter the GSM standards. Initially developed to support a standardized approach to digital
cellular communications in Europe, the "Global System for Mobile Communications" (GSM)
protocols are rapidly being adopted to the next generation of wireless telecommunications
systems. In the US, its main competition appears to be the cellular TDMA systems based on the
IS-54 standards. Since the GSM systems consist of a wide range of components, standards, and
protocols.
The GSM and its companion standard DCS1800 have been developed over the last decade
to allow cellular communications systems to move beyond the limitations posed by the older
analog systems.
Analog system capacities are being stressed with more users that can be supported by the
available frequency allocations. Compatibility between types of systems had been limited, if non-
existent. By using digital encoding techniques, more users can share the same frequencies than
had been available in the analog systems.

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 As compared to the digital cellular systems in the US, the GSM market has had impressive
success. Estimates of the numbers of telephones run from 7.5 million GSM phones to .5 million
IS54 phones to .3 million for IS95.
GSM has gained in acceptance from its initial beginnings in Europe to other parts of the
world including Australia, New Zealand, countries in the Middle East and the far east. Beyond its
use in cellular frequencies (900 MHz for GSM, 1800 MHz for DCS1800), portions of the GSM
signaling protocols are finding their way into the newly developing PCS and LEO Satellite
communications systems.
While the frequencies and link characteristics of these systems differ from the standard
GSM air interface, all of these systems must deal with users roaming from one cell to another, and
bridge services to public communication networks including the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN), and public data networks (PDN).
5.4.2 The GSM architecture includes several subsystems

The Mobile Station (MS) - These digital telephones include vehicle, portable and hand-
held terminals. A device called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) is basically a smart-card
provides custom information about users such as the services subscribed to and their identification
in the network.

The Base Station Sub-System (BSS) -- The BSS is the collection of devices that support
the switching networks radio interface. Major components of the BSS include the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) that consists of the radio modems and antenna equipment. In OSI
terms, the BTS provides the physical interface to the MS where the BSC is responsible for the link
layer services to the MS.

The Network and Switching Sub-System (NSS) -- The NSS provides the switching
between the GSM subsystem and external networks along with the databases used for additional
subscriber and mobility management. Major components in the NSS include the Mobile Services
Switching Center (MSC), Home and Visiting Location Registers (HLR, VLR). The HLR and VLR
databases are interconnected through the telecomm standard Signaling System 7 (SS7) control
network.

The Operation Sub-System (OSS) -- The OSS provides the support functions responsible
for the management of network maintenance and services. Components of the OSS are responsible
for network operation and maintenance, mobile equipment management, and subscription
management and charging.

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 Figure 5.5 GSM Block Diagrams
Several channels are used in the air interface:
 FCCH - the frequency correction channel - provides frequency synchronization
information in a burst
 SCH - Synchronization Channel - following the FCCH burst (8 bits later), provides a
reference to all slots on a given frequency
 PAGCH - Paging and Access Grant Channel used for transmission of paging information
requesting the setup of a call to a MS.
 RACH - Random Access Channel - an inbound channel used by the MS to request
connections from the ground network.
 CBCH - Cell Broadcast Channel - used for infrequent transmission of broadcasts by the
ground network.
 BCCH - Broadcast Control Channel - provides access status information to the MS.
 FACCH - Fast Associated Control Channel for the control of handovers
 TCH/F - Traffic Channel, Full Rate for speech at 13 kbps or data at 12, 6, or 3.6 kbps
 TCH/H - Traffic Channel, Half Rate for speech at 7 kbps, or data at 6 or 3.6 kbps
5.4.3 Mobility Management
One of the major features used in all classes of GSM networks is the ability to support
roaming users. Through the control signaling network, the MSCs interact to locate and connect to
users throughout the network.
"Location Registers" are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of determining
how, and whether connections are to be made to roaming users. Each user of a GSM MS is
assigned a Home Location Register (HLR) that is used to contain the user's location and
subscribed services.

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Difficulties facing the operators can include -
 Remote/Rural Areas - To service remote areas, it is economically unfeasible to provide
backhaul facilities via terrestrial lines.
 Time to deploy - Terrestrial build-outs can take years to plan and implement.
 Areas of ‘minor’ interest - include small isolated centers such as tourist resorts, islands,
mines, oil exploration sites, hydro-electric facilities.
 Temporary Coverage - Special events, even in urban areas, can overload the existing
infrastructure.
5.4.4. GSM Service Security
GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. GSM uses several cryptographic
algorithms for security. The A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-
air voice privacy. GSM uses General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for data transmissions like
browsing the web. The most commonly deployed GPRS ciphers were publicly broken in 2011The
researchers revealed flaws in the commonly used GEA/1.
5.5 Global Positioning System (GPS)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system used to locate
positions anywhere on earth. Designed by the U.S. Department of Defense, it consists of satellites,
control and monitor stations, and receivers. GPS receivers take information transmitted from the
satellites and uses triangulation to calculate a user’s exact location. GPS is used on incidents in a
variety of ways, such as:

 To determine position locations; for example.

 To navigate from one location to another
 To create digitized maps.
 To determine distance between two points.

Figure 5.6 Block Diagram of GPS

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5.5.1 Three Segments of GPS
Space Segment - Satellites orbiting the earth
The space segment consists of 29 satellites circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000
miles in altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. The satellites are
arranged in their orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can receive a signal from at least four satellites
at any given time. Each satellite contains several atomic clocks.
Control Segment - The control and monitoring stations
The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected orbital and
time information. The control segment consists of five unmanned monitor stations and one Master
Control Station. The five unmanned stations monitor GPS satellite signals and then send that
information to the Master Control Station where anomalies are corrected and sent back to the GPS
satellites through ground antennas.

User Segment - The GPS receivers owned by civilians and military

The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. The number of
simultaneous users is limitless.
5.5.2 How GPS Determines a Position

The GPS receiver uses the following information to determine a position.

Precise location of satellites

When a GPS receiver is first turned on, it downloads orbit information from all the satellites
called an almanac. This process, the first time, can take as long as 12 minutes; but once this
information is downloaded, it is stored in the receiver’s memory for future use.
Distance from each satellite

The GPS receiver calculates the distance from each satellite to the receiver by using the distance
formula: distance = velocity x time. The receiver already knows the velocity, which is the speed
of a radio wave or 186,000 miles per second.

Triangulation to determine position

The receiver determines position by using triangulation. When it receives signals from at least
three satellites the receiver should be able to calculate its approximate position (a 2D position).
The receiver needs at least four or more satellites to calculate a more accurate 3D position.

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Using a GPS Receiver
There are several different models and types of GPS receivers. When working on an incident with
a GPS receiver it is important to:
 Always have a compass and a map.
 Have a GPS download cable.
 Have extra batteries.
 Know memory capacity of the GPS receiver to prevent loss of data, decrease in accuracy of
data, or other problems.
 Use an external antennae whenever possible, especially under tree canopy, in canyons, or
while flying or driving.
 Set up GPS receiver according to incident or agency standard regulation; coordinate system.

5.6 INMARSAT
Inmarsat-Indian Maritime Satellite is still the sole IMO-mandated provider of satellite
communications for the GMDSS. Inmarsat has constantly and consistently audited by IMSO and
reported on to IMO. Now Inmarsat commercial services use the same satellites and network.
Inmarsat A closes at midnight on 31 December 2007 agreed by IMO – MSC/Circ.1076. Successful
closure programme almost concluded Overseen throughout by IMSO.

Figure 5.7 INMARSAT Satellite Service

GMDSS services continue to be provided by:

 Inmarsat B, Inmarsat C/mini-C and Inmarsat Fleet F77
 Potential for GMDSS on Fleet Broadband being assessed

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The IMO Criteria for the provision of Mobile Satellite Communications Systems in the Global
Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) -
 Amendments were proposed to make it simpler for other satellite systems to be approved
 The original requirements remain and were approved by MSC 83
 No dilution of standards
 Minor amendments only
 Replacement Resolution expected to be approved by the IMO
 Inmarsat remains the sole, approved satcom provider for the GMDSS

5.7 LEO, MEO and GEO

LEO: Low Earth Orbit satellites have a small area of coverage. They are positioned in an
orbit approximately 3000 km from the surface of the earth.
 They complete one orbit every 90 minutes
 The large majority of satellites are in low earth orbit
 The Iridium system utilizes LEO satellites (780 km high)
 The satellite in LEO orbit is visible to a point on the earth for a very short time

Figure 5.8 LEO, MEO & GEO Range

MEO: Medium Earth Orbit satellites have orbital altitudes between 3,000 and 30,000 km.
They are commonly used in navigation systems such as GPS.
GEO: Geosynchronous (Geostationary) Earth Orbit satellites are positioned over the equator.
The orbital altitude is around 30,000-40,000 km
 There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the earth lying on the earth’s
equatorial plane.
 The satellite orbiting at the same speed as the rotational speed of the earth on its axis.
 They complete one orbit every 24 hours. This causes the satellite to appear stationary with
respect to a point on the earth, allowing one satellite to provide continual coverage to a given
area on the earth's surface.

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  One GEO satellite can cover approximately 1/3 of the world’s surface. They are commonly
used in communication systems.
Advantages:
 Simple ground station tracking.
 Nearly constant range
 Very small frequency shift
Disadvantages:
 Transmission delay of the order of 250 msec.
 Large free space loss.
 No polar coverage
Satellite orbits in terms of the orbital height: According to distance from earth:
 Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) ,
 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO),
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Figure 5.9 LEO, MEO & GEO Orbits

GEO: 35,786 km above the earth, MEO: 8,000-20,000 km above the earth & LEO: 500- 2,000 km above
the earth.

5.8 Satellite Navigational System

A satellite navigation system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-
spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location
(longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few centimeters to meters)
using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The system can be
used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a
receiver. The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high
precision, which allows time synchronization. These uses are collectively known as Positioning,
Navigation and Timing (PNT). Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet
reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information
generated.

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 A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation
satellite system (GNSS). As of October 2018, the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS)
and Russia's Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) are fully operational GNSSs,
with China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the European
Union's Galileo scheduled to be fully operational by 2020.
India has the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), also known as
Navigation with Indian Constellation (NAVIC), an autonomous regional satellite navigation
system that provides accurate real-time positioning and timing services, with plans to expand to a
global version in long term. Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite
constellation of 18–30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes.
The actual systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve
hours.
By their roles in the navigation system, systems can be classified as:
 Core Satellite navigation systems (United States), GLONASS (Russian Federation),
Galileo (European Union) and Beidou (China).
 Global Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as Omnistar and StarFire.
 Regional SBAS including WAAS (US), EGNOS (EU), MSAS (Japan)
and GAGAN (India).
 Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as India's NAVIC and Japan's QZSS.
 Continental scale Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS).
 Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks.
 Local GBAS typified by a single GPS reference station operating Real Time
Kinematic (RTK) corrections.
As many of the global GNSS systems use similar frequencies and signals around L1, many "Multi-
GNSS" receivers capable of using multiple systems have been produced. While some systems
strive to interoperate with GPS as well as possible by providing the same clock, others do not.
Benefits of SNS
 Enhanced Safety
 Increased Capacity
 Reduced Delay
 Increased Flight Efficiencies
 Increased Schedule Predictability
 Environmentally Beneficial Procedures

5.9 Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS)

Satellites provide broadcast transmissions in the fullest sense of the word, because antenna
footprints can be made to cover large areas of the earth. The idea of using satellites to provide
direct transmissions into the home has been around for many years, and the services provided are
known generally as direct broadcast satellite (DBS) services. Broadcast services include audio,
television, and Internet services.

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5.9.1 Power Rating and Number of Transponders
The Satellites primarily intended for DBS have a higher [EIRP] than for the other
categories, being in the range 51 to 60 dBW. At a Regional Administrative Radio Council (RARC)
meeting in 1983, the value established for DBS was 57 dBW. Transponders are rated by the power
output of their high-power amplifiers.
Typically, a satellite may carry 32 transponders. If all 32 are in use, each will operate at the
lower power rating of 120 W. The available bandwidth for uplink and downlink is seen to be 500
MHz. A total number of 32 transponder channels, each of bandwidth 24 MHz, can be
accommodated. The bandwidth is sometimes specified as 27 MHz, but this includes a 3- MHz
guard band allowance. Therefore, when calculating bit-rate capacity, the 24 MHz value is used.
The total of 32 transponders requires the use of both right- hand circular polarization (RHCP) and
left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) in order to permit frequency reuse and guard bands are
inserted between channels of a given polarization.

Figure 5.10 DBS Service

5.9.2 Bit Rates for Digital Television
The bit rate for digital television depends very much on the picture format. One way of
estimating the uncompressed bit rate is to multiply the number of pixels in a frame by the number
of frames per second, and multiply this by the number of bits used to encode each pixel.
5.9.3 MPEG Compression Standards
MPEG is a group within the International Standards Organization and the International
Electrochemical Commission (ISO/IEC) that undertook the job of defining standards for the
transmission and storage of moving pictures and sound. The MPEG standards currently available are
MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, and MPEG-7.

5.10 Direct To Home Broadcast (DTH)

DTH stands for Direct-To-Home television. DTH is defined as the reception of satellite
programmes with a personal dish in an individual home.

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  DTH Broadcasting to home TV receivers take place in the Ku band (12 GHz). This service
is known as Direct to Home service.
 DTH services were first proposed in India in 1996.
 Finally in 2000, DTH was allowed.
 The new policy requires all operators to set up earth stations in India
Within 12 months of getting a license, DTH licenses in India may cost about $2.14 million and
will be valid for 10 years. Working principal of DTH is the satellite communication. Broadcaster
modulates the received signal and transmits it to the satellite in KU Band and from satellite one
can receive signal by dish and set top box. A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre,
satellites, encoders, multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers. The encoder converts the audio,
video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer mixes these signals. It is used to
provide the DTH service in high populated area. A Multi Switch is basically a box that contains
signal splitters and A/B switches. A outputs of group of DTH LNBs are connected to the A and B
inputs of the Multi Switch.

Figure 5.11 DTH Service

 DTH also offers digital quality signals which do not degrade the picture or sound quality.
 It also offers interactive channels and program guides with customers having the choice to
block out programming which they consider undesirable.
 One of the great advantages of the cable industry has been the ability to provide local channels,
but this handicap has been overcome by many DTH providers using other local channels or local
feeds.
 The other advantage of DTH is the availability of satellite broadcast in rural and semi-urban
areas where cable is difficult to install.

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5.11 Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB)
DAB Project is an industry-led consortium of over 300 companies.The DAB Project was
launched on 10th September, 1993. In 1995 it was basically finished and became operational.
There are several sub-standards of the DAB standard -
 DAB-S (Satellite) – using QPSK – 40 Mb/s
 DAB-T (Terrestrial) – using QAM – 50 Mb/s
 DAB-C (Cable) – using OFDM – 24 Mb/s
These three sub-standards basically differ only in the specifications to the physical representation,
modulation, transmission and reception of the signal. The DAB stream consists of a series of fixed
length packets which make up a Transport Stream (TS). The packets support ‘streams’ or ‘data
sections’. Streams carry higher layer packets derived from an MPEG stream & Data sections are
blocks of data carrying signaling and control data. DAB is actually a support mechanism for
MPEG. One MPEG stream needing higher instantaneous data can ‘steal’ capacity from another
with spare capacity.
5.12 World Space Services
World Space is the world's only global media and entertainment company positioned to offer a
satellite radio experience to consumers in more than 130 countries with five billion people, driving
300 million cars. World Space delivers the latest tunes, trends and information from around the
world and around the corner.
World Space subscribers benefit from a unique combination of local programming, original
World Space content and content from leading brands around the globe, including the BBC, CNN,
Virgin Radio, NDTV and RFI. World Space's satellites cover two-thirds of the globe with six
beams. Each beam is capable of delivering up to 80 channels of high quality digital audio and
multimedia programming directly to World Space Satellite Radios anytime and virtually anywhere
in its coverage area. World Space is a pioneer of satellite-based digital radio services (DARS) and
was instrumental in the development of the technology infrastructure used today by XM Satellite
Radio.
5.13 Business Television (BTV) - Adaptations for Education
Business television (BTV) is the production and distribution, via satellite, of video
programs for closed user group audiences. It often has two-way audio interaction component made
through a simple telephone line. It is being used by many industries including brokerage firms,
pizza houses, car dealers and delivery services.
BTV is an increasingly popular method of information delivery for corporations and
institutions. Private networks, account for about 70 percent of all BTV networks. It is estimated
that by the mid-1990s BTV has the potential to grow to a $1.6 billion market in North America
with more and more Fortune 1,000 companies getting involved. The increase in use of BTV has
been dramatic.
Institution updates, news, training, meetings and other events can be broadcast live to
multiple locations. The expertise of the best instructors can be delivered to thousands of people

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without requiring trainers to go to the site. Information can be disseminated to all employees at
once, not just a few at a time. Delivery to the workplace at low cost provides the access to training
that has been denied lower level employees. It may be the key to re-training America’s work
force. Television has been used to deliver training and information within businesses for more than
40 years. Its recent growth began with the introduction of the video cassette in the early 1970s.
Even though most programming is produced for video cassette distribution, business is using BTV
to provide efficient delivery of specialized programs via satellite.
The advent of smaller receiving stations - called very small aperture terminals (VSATs)
has made private communication networks much more economical to operate. BTV has a number
of tangible benefits, such as reducing travel, immediate delivery of time-critical messages, and
eliminating cassette duplication and distribution hassles.
The programming on BTV networks is extremely cost-effective compared to seminar fees
and downtime for travel. It is an excellent way to get solid and current information very fast.
Some people prefer to attend seminars and conferences where they can read, see, hear and ask
questions in person. BTV provides yet another piece of the education menu and is another way to
provide professional development. A key advantage is that its format allows viewers to interact
with presenters by telephone, enabling viewers to become a part of the program. The satellite
effectively places people in the same room, so that sales personnel in the field can learn about new
products at the same time.
Speed of transmission may well be the competitive edge which some firms need as they
introduce new products and services. BTV enables employees in many locations to focus on
common problems or issues that might develop into crises without quick communication and
resolution.
BTV networks transmit information every business day on a broad range of topics, and
provide instructional courses on various products, market trends, selling and motivation. Networks
give subscribers the tools to apply the information they have to real world situations.
5.14 GRAMSAT
ISRO has come up with the concept of dedicated GRAMSAT satellites, keeping in mind
the urgent need to eradicate illiteracy in the rural belt which is necessary for the all round
development of the nation. This Gramsat satellite is carrying six to eight high powered C-band
transponders, which together with video compression techniques can disseminate regional and
cultural specific audio-visual programmes of relevance in each of the regional languages through
rebroadcast mode on an ordinary TV set.
The high power in C-band has enabled even remote area viewers outside the reach of the
TV transmitters to receive programmers of their choice in a direct reception mode with a simple
dish antenna.

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The salient features of GRAMSAT projects are:
 Its communications networks are at the state level connecting the state capital to districts,
blocks and enabling a reach to villages.
 It is also providing computer connectivity data broadcasting, TV- broadcasting facilities
having applications like e-governance, development information, teleconferencing, helping
disaster management.
 Providing rural-education broadcasting.

However, the Gramsat projects have an appropriate combination of following activities.

 Interactive training at district and block levels employing suitable configuration
 Broadcasting services for rural development
 Computer interconnectivity and data exchange services
 Tele-health and telemedicine services.

5.15 Specialized Services

5.15.1 Email services
The addition of Internet Access enables Astrium to act as an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) capable of offering Inmarsat users a tailor-made Internet connection. With Internet services
added to our range of terrestrial networks, we will no longer need to subscribe to a third party for
Internet access.
We treat Internet in the same way as the other terrestrial networks and thus offer
unrestricted access to this service. There is no time-consuming log-on procedure, as users are not
required to submit a user-ID or password.
Description of E-mail Service
Astrium's E-Mail service allows Inmarsat users to send and receive e-mail directly through
the Internet without accessing a public telephone network.
Features and Benefits
 No need to configure an e-mail client to access a Astrium e-mail account
 Service optimized for use with low bandwidth Inmarsat terminals
 Filter e-mail by previewing the Inbox and deleting any unwanted e-mails prior to
downloading
 No surcharge or monthly subscription fees
 Service billed according to standard airtime prices for Inmarsat service used.

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5.15.2 Video Conferencing
Video conferencing technology can be used to provide the same full, two-way interactivity
of satellite broadcast at much lower cost. For Multi-Site meetings, video conferencing uses
bridging systems to connect each site to the others.
It is possible to configure a video conference bridge to show all sites at the same time on a
projection screen or monitor. Or, as is more typical, a bridge can show just the site from which a
person is speaking or making a presentation.
The technology that makes interactive video conferencing possible, compresses video and
audio signals, thus creating an image quality lower than that of satellite broadcasts.
5.15.3. Satellite Internet Access
Satellite Internet Access is Internet access provided through communications satellites.
Modern satellite Internet service is typically provided to users through geostationary satellites that
can offer high data speeds, with newer satellites using Ka band to achieve downstream data speeds
up to 50 Mbps.
Satellite Internet generally relies on three primary components: a satellite in geostationary
orbit (referred to as a geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO), a number of ground stations known as
gateways that relay Internet data to and from the satellite via radio waves (microwave), and a
VSAT (very-small- aperture terminal) dish antenna with a transceiver, located at the subscriber's
premises.
Other components of a satellite Internet system include a modem at the user end which
links the user's network with the transceiver, and a centralized network operations center (NOC)
for monitoring the entire system.

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POST TEST MCQ:
1. The applications of Radarsat are -
a) Shipping & fisheries
b) Ocean feature mapping
c) Both Shipping, fisheries and ocean feature mapping
d) None of other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

2. For global communication, the minimum number of satellites needed is

a) 1
b) 3
c) 7
d) 11
ANSWER: b

3. The frequency band used by most satellites is

a) UHF
b) VHF
c) SHF
d) EHF
ANSWER: c

4. The optimum working frequency for satellite systems lies between

a) 20 MHz and 100 MHz
b) 2 GHz and 12 GHz
c) 20 GHz and 100 GHz
d) 100 GHz and 200 GHz
ANSWER: b

5. The role of a Compander is -

a) Give a poor ratio of signal to quantizing error, for weaker signals
b) Give preferential treatment to stronger parts of the signal
c) Compresses the higher amplitude parts of a signal before modulation and expand
them back to normal again after demodulation
d) None of the other mentioned options
ANSWER: c

6. In TV broadcast via satellite the TV signal from the main broadcast station is routed to
the earth station via -
a) Low power transmitters
b) Microwave links
c) TV relay stations
d) Microwave repeater stations
ANSWER: d
 7. Satellite used for intercontinental communications are known as
a) COMAT
b) DOMSAT
c) INTELSAT
d) EARSAT
ANSWER: c

8. A communication satellite is a repeater between -

a. one transmitting and one receiving station
b. one transmitting and many receiving station
c. many transmitting and one receiving station
d. many transmitting and many receiving station
ANSWER: d

9. GPS satellites belong to the following category -

a) GEO
b) MEO
c) LEO
d) none of the above
ANSWER: b

10. Broadcast services include the following -

a) Audio services
b) Television services
c) Internet services
d) All of these
ANSWER: d

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES:
Satellites that are launched in to the orbit by using the rockets are called man-made satellites or
artificial satellites. Artificial satellites revolve around the earth because of the gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and satellites. Unlike the natural satellites (moon), artificial
satellites are used in various applications. The various applications of artificial satellites include:
1. Weather forecasting
2. Navigation
3. Astronomy
4. Satellite phone
5. Satellite television
6. Military satellite
7. Satellite internet
8. Satellite radio.
1. Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is the prediction of the future of weather. The satellites that are used to
predict the future of weather are called weather satellites. Weather satellites continuously
monitor the climate and weather conditions of earth. They use sensors called radiometers for
measuring the heat energy released from the earth surface. Weather satellites also predict the
most dangerous storms such as hurricanes.
2. Navigation
Generally, navigation refers to determining the geographical location of an object. The satellites
that are used to determine the geographic location of aircrafts, ships, cars, trains, or any other
object are called navigation satellites. GPS (Global Positioning System) is an example of
navigation system. It allows the user to determine their exact location at anywhere in the world.
3. Astronomy
Astronomy is the study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, galaxies, natural satellites,
comets, etc. The satellites that are used to study or observe the distant stars, galaxies, planets, etc.
are called astronomical satellites. They are mainly used to find the new stars, planets, and
galaxies. Hubble space telescope is an example of astronomical satellite. It captures the high-
resolution images of the distant stars, galaxies, planets etc.
4. Satellite phone
Satellite phone is a type of mobile phone that uses satellites instead of cell towers for
transmitting the signal or information over long distances. Mobile phones that use cell towers
will work only within the coverage area of a cell tower. If we go beyond the coverage area of a
cell tower or if we reach the remote areas, it becomes difficult to make a voice call or send text
messages with the mobile phones. Unlike the mobile mobiles, satellite phones have global
coverage. Satellites phones uses geostationary satellites and low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for
transmitting the information. When a person makes a call from the satellite phone, the signal is
sent to the satellite. The satellite will receives that signal, processes it, and redirects the signal
back to the earth via a gateway. The gateway then send the signal or call to the destination by
using the regular cellular and landline networks. The usage of satellite phones is illegal in some
countries like Cuba, North Korea, Burma, India, and Russia.
5. Satellite television
Satellite television or satellite TV is a wireless system that uses communication satellites to
deliver the television programs or television signals to the users or viewers.
TV or television mostly uses geostationary satellites because they look stationary from the earth.
Hence, the signal is easily transmitted. When the television signal is send to the satellite, it
receives the signal, amplifies it, and retransmit it back to the earth. The first satellite television
signal was send from Europe to North America by using the Telstar satellite.
6. Military satellite
Military satellite is an artificial satellite used by the army for various purposes such as spying on
enemy countries, military communication, and navigation.
Military satellites obtain the secret information from the enemy countries. These satellites also
detect the missiles launched by the other countries in the space.
Military satellites are used by armed forces to communicate with each other. These satellites also
used to determine the exact location of an object.
7. Satellite internet
Satellite internet is a wireless system that uses satellites to deliver the internet signals to users.
High-speed internet is the main advantage of satellite internet. Satellite internet does not use
cable systems, but instead it uses satellites to transmit the information or signal.
8. Satellite radio
Satellite radio is a wireless transmission service that uses orbiting satellites to deliver the
information or radio signals to the consumers. It is primarily used in the cars. When the ground
station transmit signal to the satellite that is revolving around the earth, the satellite receives the
signal, amplifies it, and redirects the signal back to the earth (radio receivers in the cars).

CONCLUSION:
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to –
 To understand the various applications of Satellites
 To understand the various applications of World Space Services

REFERENCES:
1. Dennis Roddy, “Satellite Communication”, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill, 2006.
2. Wilbur L.Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, “Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering”, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
3. N. Agarwal, “Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft”, Prentice Hall, 1986.
4. Bruce R. Elbert, “Satellite Communication Applications”, Hand Book, Artech House
Bostan London, 1997.
5. Emanuel Fthenakis, “Manual of Satellite Communications”, McGraw Hill, 1984.
6. Robert G. Winch, “Telecommunication Transmission Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
7. M. Richharia, “Satellite Communication Systems-Design Principles”, Macmillan, 2003.

ASSIGNMENT:
1. Describe briefly the video compression process used in MPEG-2.
2. Explain about indoor and outdoor unit of home receiver.
3. Explain about frequencies and polarization, transponder capacity and bit rates for digital
television.
4. Explain in detail about satellite mobile services.
5. Describe the operation of typical VSAT system. State briefly where VSAT systems and
find widest applications.
6. Describe the main features of Radarsat. Explain what is meant by dawn to dusk orbit and
why the Radarsat follows such on orbit.
7. Explain why a minimum of four satellites are visible at an earth location utilizing the
GPS system for position determination. What does the term dilution of precision refer to?